Some important limits.

lim x n  a n
1.  na n1
x a xa
lim  1  x
2. 1    e
x   x
lim
3. 1  x  1 x  e
x0
lim a x  1
4.  loge a
x0 x
lim e x  1
5. 1
x0 x
lim log1  x 
6. 1
x0 x
Example
lim x
1. x
x0
Let y  xx
ln y  x ln x
Let x  e z
ln y  e z ln e z  ze z
As x  0 , z  
 ze  0
z

 ln y  0
 y 1
lim x
Hence x 1
x0
x
lim  1
2. 1  
x   x
x
 1
Let y  1  
 x
 1
ln y  x ln1  
 x
1 1
Let z  or x 
x z
 ln1  z 
1
 ln y 
z
As x  , z 0
 1 
lim  ln1  z   lim  1  z  lim  1 
      1
x   z  z  0 1  z  01 z 
 
 
 as x   , z  0  ln y  1
x
 1
 y  1    e
 x

RIGHT HAND LIMIT (RHL) AND LEFT HAND LIMIT (LHL).

lim lim
RHL  
f x   f a  h 
xa h0

lim lim
LHL  
f x   f a  h 
xa h0

Examples
1. Evaluate the following limits.
lim 3x
(i)
x  0 x  x2

Solution
lim 3x lim 30  h 


x0 x x 2
h  0 0  h  0  h 2
lim  3h

h  0 h  h2
lim  3h

h  0 h1  h 
lim  3

h  01 h
3

1 0
 3....................................................(1)
 lim 3x lim 30  h 


x0 x x 2
h  0 0  h  0  h 2
lim 3h

h  0 h  h2
lim 3h

h  0 h1  h 
lim 3

h  01 h
3

1 0
 3....................................................(2)

lim 3x lim 3x
From (1) and (2) , we find that 
 
i.e. LHL  RHL
x0 x x 2
x  0 x  x2

lim 3x
 does not exists.
x  0 x  x2

lim 4 x  x
(ii)
x  0 3x  2 x

Solution

lim 4 x  x lim 40  h   0  h

LHL  
x  0  3x  2 x h  0 30  h   2 0  h
lim  4h  h

h  0  3h  2h
lim  3h

h  0  5h
lim 3

h  05
3
 ...........................................(1)
5
 lim 4 x  x lim 40  h   0  h
RHL  
x  0 3x  2 x h  0 30  h   2 0  h


lim 4h  h

h  0 3h  2h
lim 5h

h0 h
lim
 5
h0
 5...........................................(2)

lim 4 x  x lim 4 x  x
From (1) and (2), we find that  i.e. LHL  RHL .

x  0 3x  2 x x  0  3x  2 x

lim 4 x  x
 does not exists.
x  0 3x  2 x

lim x  a
(iii)
xa xa
Solution

lim x  a lim a  h   a
LHL  
x  a x  a h  0 a  h   a


lim a  h  a

h0 h
lim  h

h0 h
lim h

h0h
lim
 1
h0
 1.....................................(1)
 lim x  a lim a  h   a
RHL  
x  a x  a h  0 a  h   a


lim a  h  a

h0 h
lim h

h0 h
lim h

h0h
lim
 1
h0
 1.....................................(2)

lim x  a lim x  a
From (1) and (2), we find that  i.e. LHL  RHL .
x  a x  a x  a x  a

Hence the given limit does not exist.

Exercises
1. Show that the following limits does not exists.
lim x
(i) .
x  0 x  x2
lim x  1
(ii)
x  1  x  1
lim 3x  2 x
(iii)
x  0 5x  3 x
lim x  x
(iv) x0 x
2
lim x 2 lim x
2. Prove that  .
x0 x x0 x
Continuity at a point
lim
A function f  x  is said to be continuous at xa if f  x  exists and equal to f a .
xa

lim lim
Therefore, f  x  is continuous at xa if 
f x   f x   f a  .
xa x  a

i.e. RHL  LHL  f a 

If f  x  is not continuous at a point , it is said to be discontinuous at that point.

