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Chapter 1
Introduction
Solutions

1.1S. Suppose that you want to design an experiment to study the proportion of unpopped kernels of
popcorn. Complete steps 1-3 of the guidelines for designing experiments in Section 1.4. Are there any major
sources of variation that would be difficult to control?

Step 1 – Recognition of and statement of the problem. Possible problem statement would be – find the best
combination of inputs that maximizes yield on popcorn – minimize unpopped kernels.

Step 2 – Selection of the response variable. Possible responses are number of unpopped kernels per 100
kernals in experiment, weight of unpopped kernels versus the total weight of kernels cooked.

Step 3 – Choice of factors, levels and range. Possible factors and levels are brand of popcorn (levels: cheap,
expensive), age of popcorn (levels: fresh, old), type of cooking method (levels: stovetop, microwave),
temperature (levels: 150C, 250C), cooking time (levels: 3 minutes, 5 minutes), amount of cooking oil (levels,
1 oz, 3 oz), etc.

1.2. Suppose that you want to investigate the factors that potentially affect cooked rice.

(a) What would you use as a response variable in this experiment? How would you measure the
response?

(b) List all of the potential sources of variability that could impact the response.

(c) Complete the first three steps of the guidelines for designing experiments in Section 1.4.

Step 1 – Recognition of and statement of the problem.

Step 2 – Selection of the response variable.

Step 3 – Choice of factors, levels and range.

1.3. Suppose that you want to compare the growth of garden flowers with different conditions of
sunlight, water, fertilizer and soil conditions. Complete steps 1-3 of the guidelines for designing
experiments in Section 1.4.

Step 1 – Recognition of and statement of the problem.

Step 2 – Selection of the response variable.

Step 3 – Choice of factors, levels and range.

1.4. Select an experiment of interest to you. Complete steps 1-3 of the guidelines for designing
experiments in Section 1.4.

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1.5. Search the World Wide Web for information about Sir Ronald A. Fisher and his work on
experimental design in agricultural science at the Rothamsted Experimental Station.

Sample searches could include the following:

1.6. Find a Web Site for a business that you are interested in. Develop a list of factors that you would
use in an experimental design to improve the effectiveness of this Web Site.

1.7. Almost everyone is concerned about the rising price of gasoline. Construct a cause and effect
diagram identifying the factors that potentially influence the gasoline mileage that you get in your car.
How would you go about conducting an experiment to determine any of these factors actually affect your
gasoline mileage?

1.8. What is replication? Why do we need replication in an experiment? Present an example that
illustrates the differences between replication and repeated measures.

Repetition of the experimental runs. Replication enables the experimenter to estimate the experimental
error, and provides more precise estimate of the mean for the response variable.

1.9S. Why is randomization important in an experiment?

To assure the observations, or errors, are independently distributed randome variables as required by
statistical methods. Also, to “average out” the effects of extraneous factors that might occur while running
the experiment.

1.10S. What are the potential risks of a single, large, comprehensive experiment in contrast to a sequential
approach?

The important factors and levels are not always known at the beginning of the experimental process. Even
new response variables might be discovered during the experimental process. By running a large
comprehensive experiment, valuable information learned early in the experimental process can not likely
be incorporated in the remaining experimental runs.

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Experimental runs can be expensive and time consuming. If an error were to occur while running the
experiment, the cost of redoing the experiment is much more manageable with one of the small sequential
experiments than the large comprehensive experiment.

Reserved Problems

1.1R. Have you received an offer to obtain a credit card in the mail? What “factors” were associated with
the offer, such as introductory interest rate? Do you think the credit card company is conducting
experiments to investigate which facors product the highest positive response rate to their offer? What
potential factors in the experiment can you identify?

Interest rate, credit limit, old credit card pay-off amount, interest free period, gift points, others.

1.2R. What factors do you think an e-commerce company could use in an experiment involving their web
page to encourage more people to “click-through” into their site?

Font size, font type, images/icons, color, spacing, animation, sound/music, speed, others.

1.3R. Two of the leading contributors to design of experiments over the last 60 years were George E. P.
Box and J. Stuart Hunter. Search the World Wide Web for information on these two individuals and
briefly summarize their contributions.

1.4R. Suppose that you want to make brownies. You plan to use a brownie mix, but there are a number of
factors that could impact the results.
a. What would you use as a response variable? Could there be more than one response? Taste would
probably be the primary factor. Other factors could be texture and aroma. Possibly a combination
of all three.
b. Identify the factors that might impact the results. Amount of oil, number of eggs, amount of
water, cost of mix – expensive or cheap, baking temperature, baking time, type of pan – glass or
metal.
c. Complete the first three steps of the guidelines for designing experiments in Section 1-4.
1. Problem Statement – To maximize brownie tastiness. Or to make the best brownie while
minimizing cost (Can a cheap mix give the results of an expensive one?)
2. Response Variable – Tastiness is the primary response. Secondary responses could also be
texture and aroma.
3. Choice of factors, levels and range – for the maximize brownie tastiness: Mix cost (cheap,
expensive), number of eggs (2,3), amount of oil (1/2 cup, ¾ cup), pan type (glass, metal),
oven temp (350, 375), bake time (35 min, 45 min). One might want to reduce the number of
factors from 6 to 3-4 to reduce the number of experimental runs.

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Chapter 2
Simple Comparative Experiments
Solutions

2.1. Computer output for a random sample of data is shown below. Some of the quantities are missing.
Compute the values of the missing quantities.

Variable N Mean SE Mean Std. Dev. Variance Minimum Maximum

Y 9 19.96 ? 3.12 ? 15.94 27.16

SE Mean = 1.04 Variance = 9.73

2.2S. Computer output for a random sample of data is shown below. Some of the quantities are missing.
Compute the values of the missing quantities.

