The present state of technology is partly and largely

attributed to the use of codes. For example, the images and

sounds that come out in each television set are actually
objects that have been digitally structured for easier
transmission in virtual channels. The same principle applies
to digital communication just as everyone have become
dependent with mobile phones and similar gadgets.

2
➢ CODE - utilizes a set of symbols to represent an object.
Ex: “A” can be replaced by a string of “0’s” and “1’s”, say 00101.
Codes are used in product identification and labeling.
➢CIPHER - a scheme to conceal information by switching letters or
representing them with other symbols.
It is used heavily in communication and data transmission.

3
 Bar Code

QR Codes

4
5
PLAIN TEXT CIPHER TEXT

CRYPTOGRAPHY
CRYPTOLOGY
PLAIN TEXT CIPHER TEXT

CRYPTANALYSIS

6
Coding theory is the study of methods for efficient and accurate transfer
of information.
- It is concerned with detecting and correcting transmission errors
- deals with the design of error-correcting codes for the reliable
transmission of information across noisy channels
- makes use of classical and modern algebraic techniques involving
finite fields, group theory, and polynomial algebra

7
International Standard Book Number (ISBN)

The International Standard Book Number (ISBN) was introduced as a

scheme of regulating and keeping track of various publications in different
parts of the world.
From a 10-digit code, it was expanded in 2007 to a 13-digit code. Each
published book, including media variations—electronic, paperback,
hardcover—is assigned a distinctive ISBN code.
In the Philippines, the National Library of the Philippines (NLP) takes charge
of the ISBN registration, allocation, and designation for Filipino publishers
and authors.

8
International Standard Book Number (ISBN)

An ISBN code takes the form x1x2x3 – x4x5x6 – x7x8 – x9x10x11x12 – x13.
Currently, x1x2x3 = 978 (or 979). The fourth digit x4 is allocated for the country code
while the remaining digits (except the last) are used to identify the author and the title
of the book.

The last digit, x13, is called the check digit. This can be obtained using the formula
x13 = 10 – (x1 + 3x2 + x3 + 3x4 + x5 + 3x6 + x7 + 3x8 + x9 + 3x10 + x11 + 3x12) mod 10

If x13 = 10, then the check digit is 0. 9

Example 1

Determine the check digit for the book “Larry Can’t Cook”:
978-971-27-2769-?
Solution:
x13 = 10 – [9+3(7)+8+3(9)+7+3(1)+2+3(7)+2+3(7)+6+3(9)] mod 10
= 10 – (154 mod 10)
= 10 – 4
=6
The check digit is 6.

10
Example 2

Determine if the ISBN code 978-971-27-2770-4 is valid or not.

Solution:
x13 = 10 – [9+3(7)+8+3(9)+7+3(1)+2+3(7)+2+3(7)+7+3(0)] mod 10
= 10 – (128 mod 10)
= 10 – 8
=2≠4
The ISBN code is not valid.

11
Universal Product Code (UPC)

The UPC (Universal Product Code) number is a 12-digit code that usually
accompanies the bar code of a product.
The last digit (or the 12th digit) is the check digit.
Like in the case of the ISBN, it can be computed using the formula
X12 = 10 – (3x1+x2+3x3+x4+3x5+x6+3x7+x8+3x9+x10 +3x11) mod 10
If x12 = 10, then the check digit is 0.

12
Example 3

Determine if the UPC of a certain product is valid or not.

Solution:
x12 = 10 – [3(9)+8+3(7)+6+3(5)+4+3(3)+2+3(1)+0+3(9)] mod 10
= 10 – (122 mod 10)
= 10 – 2 = 8
The UPC is valid.

13
Credit Cards

Credit card numbers can be easily checked through the “check digit.”
In the Philippines, Visa and Mastercard are the dominant credit cards in the
market, normally having 16-digit numbers except for some Visa cards that
have 13 digits only.
Credit card numbers can be checked by doubling every other digit starting
from the first to the last digit (the last digit being the check digit), and
summing up all the resulting numbers.
If the doubled digit results in a 2-digit number, simply treat the two digits as
separate digits.
The card number is valid only if the sum of the digits under modulo 10 is
congruent to 0 14
Example 4

Determine which credit card number is valid and which is not.

a. 5234 8213 3410 1298

b. 6011 0123 9145 2317

15
Example 4 - Solution

a. 5234 8213 3410 1298

Sum = 1+0+2+6+4+1+6+2+2+3+6+4+2+0+2+2+1+8+8
= 60 ≅ 0 (mod 10)
The indicated credit card number is valid.
b. 6011 0123 9145 2317
Sum = 53 ≅ 3 (mod 10)
Not Valid
16
Binary Codes

A binary code refers to a string of 0’s and 1’s. Each character in the string is called
a bit (short for binary digit), while a series of eight bits is called a byte. Each key in
the keyboard of a computer corresponds to a binary code of at least five bits (but
mostly 1 byte). In particular, computers are able to translate letters and symbols
into binary codes using the American Standard Code for Information Interchange
(ASCII codes).