Remark 1
f  x  is discontinuous at x  a in each of the following cases.
(i) f a  is not defined.
lim
(ii) f  x  does not exists.
xa
lim
(iii) f x   f a  (removable discontinuity)
xa
Remark 2
The word continuity is used to indicate the absence of any break or gap in the graph of a
function. If there is any break or gap at a point corresponding to x  a , then we say that the
function is not continuous or discontinuous at x  a .
Continuity on an interval
A function f  x  is said to be continuous on an open interval a, b  . If f  x  is defined on an
interval a, b , we say that

lim
(i) f is continuous at x  a , if f x   f a  .
x  a
lim
(ii) f is continuous at x  b , if f x   f b  .
x  b
(iii) f is continuous in a, b  if it is continuous at a , at b and at each points of a, b  .

Definition.
Suppose that the function f is defined in a neighborhood of a . We say that f is continuous at a
lim
provided the f  x  exists and moreover that the value of the limit is f a  . In other words
xa
lim
, f is continuous at a provided that f x   f a  .
xa

For a function f to be continuous at the point a it must satisfy the following conditions:

(i) The function f must be defined at a (so that f a  exists ).

(ii) The limit of f  x  as x approaches a must exist.
lim
(iii) The numbers in (i) and (ii) must be equal i.e. f x   f a  .
xa
If any of these of the conditions is not satisfied , then f is not continuous at a .

If the function f is not continuous at a , then we say that it is discontinuous there or that a is a
removable discontinuity of f .

Continuous functions
A function f  x  is said to be continuous, if it is continuous at each of its domain.

Properties of continuous functions.

1. A polynomial function is continuous everywhere.
2. A rational function is continuous at every point in its domain.
3. If f  x  and g x  can be continuous at a point (or in an interval), then
(i) f x   g x  , f x   g x  , f  x   g x  are all continuous at the point or in that
interval.
f x 
(ii)
g  x  is continuous at that point or in that interval provided denominator
 0.
4. The exponential and the logarithmic functions are continuous in their respective domains.
5. If f  x  is continuous at x  a , then f x  is also continuous.

Example 1

 x  1,  1  x  0

A function is defined as f  x    x, 0  x 1
2  x, 1 x  2

Show that it is discontinuous at x  0 but is continuous at x  1.
Solution
At x  0 , f x   x i.e. f 0  0

lim lim
LHL  
x 1  0  h  1  1
x0 h0

lim lim
RHL  x  0h  00  0
x  0 h0

lim lim
Since 
f x   f x  , so f  x  is discontinuous at x  0.
x0 x  0

At x  1 , f x   x i.e. f 1  1
 lim lim
LHL  x  1 h  1 0  1
x  1 h0

lim lim
RHL  
2x  2  1  h   2  1  0  1
x 1 h0

lim lim
Thus, 
f x   f x   f 1 and so f  x  is continuous at x  1.
x 1 x  1
Example 2
A function f  x  is defined as

 x2  x  6
 if x  3
f x    x  3
5 if x3

Show that f  x  is continuous at x  3 .

Solution
At the point x  3 , f x   5 , i.e. f 3  5 ………….(1)

lim lim x 2  x  6
f x  
x 3 x 3 x 3

lim x  3x  2

x  3 x  3

lim
 x  2
x3
 3 2
 5 ………………………………. (2)
Since the numbers in (1) and (2) are equal , then f  x  is continuous at x  3 .

lim
i.e. f x   f 3
x3

Example 3
Determine the value of the constant k so that the function
  x 2  3x  2
 if x  1
f x    x  1
 k if x  1

Is continuous at x  1.
Solution
At the point x  1 , f x   k i.e. f 1  k ……………(1)

lim lim x 2  3x  2
f x  
x 1 x  1 x 1

lim x  1x  2

x  1 x  1

lim
 x  2
x 1

 1 2
 1 ……………………………. (2)
Since f x  is continuous at x  1 .