Variable N Mean SE Mean Std. Dev. Sum

Y 16 ? 0.159 ? 399.851

Mean = 24.991 Std. Dev. = 0.636

2.3. Suppose that we are testing H0: µ = µ0 versus H1: µ ≠ µ0. Calculate the P-value for the following
observed values of the test statistic:

(a) Z0 = 2.25 P-value = 0.02445

(b) Z0 = 1.55 P-value = 0.12114

(c) Z0 = 2.10 P-value = 0.03573

(d) Z0 = 1.95 P-value = 0.05118

(e) Z0 = -0.10 P-value = 0.92034

2.4S. Suppose that we are testing H0: µ = µ0 versus H1: µ > µ0. Calculate the P-value for the following
observed values of the test statistic:

(a) Z0 = 2.45 P-value = 0.00714

(b) Z0 = -1.53 P-value = 0.93699

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(c) Z0 = 2.15 P-value = 0.01578

(d) Z0 = 1.95 P-value = 0.02559

(e) Z0 = -0.25 P-value = 0.59871

2.5. Suppose that we are testing H0: µ1 = µ2 versus H1: µ1 = µ2 with a sample size of n1 = n2 = 12. Both
sample variances are unknown but assumed equal. Find bounds on the P-value for the following observed
values of the test statistic:

(a) t0 = 2.30 Table P-value = 0.02, 0.05 Computer P-value = 0.0313

(b) t0 = 3.41 Table P-value = 0.002, 0.005 Computer P-value = 0.0025

(c) t0 = 1.95 Table P-value = 0.1, 0.05 Computer P-value = 0.0640

(d) t0 = -2.45 Table P-value = 0.05, 0.02 Computer P-value = 0.0227

Note that the degrees of freedom is (12 +12) – 2 = 22. This is a two-sided test

2.6. Suppose that we are testing H0: µ1 = µ2 versus H1: µ1 > µ2 with a sample size of n1 = n2 = 10. Both
sample variances are unknown but assumed equal. Find bounds on the P-value for the following observed
values of the test statistic:

(a) t0 = 2.31 Table P-value = 0.01, 0.025 Computer P-value = 0.01648

(b) t0 = 3.60 Table P-value = 0.001, 0.0005 Computer P-value = 0.00102

(c) t0 = 1.95 Table P-value = 0.05, 0.025 Computer P-value = 0.03346

(d) t0 = 2.19 Table P-value = 0.01, 0.025 Computer P-value = 0.02097

Note that the degrees of freedom is (10 +10) – 2 = 18. This is a one-sided test.

2.7. Consider the following sample data: 9.37, 13.04, 11.69, 8.21, 11.18, 10.41, 13.15, 11.51, 13.21, and
7.75. Is it reasonable to assume that this data is from a normal distribution? Is there evidence to support a
claim that the mean of the population is 10?

Minitab Output

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Summary for Sample Data

A nderson-D arling N ormality Test
A -S quared 0.33
P -V alue 0.435

M ean 10.952
S tD ev 1.993
V ariance 3.974
S kew ness -0.45131
Kurtosis -1.06746
N 10

M inimum 7.750
1st Q uartile 9.080
M edian 11.345
3rd Q uartile 13.067
8 9 10 11 12 13
M aximum 13.210
95% C onfidence Interv al for M ean
9.526 12.378
95% C onfidence Interv al for M edian
8.973 13.078
95% C onfidence Interv al for S tDev
9 5 % C onfidence Inter vals
1.371 3.639
Mean

Median

9 10 11 12 13

According to the output, the Anderson-Darling Normality Test has a P-Value of 0.435. The data can be
considered normal. The 95% confidence interval on the mean is (9.526,12.378). This confidence interval
contains 10, therefore there is evidence that the population mean is 10.

2.8. A computer program has produced the following output for the hypothesis testing problem:

Difference in sample means: 2.35

Degrees of freedom: 18
Standard error of the difference in the sample means: ?
Test statistic: to = 2.01
P-Value = 0.0298

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(a) What is the missing value for the standard error?

y1  y2 2.35
t0    2.01
1 1 StdError
Sp 
n1 n2
StdError  2.35 / 2.01  1.169
(b) Is this a two-sided or one-sided test? One-sided test for a t0 = 2.01 is a P-value of 0.0298.

(c) If =0.05, what are your conclusions? Reject the null hypothesis and conclude that there is a
difference in the two samples.

(d) Find a 90% two-sided CI on the difference in the means.

1 1 1 1
y1  y2  t 2,n  n 2S p   1  1  y1  y2  t 2, n1  n2 2S p 
1 2
n1 n2 n1 n2
1 1 1 1
y1  y2  t0.05,18S p   1  1  y1  y2  t0.05,18S p 
n1 n2 n1 n2
2.35  1.734 1.169   1  1  2.35  1.734 1.169 
0.323  1  1  4.377

2.9S. A computer program has produced the following output for the hypothesis testing problem:

Difference in sample means: 11.5

Degrees of freedom: 24
Standard error of the difference in the sample means: ?
Test statistic: to = -1.88
P-Value = 0.0723

(a) What is the missing value for the standard error?

y1  y2 11.5
t0    1.88
1 1 StdError
Sp 
n1 n2
StdError  11.5 / 1.88  6.12
(b) Is this a two-sided or one-sided test? Two-sided test for a t0 = -1.88 is a P-value of 0.0723.

(c) If =0.05, what are your conclusions? Accept the null hypothesis, there is no difference in the
means.

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(d) Find a 90% two-sided CI on the difference in the means.

1 1 1 1
y1  y2  t 2,n  n 2S p   1  1  y1  y2  t 2, n1  n2 2S p 
1 2
n1 n2 n1 n2
1 1 1 1
y1  y2  t0.05,24S p   1  1  y1  y2  t0.05,24S p 
n1 n2 n1 n2
11.5  1.711 6.12   1  1  11.5  1.711 6.12 
21.97  1  1  1.03

2.10. A two-sample t-test has been conducted and the sample sizes are n1 = n2 = 10. The computed value
of the test statistic is t0 = 2.15. If the null hypothesis is two-sided, an upper bound on the P-value is

(a) 0.10

(b) 0.05

(c) 0.025

(d) 0.01

(e) None of the above.