17
Binary Codes

For purposes of discussion,

consider 5-bit codes for the
familiar keys in a standard
computer keyboard.

18
Example 5

Figure out the message in the following coded words:

0110100001101000100000000010011001100000001101010101110

19
Example 5

First, segregate the string into blocks of 5-bit codes:

01101 00001 10100 01000 00000 01001 10011 00000

00110 10101 01110

20
 Example 5

Refer to the table for the corresponding key:

01101 M 00001 A 10100 T 01000 H 00000 01001 I 10011 S 00000

00110 F 10101 U 01110 N

21
Example 6

Write the following sentence using the 5-bit binary codes:

VOTE WISELY

Solution:
(a) with space
1100101111101000010100000101110100110011001010110011001
(b) without space
22

11001011111010000101101110100110011001010110011001
Hamming Code

The Hamming Code, a scheme for error-correction, was introduced by R. W.

Hamming.
This scheme uses a redundant bit which is called a parity bit (also termed check
bit) which is a 1-bit that is inserted in a given string of binary codes.
A parity bit is either ‘even’ or ‘odd’ depending on whether there is an even or odd
number of 1’s.

23
HAMMING CODES

Coded messages tend to be very prone to distortion when being transmitted to

available medium because of the presence of some environmental interference
or unforeseen defects in the transmission medium.
Any changes that may occur in a message that may alter its original meaning is
considered an error.
In the context of binary codes, an error occurs when there is an
unintentional alteration of the bits, the “0” getting altered as “1” or
the other way around.

24
Building a Hamming Code

Step 1. Insert additional bit positions

If the length of the original code is r, then add m + 1 more bit positions,
where m is the largest power of 2 that satisfies the inequality: 2m < r.
The positions (𝑃𝑖) of the additional bits are at the corresponding powers of 2 :
i=20 = 1, 21 = 2, 22 = 4,…, 2m.
Step 2. Extract sub-codes for the parity codes of each additional bit.
For P1: copy the bits at positions 1,3,5,7,… (copy 1, skip 1)
For P2: copy the bits at positions 2,3,6,7,10,11,… (copy 2,skip 2)
In general, Pk : copy k bits (starting with the kth bit) then skip k bits
Step 3. Find Pi : The value of Pi is 0 if the resulting sub-code in Step 2 is of 27
even parity, otherwise, the value is 1.
Example 7: Find the Hamming code of 10010

10010 has 5 bits (that is, it is of length 5) ====> 𝑟 = 5

Observe: 22 = 4< 5
𝑚= 2, 𝑚+ 1 = 3
23 = 8 > 5
===> Insert 3 additional bits, at positions 20, 21, and 22 (i.e. P1, P2, P4)
===> the Hamming code has 𝑚+ 1+ 𝑟 = 3+ 5 = 8 bits
Positions
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Digit P1 = ? P2 = ? 1 P4 = ? 0 0 1 0

Observe that the first bit of the original code becomes the third bit of the Hamming
code, the second bit becomes the 5th bit, and all remaining bits Moving 3 bits forward. 28
Example 7: Find the Hamming code of 10010

Now form the subcodes:

Subcode for P1: P1P3P5P7 = ?101 ==> parity is even ==> P1 = 0
Subcode for P2: P2P3P6P7 = ?101 ==> parity is even ==> P2 = 0
Subcode for P4: P4P5P6P7 = ?001 ==> parity is odd ==> P4 = 1

Hamming Code: 00110010

27
Error Detection and Error Correction

Consider again the code 10010 in Example 7.

Suppose the corresponding Hamming code is transmitted, however, in the
process the code was altered to 00110110 (instead of 00110010).
How will the error be detected, and more importantly, how will the error be
corrected?

28
Example 8

Detect and correct the error in the transmitted code 00110110.

