A complete of

Engineering
science level I&II

Author: Emmanuel M. Sospeter

Contacts info:
Phone: +255 756 437 185, +255 678 008 939
Email:[email protected]
VETA DSM RVTSC

DAR ES SALAAM

“Expand your knowledge through solving problems”

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 1
 Table of Contents

1. Forces in equilibrium
2. Motion in a straight line
3. Newton’s laws of motion
4. Current electricity
5. Magnetism

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 2
 Chapter: 1
Forces in Equilibrium
Moment of a Force
 Figure below shows how a spanner is used to turn a nut. The force (F) is not acting
directly on the nut but a distance (d) from the axis of the nut. This produces
a turning effect called the moment of the force about the axis of the nut. It is also
called the turning moment

 Thus, the moment (or torque) of a force about a turning point is defined as
the product of the magnitude of the force applied and the perpendicular
distance of the line of action of the force from the axis of rotation (or pivoted
point).
 OR; Moment of force –Is the product of the force applied and the
perpendicular distance from a fixed point or pivot

Moment of force = force × perpendicular distance from a pivot

∴ 𝑴=𝑭 ×𝒅
 Since the force is measured in Newton and distance is measured in meter,
the unit of the torque (moment) is Newton-meter (Nm).
NB:
 The point where the object rotates after turning force is called pivot or fulcrum
 Moment of force is applied in different activities such as opening bottle
caps, door opening and tightening nuts etc
 When undoing a nut fastened to a screw by hand one realizes that the
amount of force required is a lot greater than when undoing the same nut
using a spanner. The spanner increases the distance between the fulcrum
and the line of action of the force, thus for the same force a greater moment
is obtained
 The size of a moment of a force depends on the following
a. The magnitude of the force applied
b. The distance of line of action of the force from the axis of rotation.
(Perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of action of the force)

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 3
 This explains why less force is needed to open a door by pushing at the side
furthest from the hinge than at the side closest to the hinge. To push at
the hinge side of the door requires more force to be exerted because
the distance is smaller.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 4
Application of turning effect in daily life
 It is applied by a hand to unscrew a stopper on the bottle
 It is applied by a spanner to unscrew a nut on a bottle
 It is applied when turning a steering wheel of a car.
 A force is applied to a door knob and the door swings open about its hinge
 It is applied when closing and opening the water tapes.

This gives some reasons as to why:-

 It is easier to open a nut with a long spanner opener than with short spanner
fingers (This is due to the high moment as a result of perpendicular distance arise
from the long spanner)
 It is easier to open the cap of the bottle with a bottle opener than with your
fingers (This is due to the addition perpendicular distance arise from the opener)
 Knob on a door is placed as far as possible from the hinges (This is due to the
addition perpendicular distance arise from the hinges to the knob)

Types of Moments
Clockwise Moments
 Is any moment of a force that rotates or tends to rotate a body about its fulcrum
(pivot) in a clockwise direction. Clockwise moments are considered to be positive
(+) as shown in Fig. below

Anti-clockwise Moments
 Any moment of a force that rotates or tends to rotate a body about its fulcrum
(pivot) in an anticlockwise direction. Anticlockwise moments are considered to be
negative (-) as shown in Fig. below.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 5
Worked Examples,
1. A 10N force acts at a perpendicular distance of 0.50m from the turning point.
What is the moment of the force?
ANS;
Consider the figure below

Therefore; Moment of force = 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 × perpendicular distance = 10× 𝟎. 𝟓 = 𝟓𝑵𝒎

2. A line of action of a force of 90 N acts at a perpendicular distance of 2.5 m, from a
point. Find the moment of the force
ANS;
Data given
Force applied, F = 90 N, Perpendicular distance, d

𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎; 𝑴 = 𝑭 × 𝒅 ∴ 𝑴 = 𝟗𝟎 𝑵 × 𝟐. 𝟓 𝒎 = 𝟐𝟐𝟓𝑵𝒎
= 2.5 m Moment, M =?