2.11. A two-sample t-test has been conducted and the sample sizes are n1 = n2 = 12. The computed value
of the test statistic is t0 = 2.27. If the null hypothesis is two-sided, an upper bound on the P-value is

(a) 0.10

(b) 0.05

(c) 0.025

(d) 0.01

(e) None of the above.

2.12S. Suppose that we are testing H0: µ = µ0 versus H1: µ > µ0 with a sample size of n = 15. Calculate
bounds on the P-value for the following observed values of the test statistic:

(a) t0 = 2.35 Table P-value = 0.01, 0.025 Computer P-value = 0.01698

(b) t0 = 3.55 Table P-value = 0.001, 0.0025 Computer P-value = 0.00160

(c) t0 = 2.00 Table P-value = 0.025, 0.005 Computer P-value = 0.03264

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(d) t0 = 1.55 Table P-value = 0.05, 0.10 Computer P-value = 0.07172

The degrees of freedom are 15 – 1 = 14. This is a one-sided test.

2.13. Suppose that we are testing H0: µ = µ0 versus H1: µ ≠ µ0 with a sample size of n = 10. Calculate
bounds on the P-value for the following observed values of the test statistic:

(a) t0 = 2.48 Table P-value = 0.02, 0.05 Computer P-value = 0.03499

(b) t0 = -3.95 Table P-value = 0.002, 0.005 Computer P-value = 0.00335

(c) t0 = 2.69 Table P-value = 0.02, 0.05 Computer P-value = 0.02480

(d) t0 = 1.88 Table P-value = 0.05, 0.10 Computer P-value = 0.09281

(e) t0 = -1.25 Table P-value = 0.20, 0.50 Computer P-value = 0.24282

2.14. Consider the computer output shown below.

One-Sample T: Y
Test of mu = 25 vs > 25
Variable N Mean Std. Dev. SE Mean 95% Lower Bound T P

Y 12 25.6818 ? 0.3360 ? ? 0.034

(a) How many degrees of freedom are there on the t-test statistic?

(N-1) = (12 – 1) = 11

(b) Fill in the missing information.

Std. Dev. = 1.1639 95% Lower Bound = 2.0292

2.15. Consider the computer output shown below.

Two-Sample T-Test and CI: Y1, Y2

Two-sample T for Y1 vs Y2
N Mean Std. Dev. SE Mean

Y1 20 50.19 1.71 0.38

Y2 20 52.52 2.48 0.55

Difference = mu (X1) – mu (X2)

Estimate for difference: -2.33341

95% CI for difference: (-3.69547, -0.97135)

T-Test of difference = 0 (vs not = ) : T-Value = -3.47

P-Value = 0.01 DF = 38

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Both use Pooled Std. Dev. = 2.1277

(a) Can the null hypothesis be rejected at the 0.05 level? Why?

Yes, the P-Value of 0.001 is much less than 0.05.

(b) Is this a one-sided or two-sided test?

Two-sided.

(c) If the hypothesis had been H0: µ1 - µ2 = 2 versus H1: µ1 - µ2 ≠ 2 would you reject the null hypothesis
at the 0.05 level?

Yes.

(d) If the hypothesis had been H0: µ1 - µ2 = 2 versus H1: µ1 - µ2 < 2 would you reject the null
hypothesis at the 0.05 level? Can you answer this question without doing any additional
calculations? Why?

Yes, no additional calculations are required because the test is naturally becoming more significant
with the change from -2.33341 to -4.33341.

(e) Use the output and the t table to find a 95 percent upper confidence bound on the difference in
means?

95% upper confidence bound = -1.21.

(f) What is the P-value if the alternative hypotheses are H0: µ1 - µ2 = 2 versus H1: µ1 - µ2 ≠ 2?

P-value = 1.4E-07.

2.16. The breaking strength of a fiber is required to be at least 150 psi. Past experience has indicated that
the standard deviation of breaking strength is  = 3 psi. A random sample of four specimens is tested. The
results are y1=145, y2=153, y3=150 and y4=147.

(a) State the hypotheses that you think should be tested in this experiment.

H0:  = 150 H1:  > 150

(b) Test these hypotheses using  = 0.05. What are your conclusions?

n = 4,  = 3, y = 1/4 (145 + 153 + 150 + 147) = 148.75

y  o 148.75  150 1.25

zo     0.8333
 3 3
n 4 2

Since z0.05 = 1.645, do not reject.

(c) Find the P-value for the test in part (b).

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From the z-table: P  1  0.7967   2 3 0.7995  0.7967   0.2014

(d) Construct a 95 percent confidence interval on the mean breaking strength.

The 95% confidence interval is

 
y  z    y  z
n
2 2
n
148.75  1.96 3 2     148.75  1.96 3 2 

145.81    151.69

2.17. The viscosity of a liquid detergent is supposed to average 800 centistokes at 25C. A random
sample of 16 batches of detergent is collected, and the average viscosity is 812. Suppose we know that the
standard deviation of viscosity is  = 25 centistokes.

(a) State the hypotheses that should be tested.

H0:  = 800 H1:   800

(b) Test these hypotheses using  = 0.05. What are your conclusions?

y  o 812  800 12
zo     1.92 Since z/2 = z0.025 = 1.96, do not reject.
 25 25
n 16 4

(c) What is the P-value for the test?

(d) Find a 95 percent confidence interval on the mean.

The 95% confidence interval is

 
y  z    y  z
n
2 2
n
812  1.96  25 4     812  1.96  25 4 
812  12.25    812  12.25
799.75    824.25

2.18. A normally distributed random variable has an unknown mean  and a known variance 2 = 9. Find
the sample size required to construct a 95 percent confidence interval on the mean that has total length of
1.0.

Since y  N(,9), a 95% two-sided confidence interval on  is

If the total interval is to have width 1.0, then the half-interval is 0.5. Since z/2 = z0.025 = 1.96,

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 3 
1.96     0.5 1.96 
 n
 3 
n  1.96     11.76
 0.5 
n  11.76   138.30  139
2

2.19S. The shelf life of a carbonated beverage is of interest. Ten bottles are randomly selected and tested,
and the following results are obtained:

Days
108 138
124 163
124 159
106 134
115 139

(a) We would like to demonstrate that the mean shelf life exceeds 120 days. Set up appropriate
hypotheses for investigating this claim.