Positions
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Digit 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0

29
Example 8

At the receiving end, analyze the Hamming code and the following
observations should be evident:

The presence of at least one erroneous parity renders the received

code erroneous.
30
Example 8

Detect and correct the error in the transmitted code 00110110.

To correct the code, add the positions of the parity where an error
was detected.
In this case, they are P2 and P4. Adding, obtain 2 + 4 = 6. This
means that the bit in the 6th position has been altered.

Since the received bit is 1, it must be corrected to 0.

This recovers the original code 00110010.

31
Example 9

Consider the binary code: 10011010

a. To form the Hamming code, what is the value of m and how many
additional bits areneeded?
Answer: m = 3 (note: r = 8, which is between 23 = 8 and 24 = 16)
4 additional bits are needed
b. What are the positions of these additional bits?
Answer: 1st , 2nd , 4th ,8th
Subcode for P1: P1P3P5P7P9P11
c.What are the values of these bits?
Answer: P1 = 0; P2 = 1; P4 = 1; P8 = 0 Subcode for P2: P2P3P6P7P10P11
d. Give the Hamming code. Subcode for P4: P4P5P6P7P12
34
Answer: 011100101010 Subcode for P8: P8P9P10P11P12
Example 10

A local government unit was notified that a vaccine package will be delivered from
the DOH central office. For security reasons, the time of delivery was coded as
follows

111101000001010111101000101101
What is the message? Do you think there is an error? If there is, can you correct it
and get the real message?

33
Example 10: 111101000001010111101000101101

• Mark all bit positions that are powers of 2

111101000001010111101000101101

• original message
1010000101011101000101101
10100 00101 01110 10001 01101
T E N Q M 34
Example 10: 111101000001010111101000101101

P1 subcode: _10000001110110 ==> error!

P2 subcode: _11000101100011 ==> correct
P4 subcode: _01010100100101 ==> error!
P8 subcode: _00010100101101 ==> correct
P16 subcode: _11101000101101 ==>error!

Add the positions of the erroneous bits: 1 + 4 + 16 = 21

Change the bit in position 21 from “1”to “0”.

35
 Example 10: 111101000001010111101000101101

Corrected Hamming code: 111101000001010111100000101101

Removeparity checks: 111101000001010111100000101101

1010000101011100000101101
10100 00101 01110 00001 01101
T E N A M 36
Cryptography

Communication is a process by which information is shared among

individuals. The manner of disseminating messages has evolved along with
the accelerated growth of technology. This technological growth, however,
has posed bigger challenge in terms of maintaining the integrity of
information being shared.

With the advent of wireless communication and the widespread reliance on

the internet, information is at a high risk of being breached. Mathematics
has developed a system by which this problem can be addressed—through
cryptography.
37
Cryptography

Cryptography is the process of converting data or information into codes,

primarily for the purpose of keeping it secured (confidential and
undistorted). It involves encryption and decryption.
Encryption basically converts a message into meaningless and usually
unreadable formats that only the intended recipient can understand.
Decryption, on the other hand, is the process of recovering the encrypted
information.

38
Shift Cipher

Use the natural order of the letters of the English

alphabet:

The goal is to replace the letters of a given message by

another letter which is at some fixed number of positions
according to the natural order of the letters.
39
Shift Cipher

Formula:
𝐶= 𝑃+ 𝐾 mod 26

𝑃is the original position of a letter in the given message, 𝐶 is the shifted
position (code letter), 𝐾 is a constant that determines the fixed number of
shift positions.

40
Example 11: Encryption

Encrypt the message “Let us drink coffee” using the shift cipher :
𝐶= (𝑃+ 9) mod 26
For the letter “L”, P=11 ==> C = (11+9) mod 26 = 20
==> the code letter for “L” is “U”
For the letter “T”, P=19 ==> C = (19+9) mod 26 = 2
==> code letter for “T” is “C”

41
Example 11: Encryption

Verify the following: 𝐶 = (𝑃+ 9) mod 26

The Encrypted message is : UNCDBMARWTLXOONN

42
Decryption

How can the receiver of an encrypted message recover the original

message?
This is where the concept of inversion comes in.
Encryption Cipher: C = (P + K) mod 26
Decryption Cipher: P = (C – K) mod 26

The recovery process of the encrypted message is now supposed to be

backwards, hence the –K in the formula.