Class Activity – 4:1

1. The line of action of a force 48N is at perpendicular distance of 1.5m from
the point. Find the moment of the force about the point.
(ANS: Moment of the force = 72Nm)
2. The moment of a force about a point is 1120Nm. If the magnitude of a force is
5600N, find the perpendicular distance between the point and the line of
action of the force.
(ANS: Perpendicular distance = 0.2m)
3. State one way to obtain a greater moment of a force about a given axis of rotation.
4. The moment of a force is 1000 Nm. If the line of the force is at perpendicular
distance of 100m, find the magnitude of a force.(ANS: F = 10N.)
5. A spanner (or wrench) has a long handle. Why?
6. The moment of a force of 20 N about a fixed point O is 10 Nm. Calculate the
distance of the point O from the line of action of the force. [ANS; 0.5 m]
7. A jack screw is provided with a long arm. Explain why?
ANS; A jack screw which is used to lift a heavy vehicle has a long arm so that
less force is needed to rotate it to raise or lower the vehicle.
8. If 150 N of force is applied on a spanner of 10 cm to open a nut. What is the
length on a spanner when a force of 60 N is applied? (ANS: L = 25 cm)
9. A spanner is used to unscrew a nut using a turning force of 30 N. The
spanner is 8 cm away from the centre of the nut. Calculate the moment of
the force when the spanner is horizontal. [ANS; 2.4Nm]
10. If the force applied is perpendicular to the handle of the spanner as shown
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 6
 in the diagram, find the

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 7
 (i) Torque exerted by the force about the center of the nut,
(ii) Type of rotation caused by the torque about the nut.
11. To open a door, a person pushes on the edge of a door with a force of
20 N. The distance between their hand and the hinges is 0.7 metres. What is
the moment used to open the door? [ANS; 14Nm]
12. Why it gets easier to push open a door, the further you are from the hinge?

Principle of Moments

length. Let two parallel forces 𝑭𝟏 and 𝑭𝟐 act at the two ends at distances 𝒅𝟏
 Consider a light rod of negligible mass which is pivoted at a point along its

and 𝒅𝟐 from the point of pivot and the normal reaction force 𝑹 at the point of
pivot as shown in Figure below.
 If the rod has to remain stationary in horizontal position, it should be in
translational and rotational equilibrium. Then, both the net force and net torque
must be zero.

 For Net force to be Zero; −𝑭𝟏 + 𝑹 − 𝑭𝟐 = 𝟎- (i)

𝑭𝟏𝒅𝟏 −𝑭𝟐𝒅𝟐 = 𝟎- - 𝑭𝟏𝒅𝟏
= 𝑭𝟐𝒅𝟐
 For Net Torque to be Zero;

 The above equation represents the 𝑷𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔. This forms the
(ii)

beam balance used for weighing goods with the condition; 𝒅𝟏 = 𝒅𝟐; 𝑭𝟏 =
principle for

𝑭𝟐 . We can rewrite the equation (ii) as follow,

 If 𝑭𝟏 is the load and 𝑭𝟐 is our effort, we get advantage when, 𝒅𝟏 < 𝒅𝟐. This
implies that
𝒅𝟏
𝑭
>𝟏 𝑭𝟐 Hence, 𝒅we could lift a large load with small effort. The
𝟐
ratio
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 8
is called
mechanical advantage of the simple lever. The pivoted point is called fulcrum.
 Now: The principle of moments states that
“When a body is in equilibrium, the sum of the anticlockwise moments about any point
is equal to the sum of the clockwise moments”
OR

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 9
 “When a system is in equilibrium the sum of clockwise moments is equal to the sum of
anti-clockwise moments”

𝑪𝑴 =
𝑨𝑴
That is:

𝑴 = 𝑭 × 𝒅
Whereby:

𝑪𝑴 = 𝑪𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝑭𝟏𝒅𝟏 , 𝑨𝑴 = 𝑨𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒆

𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝑭𝟐𝒅𝟐

∴ 𝑭𝟏𝒅𝟏 =
𝑭𝟐𝒅𝟐
Worked Examples,
1. A 100 g weight is suspended 45 cm from the pivot, of a light rod. If a weight W
suspended 20 cm from the pivot balances the 100 g weight. Find weight W.
Solution
See the diagram below:

From: The principle of Moments, C.M = A.M (M1 = M2) , and M = F × d

Now: 𝒎𝟏 × 𝒈 × 𝒅𝟏 = 𝒎𝟐 × 𝒈 × 𝒅𝟐 → 𝒎𝟏 × 𝒅𝟏 = 𝒎𝟐 × 𝒅𝟐
But: F = m × g

𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟒𝟓 = × 𝟐𝟎 → =
𝟒𝟓𝟎𝟎
= 𝟐𝟐𝟓𝒈
𝒎𝟐 𝒎𝟐
𝟐𝟎

𝑾 = 𝒎𝟐𝒈 = 𝟐𝟐𝟓 × 𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝑵
∴ 𝑾 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝑵 𝒐𝒓 𝟐𝟐𝟓𝒈
2. The diagram below represents a meter rule pivoted at its center. Using the
values of the forces and distances shown in the diagram, calculate the
distance y, if the system is in equilibrium