H0:  = 120 H1:  > 120

(b) Test these hypotheses using  = 0.01. What are your conclusions?

y = 131
S2 = 3438 / 9 = 382
S  382  19.54

y  0 131  120
t0    1.78
S n 19.54 10

since t0.01,9 = 2.821; do not reject H0

Minitab Output
T-Test of the Mean

Test of mu = 120.00 vs mu > 120.00

Variable N Mean StDev SE Mean T P

Shelf Life 10 131.00 19.54 6.18 1.78 0.054

T Confidence Intervals

Variable N Mean StDev SE Mean 99.0 % CI

Shelf Life 10 131.00 19.54 6.18 ( 110.91, 151.09)

(c) Find the P-value for the test in part (b). P=0.054

(d) Construct a 99 percent confidence interval on the mean shelf life.

S S
The 99% confidence interval is y  t 2,n1    y  t , n1
with  = 0.01.
n 2
n

 19.54   19.54 
131  3.250       131   3.250   
 10   10 

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110.91    151.08

2.20. Consider the shelf life data in Problem 2.19S. Can shelf life be described or modeled adequately by
a normal distribution? What effect would violation of this assumption have on the test procedure you used
in solving Problem 2.22?

A normal probability plot, obtained from Minitab, is shown. There is no reason to doubt the adequacy of
the normality assumption. If shelf life is not normally distributed, then the impact of this on the t-test in
problem 2.19 is not too serious unless the departure from normality is severe.

Normal Probability Plot

.999
.99
.95
Probability

.80
.50
.20
.05
.01
.001

105 115 125 135 145 155 165

Shelf Life
Average: 131 Anderson-Darling Normality Test
StDev: 19.5448 A-Squared: 0.266
N: 10 P-Value: 0.606

2.21. The time to repair an electronic instrument is a normally distributed random variable measured in
hours. The repair time for 16 such instruments chosen at random are as follows:

Hours
159 280 101 212
224 379 179 264
222 362 168 250
149 260 485 170

(a) You wish to know if the mean repair time exceeds 225 hours. Set up appropriate hypotheses for
investigating this issue.

H0:  = 225 H1:  > 225

(b) Test the hypotheses you formulated in part (a). What are your conclusions? Use  = 0.05.

y = 241.50
S2 =146202 / (16 - 1) = 9746.80

S  9746.8  98.73

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y  o 241.50  225
to    0.67
S 98.73
n 16

since t0.05,15 = 1.753; do not reject H0

Minitab Output
T-Test of the Mean

Test of mu = 225.0 vs mu > 225.0

Variable N Mean StDev SE Mean T P

Hours 16 241.5 98.7 24.7 0.67 0.26

T Confidence Intervals

Variable N Mean StDev SE Mean 95.0 % CI

Hours 16 241.5 98.7 24.7 ( 188.9, 294.1)

(c) Find the P-value for this test. P=0.26

(d) Construct a 95 percent confidence interval on mean repair time.

S S
The 95% confidence interval is y  t 2,n1    y  t , n1
n 2
n

 98.73   98.73 
241.50   2.131      241.50   2.131  
 16   16 

188.9    294.1

2.22. Reconsider the repair time data in Problem 2.21. Can repair time, in your opinion, be adequately
modeled by a normal distribution?

The normal probability plot below does not reveal any serious problem with the normality assumption.

Normal Probability Plot

.999
.99
.95
Probability

.80
.50
.20
.05
.01
.001

100 200 300 400 500

Hours
Average: 241.5 Anderson-Darling Normality Test
StDev: 98.7259 A-Squared: 0.514
N: 16 P-Value: 0.163

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2.23. Two machines are used for filling plastic bottles with a net volume of 16.0 ounces. The filling
processes can be assumed to be normal, with standard deviation of 1 = 0.015 and 2 = 0.018. The quality
engineering department suspects that both machines fill to the same net volume, whether or not this volume
is 16.0 ounces. An experiment is performed by taking a random sample from the output of each machine.

Machine 1 Machine 2
16.03 16.01 16.02 16.03
16.04 15.96 15.97 16.04
16.05 15.98 15.96 16.02
16.05 16.02 16.01 16.01
16.02 15.99 15.99 16.00

(a) State the hypotheses that should be tested in this experiment.

H0: 1 = 2 H1: 1  2

(b) Test these hypotheses using =0.05. What are your conclusions?

y1  16.015 y2  16.005
 1  0.015  2  0.018
n1  10 n2  10

y1  y2 16.015  16.018
zo    1.35
 
2 2
0.0152 0.0182

1 2

n1 n2 10 10

z0.025 = 1.96; do not reject

(c) What is the P-value for the test? P = 0.1770

(d) Find a 95 percent confidence interval on the difference in the mean fill volume for the two machines.

The 95% confidence interval is

12  22  12  22
y1  y2  z   1  2  y1  y2  z 
2
n1 n2 2
n1 n2
0.0152 0.0182 0.0152 0.0182
(16.015  16.005)  (1.96)   1  2  (16.015  16.005)  (1.96) 
10 10 10 10
0.0045  1  2  0.0245

2.24. Two types of plastic are suitable for use by an electronic calculator manufacturer. The breaking
strength of this plastic is important. It is known that 1 = 2 = 1.0 psi. From random samples of n1 = 10
and n2 = 12 we obtain y 1 = 162.5 and y 2 = 155.0. The company will not adopt plastic 1 unless its breaking
strength exceeds that of plastic 2 by at least 10 psi. Based on the sample information, should they use
plastic 1? In answering this questions, set up and test appropriate hypotheses using  = 0.01. Construct a
99 percent confidence interval on the true mean difference in breaking strength.