lim
We must have f x   f 1
x 1

 1  k or k  1
Hence for k  1 , the given function is continuous.
Example 4

x 2  x  12
Given y  f x   .
x4
(i) Evaluate the limit of y as x  4 .
(ii) Is this function continuous at x  4 ? Why?
Solution

lim lim x 2  x  12
(i) f x  
x4 x 4 x4

lim x  3x  4

x  4 x  4
 lim
 x  3
x4
 43
7
(ii) The function is discontinuous at x  4 as it is not defined at x  4 .
Example 5
Let f  x  be a function defined as

 1x 1

 e e x
 1 x0
f x    1
,
e  e
x x


 0, x0

Discuss the continuity at x  0 .

Solution
At the point x  0 , by definition
lim lim
LHL  
f x   f 0  h 
x0 h0
1 1
lim e h  e h

h  0 h1 1
e  eh
1
Dividing the numerator and the denominator by e h we get
2
lim e h  1

h  0 h2
e 1
0 1

0 1

 1
2
1
Since e h
 2
 0 as h  0 .
h
e
 lim lim
RHL  f  x   f 0  h 
x  0 h0
1 1
lim e h  e h

h  0 1h 1
e e h
1
Dividing the numerator and the denominator by e h we get
2
lim 1  e h

h0 2
1 e h
1 0

1 0

1
2
1
Since e h
 2
 0 as h  0 .
h
e
Since LHL  RHL  f 0

i.e. 1  1  0
lim
 f x  does not exist, and hence f  x  is discontinuous at x  0.
x0
Example 6
What do you mean by the continuity of a function at a point?
What are the discontinuities, if any, of the function?

x2  7
f x  
x3  x 2  x  1
Solution
lim
A function f  x  is said to be continuous at xa if f  x  exists and equals f a  .
xa

x2  7
We have f  x  
x3  x2  x 1
 x2  7
 2
 
x  1  x  1

Since f 1   , therefore f  x  is not continuous at x  1 . Hence x  1 is the only point of

discontinuity of f  x  .

Example 7
Find the points where the function is not defined and therefore not continuous. For each such
point a , tell whether this discontinuity is removable.
x2
f x  
x  3x  2
2

Solution

Factorize x 2  3x  2  x  1x  2

f x  
 x  2  1
x  1x  2 x  1
This shows that f is not defined at x  1 and x  2 .

 f  x  is continuous except at these points.

x  2 , the new function, F x  

1
f  x  is continuous except at the single point
x  1
agrees

with f  x  if x  2 but it is continuous at x  2 also, where F 2  1 .Therefore f has a

removable discontinuity at x  2 ;the discontinuity at x  1 is not removable.
Composition of functions
Let hx   f g x  where f and g are continuous functions. The composition of two functions
is continuous functions is continuous. More precisely, if g is continuous at a and f is
continuous at g a  , then fg is continuous at a , where fg  hg x  .

lim
Proof: The continuity of g at a means that g x   g a  , and the continuity of f at g a 
xa
lim
implies that f g x   f g a  .
g x   g a 

lim  lim 
i.e. f g x   f  g x   f g a 
xa x  a 
Example
 2
x7 
Show that the function f x    2
3
 is continuous on the whole real line.
 x  2x  2 

Proof
Consider the denominator

x 2  2 x  2  x  1  1  0 for all values of x , hence the rational function.

2

x7
r x  
x 2  2x  2

Is defined and continuous everywhere.


Thus f x   r x 2 1
3
is continuous everywhere.

Applications
Example 1
A shopkeeper charges Ksh. 25 per item for purchasing 20 or less items. He gives some discount
if more items are bought. If the items bought are 50 or less , the a discount of Ksh.1 per item and
for purchase of more than 50 items, a discount of Ksh. 2 per item is given.
(i) Find the cost function.
(ii) What are the points at which this is not continuous? Give reasons.
Solution
(i) Let x be the number of items , then the cost function C  x  is given by

 25 x, 1  x  20

C x   24 x, 20  x  50
 23x, x  50

(ii) The only points which need to be considered for continuity are 20 and 50
respectively.