ANS;
From; Principle of Moments, i.e
𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 = 𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒆
𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔
𝟓 × 𝟒𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟓𝟎 = 𝟑𝟓 × 𝒚  𝟑𝟓𝒚 = 𝟕𝟎𝟎  𝒚 = = 𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎
𝟕𝟎𝟎

𝟑𝟓

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 10
3. Calculate the force, F required to balance the meter rule in the figure below

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 11
ANS;
From; Principle of Moments, i.e
𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 = 𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒆
𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔
𝟎. 𝟐𝟏 × 𝟒𝟎 + 𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝟐𝟎 + 𝟑𝟓 × 𝑭 = 𝟎. 𝟕 × 𝟒𝟎 + 𝟎. 𝟏 × 𝟐𝟎
𝟏𝟖. 𝟒 + 𝟑𝟓𝑭 = 𝟑𝟎  𝟑𝟓𝑭 = 𝟑𝟎 − 𝟏𝟖. 𝟒 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟔 ∴𝑭 = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝑵
𝟏𝟏.𝟔

𝟑𝟓
4. A uniform meter rule pivoted at its centre balanced by a force of 4.8N at 20cm
mark and some other two forces, F and 2.0N on the 66cm and 90cm marks
respectively. Calculate the force F.
ANS; Consider a free body diagram below

From; Principle of Moments, i.e

𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 = 𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒆
𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔

𝟒. 𝟖 × 𝟑𝟎 = 𝑭 × 𝟏𝟔 + 𝟐 × 𝟒𝟎  𝟏𝟒𝟒 = 𝟏𝟔𝑭 + 𝟖𝟎  𝟏𝟔𝑭 = 𝟏𝟒𝟒 − 𝟖𝟎

𝟏𝟔𝑭 = 𝟏𝟒𝟒 − 𝟖𝟎 = 𝟔𝟒  𝑭 = = 𝟒𝑵
𝟔𝟒

𝟏𝟔

5. A parent and child are at opposite sides of a playground see-saw. The parent sits
0.8 m from the pivot. The child sits 2.4 m from the pivot and weighs 250 N.
Calculate the weight of the parent if the see-saw is balanced. [ANS; 750N]
ANS;

From; Principle of Moments, i.e

𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 = 𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒆
𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔
𝑭 × 𝟎. 𝟖 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎 × 𝟐. 𝟒  𝟎. 𝟖𝑭 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎  𝑭= =
𝟔𝟎𝟎

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 12
 𝟕𝟓𝟎𝑵
𝟎.𝟖

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 13
6. It is found that a uniform wooden latch 100cm long and mass 95 g balances on a knife
edge when a 5g mass is hung 10 cm from one end. How far is the knife edge from
the center of the latch?
ANS;
Let x be the length of knife edge from the centre of the latch
Consider a free body diagram below

𝟗𝟓 × 𝒙 = 𝟓 × (𝟒𝟎 − 𝒙) → 𝟗𝟓𝒙 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 − 𝟓𝒙 → 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒙 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎

From; Sum of clockwise moments = Sum of anticlockwise moments

𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒙 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 ∴ 𝒙 = = 𝟐cm

𝟐𝟎𝟎

𝟏𝟎𝟎

7. A 5 m plank of mass 100 kilograms rests on top of a building with 2 meters of plank
extended over the edge of the building. How far can a 50 kg person venture past
edge of building on plank before the plank just begins to tip?

ANS;
Let x be the distance in which a person can walk before the plank begin to tip
Consider a free body diagram below and let the plank’s axis of rotation be at the wall’s
edge

 Apply rotational equilibrium using the corner of the building as the pivot point.
 Weight of plank (acting at midpoint) provides torque on left and weight of

From; principle of moments, ∑ 𝑪𝑴 = ∑ 𝒂𝒏𝒕. 𝑪𝑴

man provides torque on right

𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟓 = 𝟓𝟎 × 𝒙 → 𝟓𝟎𝒙 = 𝟓𝟎 ∴ 𝒙 = = 𝟏𝒎
𝟓𝟎

𝟓𝟎
8. A uniform half metre rule is freely pivoted at the 15 cm mark and it balances
horizontally when a body of mass 40 g is hung from the 2 cm mark. Draw a clear
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 14
 force diagram of the arrangement and calculate the mass of the rule

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 15
 ANS; let m be the mass of the rule
Consider a free body diagram below;