H0: 1 - 2 =10 H1: 1 - 2 >10

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y1  162.5 y2  155.0
1  1 2 1
n1  10 n2  10

y1  y2  10 162.5  155.0  10
zo    5.84
 12  22 12 12
 
n1 n2 10 12

z0.01 = 2.325; do not reject

The 99 percent confidence interval is

 12  22  12  22
y1  y2  z   1  2  y1  y2  z 
2
n1 n2 2
n1 n2
12 12 12 12
(162.5  155.0)  (2.575)   1  2  (162.5  155.0)  (2.575) 
10 12 10 12

6.40  1  2  8.60

2.25. The following are the burning times (in minutes) of chemical flares of two different formulations.
The design engineers are interested in both the means and variance of the burning times.

Type 1 Type 2
65 82 64 56
81 67 71 69
57 59 83 74
66 75 59 82
82 70 65 79

(a) Test the hypotheses that the two variances are equal. Use  = 0.05.

H 0 :  12   22
H 1 :  12   22
Do not reject.

(b) Using the results of (a), test the hypotheses that the mean burning times are equal. Use  = 0.05.
What is the P-value for this test?

Do not reject.

From the computer output, t=0.05; do not reject. Also from the computer output P=0.96

Minitab Output
Two Sample T-Test and Confidence Interval

Two sample T for Type 1 vs Type 2

N Mean StDev SE Mean

Type 1 10 70.40 9.26 2.9

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Type 2 10 70.20 9.37 3.0

95% CI for mu Type 1 - mu Type 2: ( -8.6, 9.0)

T-Test mu Type 1 = mu Type 2 (vs not =): T = 0.05 P = 0.96 DF = 18
Both use Pooled StDev = 9.32

(c) Discuss the role of the normality assumption in this problem. Check the assumption of normality for
both types of flares.

The assumption of normality is required in the theoretical development of the t-test. However, moderate
departure from normality has little impact on the performance of the t-test. The normality assumption is
more important for the test on the equality of the two variances. An indication of nonnormality would be
of concern here. The normal probability plots shown below indicate that burning time for both
formulations follow the normal distribution.

Normal Probability Plot

.999
.99
.95
Probability

.80
.50
.20
.05
.01
.001

60 70 80
Type 1
Average: 70.4 Anderson-Darling Normality Test
StDev: 9.26403 A-Squared: 0.344
N: 10 P-Value: 0.409

Normal Probability Plot

.999
.99
.95
Probability

.80
.50
.20
.05
.01
.001

60 70 80
Type 2
Average: 70.2 Anderson-Darling Normality Test
StDev: 9.36661 A-Squared: 0.186
N: 10 P-Value: 0.876

2.26S. An article in Solid State Technology, "Orthogonal Design of Process Optimization and Its
Application to Plasma Etching" by G.Z. Yin and D.W. Jillie (May, 1987) describes an experiment to
determine the effect of C2F6 flow rate on the uniformity of the etch on a silicon wafer used in integrated
circuit manufacturing. Data for two flow rates are as follows:

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C2F6 Uniformity Observation

(SCCM) 1 2 3 4 5 6
125 2.7 4.6 2.6 3.0 3.2 3.8
200 4.6 3.4 2.9 3.5 4.1 5.1

(a) Does the C2F6 flow rate affect average etch uniformity? Use  = 0.05.

No, C2F6 flow rate does not affect average etch uniformity.

Minitab Output
Two Sample T-Test and Confidence Interval

Two sample T for Uniformity

Flow Rat N Mean StDev SE Mean

125 6 3.317 0.760 0.31
200 6 3.933 0.821 0.34

95% CI for mu (125) - mu (200): ( -1.63, 0.40)

T-Test mu (125) = mu (200) (vs not =): T = -1.35 P = 0.21 DF = 10
Both use Pooled StDev = 0.791

(b) What is the P-value for the test in part (a)? From the Minitab output, P=0.21

(c) Does the C2F6 flow rate affect the wafer-to-wafer variability in etch uniformity? Use  = 0.05.

H 0 :  12   22
H 1 :  12   22
F0.025,5,5  7.15
F0.975,5,5  0.14
0.5776
F0   0.86
0.6724
Do not reject; C2F6 flow rate does not affect wafer-to-wafer variability.

(d) Draw box plots to assist in the interpretation of the data from this experiment.

The box plots shown below indicate that there is little difference in uniformity at the two gas flow rates.
Any observed difference is not statistically significant. See the t-test in part (a).

5
Uniformity

125 200
Flow Rate

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2.27. Photoresist is a light-sensitive material applied to semiconductor wafers so that the circuit pattern
can be imaged on to the wafer. After application, the coated wafers are baked to remove the solvent in the
photoresist mixture and to harden the resist. Here are measurements of photoresist thickness (in kÅ) for
eight wafers baked at two different temperatures. Assume that all of the runs were made in random order.

95 ºC 100 ºC
11.176 5.623
7.089 6.748
8.097 7.461
11.739 7.015
11.291 8.133
10.759 7.418
6.467 3.772
8.315 8.963

(a) Is there evidence to support the claim that the higher baking temperature results in wafers with a
lower mean photoresist thickness? Use  = 0.05.

H 0 : 1  2
H 1 : 1  2
( n1  1)S12  ( n2  1)S 22 (8  1)(4.41)  (8  1)(2.54)
S p2    3.48
n1  n2  2 882
S p  1.86
y1  y2 9.37  6.89
t0    2.65
1 1 1 1
Sp  1.86 
n1 n2 8 8
t0.05,14  1.761

Since t0.05,14 = 1.761, reject H0. There appears to be a lower mean thickness at the higher temperature. This
is also seen in the computer output.

Minitab Output
Two-Sample T-Test and CI: Thickness, Temp

Two-sample T for Thick@95 vs Thick@100

N Mean StDev SE Mean

Thick@95 8 9.37 2.10 0.74
Thick@10 8 6.89 1.60 0.56

Difference = mu Thick@95 - mu Thick@100

Estimate for difference: 2.475
95% lower bound for difference: 0.833
T-Test of difference = 0 (vs >): T-Value = 2.65 P-Value = 0.009 DF = 14
Both use Pooled StDev = 1.86

(b) What is the P-value for the test conducted in part (a)? P = 0.009

(c) Find a 95% confidence interval on the difference in means. Provide a practical interpretation of this
interval.