At x  20 , C x   25 x i.e. C 20  25  20  500

lim lim lim
LHL  
C x   C 20  h   2520  h   25  20  500
x  20 h0 h0

lim lim lim

RHL  
C x   C 20  h   2420  h   24  20  480
x  20 h0 h0
 lim
 C x  does not exist.
x  20
Hence C  x  is discontinuous at x  20.
At x  50 , C x   24 x i.e. C 50  24  50  1200
lim lim lim
LHL  C  x   C 50  h   2450  h   24  50  1200
x  50  h0 h0
lim lim lim
RHL  
C x   C 50  h   2350  h   23  50  1150
x  50 h0 h0
lim
 C x  does not exist.
x  50
Thus C  x  is discontinuous at x  50.

Example 2
A firm has four plants and operates them as they are needed to process available raw materials.
Each plant has a fixed cost of Ksh. 3000 per month whether operating or not. In addition, each
plant , if in operation, will incur an additional cost of Ksh. 5000 per month. The raw materials
cost is fixed at Ksh. 5 per unit of output and each plant can produce at most 10,000 units of
output per month.
(i) Find the total cost function.
(ii) Examine the points of discontinuity thereof.
Solution
(i) The total cost function for x units of output is given by
 3000  4  12,000 ,x0
 5 x  17,000 , 0  x  10,000

C x    5 x  22,000 ,10,000  x  20,000
5 x  27,000 ,20,000  x  30,000

 5 x  32,000 ,30,000  x  40,000
(ii) At x  0 , C x   12,000 i.e. C 0  12,000
lim lim lim
RHL  
C x   C 0  h   50  h   17,000  17,000
x0 h0 h0
lim
Since C x   C 0 , C  x  is discontinuous at x  0 .
x  0
At x  10,000 , C x   5 x  17,000 i.e. C 10,000  510,000  17,000  67,000
lim lim lim
RHL  
C x   C 10,000  h   510,000  h   22,000  72,000
x  10,000 h0 h0
 lim
Since C x   C 10,000
x  10,000 
 C x  is discontinuous at x  10,000
NB: The cost function is discontinuous at x  20,000 , 30,000 and 40,000 .

Exercise
1. For the following problems find a value of the constant c so that the function f  x  is
continuous for all x .
 x  c if x  0
(i) f x   
4  x if x  0
2

 2 x  c if x  3
(ii) f x   
2c  x if x  3
 c 2  x 2 if x  0
(iii) f x   
2x  c  if x  0
2

c 3  x 3 if x  
(iv) f x   
c sin x if x  
2. For the following problems find the points where the given function is not defined and
therefore not continuous. For each such point a , tell whether this discontinuity is
removable.

f x  
x
(i)
x  33
x2
(ii) f x  
x2  4
 x if x  0
(iii) f x    2
 x if x  0
 1  x 2 if x  0

(iv) f x    sinx
 x if x  0

3. A drama company sells tickets for one of its shows according to the following schedule:
Ksh.10 per ticket for the purchase of 5 or less number of tickets, Ksh. 9.50 per ticket for
the purchase of more than 5 but less than 11 tickets and Ksh. 9 per ticket for purchase of
more than 10 tickets.
(i) Find the cost function C  x  , where C  x  represents the cost of buying x
tickets.
(ii) Find also those values of x where C  x  is not continuous.
4. An electric company charges its customers the following amount for services: Ksh. 3 for
the first 20 kilowatt hours or less; Ksh 0.10 per kilowatt hour for the next 80 kilowatt
hours and Ksh. 0.05 per kilowatt hours above 100 kilowatt hours.
(i) Determine the total cost function of x kilowatt hours, T x  .
(ii) Test its continuity at x  20 kilowatt hour and at x  100 kilowatt hour.