𝟒𝟎 × 𝟏𝟑 = 𝟏𝟎 × 𝒎 → = 𝟓𝟐𝟎 ∴ 𝒎 = = 52 g
𝟓𝟐𝟎
From; sum of clockwise moments = Sum of anticlockwise moments
𝟏𝟎
9. A heavy metal beam AB of mass 25 kg is supported at its end .The beam caries a mass
of 150 kg at a distance of 0.75 m from end A. If the beam is 2 m long ,determine the
thrust at supports A and B ,suggest the assumptions which you will make to
support your calculations
ANS: use g = 10 N/kg
Consider a free diagram below;

From; Principle of moments, Sum of CM = Sum

of ACM Consider moments about A; B x 2 = (150 x
0.75 + 25 x 1)g 2𝐵 = 1375𝑁 → 𝐵 = =
1375

687.5 𝑁
2
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜; sum of upward forces = sum of downward forces
A + B = 150 x 10 + 25 x 10 = 1750 N → 𝐴 = 1750 −687.5 = 1062.5N
∴ Thrust at A = 1062.5 N and that at B = 687.5 N
Suggested assumptions are
 The metal beam is rigid ( does not bend)
 The supports (pivot) are at the very ends of the beam (in real sense they cannot be
at the absolute ends)
10. Use the figure below to calculate the total clockwise moment and show that
it is equal to the total anticlockwise moment about O. Assuming that the mass of
the rod is negligible.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 16
 ANS;

 Clockwise moment = 𝑭𝟐 × 𝒅𝟐 + 𝑭𝟑 × 𝒅𝟑 = 𝟖 × 𝟏 + 𝟑 × 𝟒 = 𝟐𝟎𝑵𝒎

Consider the moment about O

 Anticlockwise moment = 𝑭𝟏 × 𝒅𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎𝑵𝒎

 Therefore; clockwise moment = Anticlockwise moment = 20Nm
11. Two people are carrying a 2 m long couch with a mass of M = 20 kg level
with the horizontal by lifting it from it ends. The center of mass of the couch is
1 m from each end. While it is being carried, another person with a mass m of
60 kg sits on the couch 0.5 m from one end. How much force will each person
carrying the couch have to exert upwards in order to continue carrying the
couch levelly? [ANS; 550N, 250N]

Class Activity – 4:2

1. Two people are on opposite sides of a seesaw. Person A is 2m away from the
pivot and weighs 300N. Person B sits 1.2m away from the pivot. What must
person B weigh if they are in equilibrium? [ANS; 500N]
2. A uniform meter ruler is pivoted at its centre. A 20 g mass is placed at the 10
cm mark and a 50 g mass at the 40 cm mark. At what mark must a second
50 g mass be placed for the system to be in rotational balance? (ANS: d =26
cm)
3. A lever of negligible weight is 2 m long. If a 0.80 N weight at one end balances
a 0.20 N weight at the other end, how far is the fulcrum from the 0.80 N
weight? [ANS: 40cm].
4. A uniform rod with a mass 120 g and a length of 130 cm is suspended by a wire
from a point 80 cm from the rod’s left end. What mass must be hang from the right
end of the rod for it to be in equilibrium? What will be the tension of the wire?
(m = 36g, T = 1.56 N)
ANS; Consider a free body diagram below;
Let; T be the tension in the wire suspended and m be the mass to be hang from
the right end of the rod as seen from the figure below;

Consider, the moment about B

From; Principle of Moments, i.e
𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 = 𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒆
𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔
𝟏𝟐𝟎 × 𝟔𝟓 = 𝑻 × 𝟓𝟎  𝟓𝟎𝑻 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 × 𝟔𝟓  𝑻=
𝟕𝟖𝟎𝟎

= 𝟏𝟓𝟔𝒈
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 17
 𝟓𝟎
Therefore; tension T in the wire = 𝒎𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝟔𝒌𝒈 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟔𝑵

(𝟏𝟐𝟎 + 𝒎)𝒈 = (𝑻)  𝒎 = 𝑻 − 𝟏𝟐𝟎 = 𝟏𝟓𝟔 − 𝟏𝟐𝟎 = 𝟑𝟔𝒈

Also; Sum of Downward forces = Sum of Upward forces

to be in equilibrium, 𝒎 = 𝟑𝟔𝒈
Therefore; the mass that must be hang from the right end of the rod for it

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 18
 5. A uniform meter scale of mass 60 g, carries masses of 20 g, 30 g and 80 g from points
10 cm, 20 cm and 90 cm marks. Where must be the scale hanged with string to
balance the scale?
ANS;
 Let, D be the point from where the scale is hanged so that the meter
scale and the various masses are balanced.