43
Example 12

Using the encryption formula: C = (P + 9) mod 26

Decrypt the message: RFJWCCXFJCLQVXERN

44
Example 12

Decrypt the message: RFJWCCXFJCLQVXERN

The decryption formula: P = (C - 9) mod 26

For the letter “R”, C=17 ==> P = (17-9)mod 26 = 8
==> the corresponding original letter is “I”
For the letter “C”, C = 2 ==> P=(2-9) mod 26 = -7 (mod 26)

Recall that -7 means the additive inverse of 7 under modulo 26 (that is,
the number to be added to 7 to get 0 mod 26). Clearly, this must be 19.
So, -7 mod 26 = 19, and this corresponds to the letter “T”. 45
Example 12

Verify the following:

The original message is : I WANT TO WATCH MOVIE

46
Remark

In the decryption formula of Example 12 given by

P = (C - 9) mod 26
recall that -9 also denotes the additive inverse of 9 under modulo 26, and
-9 mod 26 = 17. So an equivalent formula for the decryption should be
P = (C + 17) mod 26
To verify this, recall that “R” was decrypted as “I” using P=(C-9) mod 26. If
P = (C + 17) mod 26 is applied, with C=17
P = (17+17) mod 26 = 34 mod 26 = 8
And the corresponding letter is also “I”.
47
Example 13: Encryption

Encrypt the message “LOVE” using the shift cipher : (K=6)

𝐶= (𝑃+ K) mod 26
L O V E

48
Example 14: Decryption

Decrypt the message “RUBK” using the shift cipher : (K=6)

P = (C- K) mod 26
R U B K

49
Affine Cipher

A more complicated cipher formula involves multiplying the cipher value

of each letter of the original message. In a way, this will be more difficult
to crack than the shift cipher technique.
Encryption Cipher (m, K): C = (mP + K) mod 26
Decryption Cipher (m, K): P = 1𝑚(C – K) mod 26
As a reminder, 𝑚1 denotes the multiplicative inverse of m with respect to
modulo 26 operation.
Note also that the pair (m,K) is a valid encryption cipher parameters if m
and 26 are relatively prime.
50
Example 15: Encryption

Encrypt the message “Let us drink coffee” using the affine cipher pair
(m,K) = (3,5).

51
Example 15: Encryption

Encrypt the message “Let us drink coffee” using the affine cipher pair
(m,K) = (3,5).

Encryption Formula: C = (3P + 5) mod 26

For letter “L”, P=11 ==> C=[(3)(11)+5] mod 26 = 38 mod 26 = 12

==> the code letter for “L” is “M”

52
Example 15: Encryption

Verify the following: C = (3P + 5) mod 26

The Encrypted message is : MRKNHOEDSJLVUURR

53
Example 16: Decryption

Determine a decryption formula for the pair (m,K)=(3,5)

Decrypt the message: DTFSKKVTFKLAPVQDR

54
Example 16: Decryption

1
Decryption formula: 𝑃= (𝐶− 𝐾)mod 26
𝑚
1 1
= ≅ 9mod 26, since (3)(9) mod 26 = 27 mod 26 = 1
𝑚 3
-K = -5 ≅ 21 mod 26, since 5 + 21 = 26 ≅ 0 mod 26.
Again, recall that 13 denotes the multiplicative inverse of 3 mod 26, while -5
denotes the additive inverse of 5 mod 26.
Decryption formula: P = 9(C + 21) mod 26 or
P = 9(C – 5) mod 26

55
Example 16: Decryption

Let us use P = 9(C + 21) mod 26

For letter “D”, C=3 ==> P=9(3+21) mod 26 = 216 mod 26 = 8

==> P = 8 corresponds to the letter “I”
For letter “T”, C=19 ==> P=9(19+21) mod 26 = 360 mod 26 = 22
==> P = 22 corresponds to the letter “W”

56
Example 16: Decryption

Let us use P = 9(C + 21) mod 26

Verify the following results:

Verify also the results using the decryption P = 9(C – 5) mod 26 57

Example 17: Encryption

Encrypt the message “LOVE” using the affine cipher : (5,7)

𝐶= (m𝑃+ K) mod 26
L O V E

58
Example 14: Decryption

Decrypt the message “KIZB” using the affine cipher : (5,7)

P = 1/m (C- K) mod 26
K Z I B P = 21 (C - 7) mod 26
P = 21 (C + 19) mod 26

59
Reference:

MTAP-TL
Lecture Series

EDGAR M. ADINA
Mapua University