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From the computer output the 95% lower confidence bound is 0.833  1  2 . This lower confidence
bound is greater than 0; therefore, there is a difference in the two temperatures on the thickness of the
photoresist.

(d) Draw dot diagrams to assist in interpreting the results from this experiment.

Dotplot of Thickness vs Temp

Temp
95
3.6 4.8 6.0 7.2 8.4 9.6 10.8 12.0 100
Thickness

(e) Check the assumption of normality of the photoresist thickness.

Normal Probability Plot

.999
.99
.95
Probability

.80
.50
.20
.05
.01
.001

7 8 9 10 11 12
Thick@95
Average: 9.36662 Anderson-Darling Normality Test
StDev: 2.09956 A-Squared: 0.483
N: 8 P-Value: 0.161

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Normal Probability Plot

.999
.99
.95

Probability
.80
.50
.20
.05
.01
.001

4 5 6 7 8 9
Thick@100
Average: 6.89163 Anderson-Darling Normality Test
StDev: 1.59509 A-Squared: 0.316
N: 8 P-Value: 0.457

There are no significant deviations from the normality assumptions.

(f) Find the power of this test for detecting an actual difference in means of 2.5 kÅ.

Minitab Output
Power and Sample Size

2-Sample t Test

Testing mean 1 = mean 2 (versus not =)

Calculating power for mean 1 = mean 2 + difference
Alpha = 0.05 Sigma = 1.86

Sample
Difference Size Power
2.5 8 0.7056

(g) What sample size would be necessary to detect an actual difference in means of 1.5 kÅ with a power
of at least 0.9?.

Minitab Output
Power and Sample Size

2-Sample t Test

Testing mean 1 = mean 2 (versus not =)

Calculating power for mean 1 = mean 2 + difference
Alpha = 0.05 Sigma = 1.86

Sample Target Actual

Difference Size Power Power
1.5 34 0.9000 0.9060

This result makes intuitive sense. More samples are needed to detect a smaller difference.

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2.28S. Front housings for cell phones are manufactured in an injection molding process. The time the part
is allowed to cool in the mold before removal is thought to influence the occurrence of a particularly
troublesome cosmetic defect, flow lines, in the finished housing. After manufacturing, the housings are
inspected visually and assigned a score between 1 and 10 based on their appearance, with 10 corresponding
to a perfect part and 1 corresponding to a completely defective part. An experiment was conducted using
two cool-down times, 10 seconds and 20 seconds, and 20 housings were evaluated at each level of cool-
down time. All 40 observations in this experiment were run in random order. The data are shown below.

10 Seconds 20 Seconds
1 3 7 6
2 6 8 9
1 5 5 5
3 3 9 7
5 2 5 4
1 1 8 6
5 6 6 8
2 8 4 5
3 2 6 8
5 3 7 7

(a) Is there evidence to support the claim that the longer cool-down time results in fewer appearance
defects? Use  = 0.05.

From the analysis shown below, there is evidence that the longer cool-down time results in fewer
appearance defects.

Minitab Output
Two-Sample T-Test and CI: 10 seconds, 20 seconds

Two-sample T for 10 seconds vs 20 seconds

N Mean StDev SE Mean

10 secon 20 3.35 2.01 0.45
20 secon 20 6.50 1.54 0.34

Difference = mu 10 seconds - mu 20 seconds

Estimate for difference: -3.150
95% upper bound for difference: -2.196
T-Test of difference = 0 (vs <): T-Value = -5.57 P-Value = 0.000 DF = 38
Both use Pooled StDev = 1.79

(b) What is the P-value for the test conducted in part (a)? From the Minitab output, P = 0.000

(c) Find a 95% confidence interval on the difference in means. Provide a practical interpretation of this
interval.

From the Minitab output, 1  2  2.196. This lower confidence bound is less than 0. The two samples
are different. The 20 second cooling time gives a cosmetically better housing.

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(d) Draw dot diagrams to assist in interpreting the results from this experiment.

Dotplot of Ranking vs C4

C4
10 sec
20 sec

2 4 6 8
Ranking

(e) Check the assumption of normality for the data from this experiment.

Normal Probability Plot

.999
.99
.95
Probability

.80
.50
.20
.05
.01
.001

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
10 seconds
Average: 3.35 Anderson-Darling Normality Test
StDev: 2.00722 A-Squared: 0.748
N: 20 P-Value: 0.043

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Normal Probability Plot

.999
.99
.95

Probability
.80
.50
.20
.05
.01
.001

4 5 6 7 8 9
20 seconds
Average: 6.5 Anderson-Darling Normality Test
StDev: 1.53897 A-Squared: 0.457
N: 20 P-Value: 0.239

There are no significant departures from normality.

2.29. The diameter of a ball bearing was measured by 12 inspectors, each using two different kinds of
calipers. The results were:

Inspector Caliper 1 Caliper 2 Difference Difference^2

1 0.265 0.264 0.001 0.000001
2 0.265 0.265 0 0
3 0.266 0.264 0.002 0.000004
4 0.267 0.266 0.001 0.000001
5 0.267 0.267 0 0
6 0.265 0.268 -0.003 0.000009
7 0.267 0.264 0.003 0.000009
8 0.267 0.265 0.002 0.000004
9 0.265 0.265 0 0
10 0.268 0.267 0.001 0.000001
11 0.268 0.268 0 0
12 0.265 0.269 -0.004 0.000016
  0.003   0.000045

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(a) Is there a significant difference between the means of the population of measurements represented
by the two samples? Use  = 0.05.

H 0 : 1  2 H : d  0
or equivalently 0
H 1 : 1  2 H 1 : d  0

Minitab Output
Paired T-Test and Confidence Interval

Paired T for Caliper 1 - Caliper 2

N Mean StDev SE Mean

Caliper 12 0.266250 0.001215 0.000351
Caliper 12 0.266000 0.001758 0.000508
Difference 12 0.000250 0.002006 0.000579

95% CI for mean difference: (-0.001024, 0.001524)

T-Test of mean difference = 0 (vs not = 0): T-Value = 0.43 P-Value = 0.674

(b) Find the P-value for the test in part (a). P=0.674

(c) Construct a 95 percent confidence interval on the difference in the mean diameter measurements for
the two types of calipers.

Sd S
d  t , n 1
 D   1  2   d  t ,n 1 d
2 n 2 n
0.002 0.002
0.00025  2.201  d  0.00025  2.201
12 12
0.00102  d  0.00152

2.30. An article in the journal of Neurology (1998, Vol. 50, pp.1246-1252) observed that the monozygotic
twins share numerous physical, psychological and pathological traits. The investigators measured an
intelligence score of 10 pairs of twins. The data are obtained as follows:

Pair Birth Order: 1 Birth Order: 2

1 6.08 5.73
2 6.22 5.80
3 7.99 8.42
4 7.44 6.84
5 6.48 6.43
6 7.99 8.76
7 6.32 6.32
8 7.60 7.62
9 6.03 6.59
10 7.52 7.67

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(a) Is the assumption that the difference in score is normally distributed reasonable?

Minitab Output

Summary for Difference

A nderson-D arling N ormality Test
A -S quared 0.19
P -V alue 0.860

M ean -0.051000
S tD ev 0.440919
V ariance 0.194410
S kew ness -0.182965
Kurtosis -0.817391
N 10

M inimum -0.770000
1st Q uartile -0.462500
M edian -0.010000
3rd Q uartile 0.367500
-0.75 -0.50 -0.25 0.00 0.25 0.50
M aximum 0.600000
95% C onfidence Interv al for M ean
-0.366415 0.264415
95% C onfidence Interv al for M edian
-0.474505 0.373964
95% C onfidence Interv al for S tDev
9 5 % C onfidence Inter vals
0.303280 0.804947
Mean

Median

-0.50 -0.25 0.00 0.25 0.50

By plotting the differences, the output shows that the Anderson-Darling Normality Test shows a P-Value of
0.860. The data is assumed to be normal.

(b) Find a 95% confidence interval on the difference in the mean score. Is there any evidence that mean
score depends on birth order?

The 95% confidence interval on the difference in mean score is (-0.366415, 0.264415) contains the value of
zero. There is no difference in birth order.

(c) Test an appropriate set of hypothesis indicating that the mean score does not depend on birth order.

H 0 : 1  2 H : d  0
or equivalently 0
H 1 : 1  2 H 1 : d  0

Minitab Output
Paired T for Birth Order: 1 - Birth Order: 2

N Mean StDev SE Mean

Birth Order: 1 10 6.967 0.810 0.256
Birth Order: 2 10 7.018 1.053 0.333
Difference 10 -0.051 0.441 0.139

95% CI for mean difference: (-0.366, 0.264)

T-Test of mean difference = 0 (vs not = 0): T-Value = -0.37 P-Value = 0.723

Do not reject. The P-value is 0.723.

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2.31S. An article in the Journal of Strain Analysis (vol.18, no. 2, 1983) compares several procedures for
predicting the shear strength for steel plate girders. Data for nine girders in the form of the ratio of
predicted to observed load for two of these procedures, the Karlsruhe and Lehigh methods, are as follows:

Girder Karlsruhe Method Lehigh Method Difference Difference^2

S1/1 1.186 1.061 0.125 0.015625
S2/1 1.151 0.992 0.159 0.025281
S3/1 1.322 1.063 0.259 0.067081
S4/1 1.339 1.062 0.277 0.076729
S5/1 1.200 1.065 0.135 0.018225
S2/1 1.402 1.178 0.224 0.050176
S2/2 1.365 1.037 0.328 0.107584
S2/3 1.537 1.086 0.451 0.203401
S2/4 1.559 1.052 0.507 0.257049
Sum = 2.465 0.821151
Average = 0.274

(a) Is there any evidence to support a claim that there is a difference in mean performance between the
two methods? Use  = 0.05.

H 0 : 1  2 H0 : d  0
or equivalently
H1 : 1  2 H1 :  d  0

n
1 1
d  d   2.465  0.274
ni i 9
1
1
 2

2
n
1  n
 
1

  di    di 
2
2
 1
0.821151  (2.465) 2

sd   i 1
n  i 1    9 
     0.135
n 1  9 1 
 
   

d 0.274
t0    6.08
Sd 0.135
n 9
t 2 , n 1
 t0.025,8  2.306, reject the null hypothesis.
Minitab Output
Paired T-Test and Confidence Interval

Paired T for Karlsruhe - Lehigh

N Mean StDev SE Mean

Karlsruh 9 1.3401 0.1460 0.0487
Lehigh 9 1.0662 0.0494 0.0165
Difference 9 0.2739 0.1351 0.0450

95% CI for mean difference: (0.1700, 0.3777)

T-Test of mean difference = 0 (vs not = 0): T-Value = 6.08 P-Value = 0.000

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(b) What is the P-value for the test in part (a)?

P=0.0002

(c) Construct a 95 percent confidence interval for the difference in mean predicted to observed load.

Sd S
d  t , n 1
 d  d  t ,n 1 d
2 n 2 n
0.135 0.135
0.274  2.306  d  0.274  2.306
9 9
0.17023  d  0.37777

(d) Investigate the normality assumption for both samples.

The normal probability plots of the observations for each method follow. There are no serious concerns
with the normality assumption, but there is an indication of a possible outlier (1.178) in the Lehigh method
data.

Normal Probability Plot

.999
.99
.95
Probability

.80

.50

.20

.05
.01
.001

1.15 1.25 1.35 1.45 1.55

Karlsruhe
Av erage: 1.34011 Anderson-Darling Normality Test
StDev : 0.146031 A-Squared: 0.286
N: 9 P-Value: 0.537

Normal Probability Plot

.999
.99
.95
Probability

.80

.50

.20

.05
.01
.001

1.00 1.05 1.10 1.15

Lehigh
Av erage: 1.06622 Anderson-Darling Normality Test
StDev : 0.0493806 A-Squared: 0.772
N: 9 P-Value: 0.028

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(a) Investigate the normality assumption for the difference in ratios for the two methods.

Normal Probability Plot

.999
.99
.95

Probability
.80

.50

.20

.05
.01
.001

0.12 0.22 0.32 0.42 0.52

Difference
Av erage: 0.273889 Anderson-Darling Normality Test
StDev : 0.135099 A-Squared: 0.318
N: 9 P-Value: 0.464

There is no issue with normality in the difference of ratios of the two methods.

(b) Discuss the role of the normality assumption in the paired t-test.

As in any t-test, the assumption of normality is of only moderate importance. In the paired t-test, the
assumption of normality applies to the distribution of the differences. That is, the individual sample
measurements do not have to be normally distributed, only their difference.

2.32. The deflection temperature under load for two different formulations of ABS plastic pipe is being
studied. Two samples of 12 observations each are prepared using each formulation, and the deflection
temperatures (in F) are reported below:

Formulation 1 Formulation 2
206 193 192 177 176 198
188 207 210 197 185 188
205 185 194 206 200 189
187 189 178 201 197 203

(a) Construct normal probability plots for both samples. Do these plots support assumptions of
normality and equal variance for both samples?

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Solutions from Montgomery, D. C. (2019) Design and Analysis of Experiments, Wiley, NY

Normal Probability Plot

.999
.99
.95

Probability
.80
.50
.20
.05
.01
.001

180 190 200 210

Form 1
Average: 194.5 Anderson-Darling Normality Test
StDev: 10.1757 A-Squared: 0.450
N: 12 P-Value: 0.227

Normal Probability Plot

.999
.99
.95
Probability

.80

.50

.20

.05
.01
.001

175 185 195 205

Form 2
Av erage: 193.083 Anderson-Darling Normality Test
StDev : 9.94949 A-Squared: 0.443
N: 12 P-Value: 0.236

(b) Do the data support the claim that the mean deflection temperature under load for formulation 1
exceeds that of formulation 2? Use  = 0.05.

No, formulation 1 does not exceed formulation 2 per the Minitab output below.

Minitab Output
Two Sample T-Test and Confidence Interval

N Mean StDev SE Mean

Form 1 12 194.5 10.2 2.9
Form 2 12 193.08 9.95 2.9

Difference = mu Form 1 - mu Form 2

Estimate for difference: 1.42
95% lower bound for difference: -5.64
T-Test of difference = 0 (vs >): T-Value = 0.34 P-Value = 0.367 DF = 22
Both use Pooled StDev = 10.1

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Solutions from Montgomery, D. C. (2019) Design and Analysis of Experiments, Wiley, NY

(c) What is the P-value for the test in part (a)?

P = 0.367

2.33. Refer to the data in problem 2.32. Do the data support a claim that the mean deflection temperature
under load for formulation 1 exceeds that of formulation 2 by at least 3 F?

No, formulation 1 does not exceed formulation 2 by at least 3 F.

Minitab Output
Two-Sample T-Test and CI: Form1, Form2

Two-sample T for Form 1 vs Form 2

N Mean StDev SE Mean

Form 1 12 194.5 10.2 2.9
Form 2 12 193.08 9.95 2.9

Difference = mu Form 1 - mu Form 2

Estimate for difference: 1.42
95% lower bound for difference: -5.64
T-Test of difference = 3 (vs >): T-Value = -0.39 P-Value = 0.648 DF = 22
Both use Pooled StDev = 10.1

2.34S. In semiconductor manufacturing, wet chemical etching is often used to remove silicon from the
backs of wafers prior to metalization. The etch rate is an important characteristic of this process. Two
different etching solutions are being evaluated. Eight randomly selected wafers have been etched in each
solution and the observed etch rates (in mils/min) are shown below:

Solution 1 Solution 2
9.9 10.6 10.2 10.6
9.4 10.3 10.0 10.2
10.0 9.3 10.7 10.4
10.3 9.8 10.5 10.3

(a) Do the data indicate that the claim that both solutions have the same mean etch rate is valid? Use 
= 0.05 and assume equal variances.

No, the solutions do not have the same mean etch rate. See the Minitab output below.

Minitab Output
Two Sample T-Test and Confidence Interval

Two-sample T for Solution 1 vs Solution 2

N Mean StDev SE Mean

Solution 8 9.950 0.450 0.16
Solution 8 10.363 0.233 0.082

Difference = mu Solution 1 - mu Solution 2

Estimate for difference: -0.413
95% CI for difference: (-0.797, -0.028)
T-Test of difference = 0 (vs not =): T-Value = -2.30 P-Value = 0.037 DF = 14
Both use Pooled StDev = 0.358

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(b) Find a 95% confidence interval on the difference in mean etch rate.

From the Minitab output, -0.797 to –0.028.

(c) Use normal probability plots to investigate the adequacy of the assumptions of normality and equal
variances.

Normal Probability Plot

.999
.99
.95
Probability

.80
.50
.20
.05
.01
.001

9.5 10.0 10.5

Solution 1
Average: 9.95 Anderson-Darling Normality Test
StDev: 0.450397 A-Squared: 0.216
N: 8 P-Value: 0.764

Normal Probability Plot

.999
.99
.95
Probability

.80
.50
.20
.05
.01
.001

10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7

Solution 2
Average: 10.3625 Anderson-Darling Normality Test
StDev: 0.232609 A-Squared: 0.158
N: 8 P-Value: 0.919

Both the normality and equality of variance assumptions are valid.

2.35. Two popular pain medications are being compared on the basis of the speed of absorption by the
body. Specifically, tablet 1 is claimed to be absorbed twice as fast as tablet 2. Assume that  1 and  2
2 2

are known. Develop a test statistic for

H0: 21 = 2
H1: 21  2

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