From; clockwise moments = anticlockwise moments

𝟖𝟎 × (𝟒𝟎 − 𝒙) = 𝟐𝟎 × (𝟒𝟎 + 𝒙) + 𝟑𝟎 × (𝟑𝟎 + 𝒙) + 𝟔𝟎 × 𝒙

Take the moments about point D;

𝟑𝟐𝟎𝟎 − 𝟖𝟎𝒙 = 𝟖𝟎𝟎 + 𝟐𝟎𝒙 + 𝟗𝟎𝟎 + 𝟑𝟎𝒙 + 𝟔𝟎𝒙

𝟑𝟐𝟎𝟎 − 𝟖𝟎𝒙 = 𝟏𝟕𝟎𝟎 + 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝒙  𝟑𝟐𝟎𝟎 − 𝟏𝟕𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝒙 + 𝟖𝟎𝒙
𝟏𝟗𝟎𝒙 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎  𝒙 = = 𝟕. 𝟖𝟗𝒄𝒎
𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎

𝟏𝟗𝟎
 Therefore, the string should be hanged 𝒂𝒕 𝟓𝟎 + 𝟕. 𝟗 = 𝟓𝟕. 𝟗 𝒄𝒎 mark.
6. A three metre uniform rod AB of mass 10 kg is hinged at one end to a vertical wall. The
other end is attached to a vertical cable. A block of mass 15 kg is resting on the rod 2
m from the wall.

(a) Find the tension in the cable. [ANS; T = 150N, F =100N]

(b) Find the magnitude and direction of the force exerted by the hinge on the rod
7. David and his father are sitting at the end of a seesaw 2 m from the pivot
while David's mother is sitting at a distance d from the pivot. The seesaw
balances as shown in the figure below. Determine d.

(ANS: Therefore, David's mother is sitting 1m from the pivot)

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 19
 8. State two conditions for a body, acted upon by several forces to be in equilibrium.
9. State the principle of moments. Name one device based on it.
10. The diagram below shows the crank of a bicycle pedal whose length is 20 cm. The
downward push of a leg is 200 N.

Calculate the moment of the force when

(a) When the crank is horizontal, as shown in the diagram [ANS; 40Nm]
(b) The crank has turned to an angle of 30 below the horizontal
0 [ANS; 34.64Nm]
11. A weightless bar is pivoted at its center and weights of 5N and 10N, placed 3m and 2m
respectively from the pivot on one side, are balanced by a weight of 20N on the other
side. How far is the 20N weight from pivot?
ANS;

Using the principle of momentum, that is

The sum of clockwise moments = the sum of anticlockwise moment, so
CW =ACW → 20x = (5 x 3) + (10 x 2) →20x =15 + 20
20x =30 → x = = 1.75 m ∴ The 20N is 1.75 m away from the pivot.
30
20
12. A wooden block of 14m long and 20 N weight is suspended horizontal with
two wires at 3m from left and 1m from right. If a load of 10N is hanging 3m from
right, find the tension in each wire
ANS; Consider the figure below

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 20
 For a body to be in equilibrium;

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 21
  Sum of clockwise moments = sum of anticlockwise moments (when an
object is in rotational equilibrium, the sum of the torques acting on it is
zero)
 Sum of upward forces = sum of downward forces (When an object is in
translational equilibrium the sum of the forces acting on it is zero.)
Consider the moment about Q
𝑷 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎 × 𝟔 + 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟐  𝟏𝟎𝑷 = 𝟏𝟒
𝟎 = 𝟏𝟒𝑵
𝟏𝟒𝟎  𝑷 =
𝟏𝟎
𝟏𝟔 = 𝟏𝟔𝑵
Also; consider the moment about P
𝑸 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎 × 𝟒 + 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟖  𝟏𝟎𝑸 =
𝟏𝟔𝟎  𝑷 = 𝟎
𝟏𝟎
13. A uniform beam of weight 40 N is 5 m long and is supported by a pivot situated 2
m from one end. When a load of weight W is hung from that end, the beam is in
equilibrium as shown in the diagram. [ANS; 10N]

14. The figure below shows a tray held horizontally by one hand at its edge.
The tray has a weight of 5.0 N. The hand supports the tray with a downward
force F from the thumb and an upward normal reaction force N from the fingers.
These two forces are 5.0 cm apart. A glass of water of weight 2.0 N is
supported by the tray at a distance of 30 cm from the normal reaction N
where the balanced tray is pivoted. Calculate:

c) The magnitude of the reaction force, N. [A; 𝑭𝒖𝒑𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 = 𝑭𝒅𝒐𝒘𝒏𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅  N =27+5+2

b) The magnitude of the force, F provided by the thumb. [ANS; 27N]

=34N]

15. State the condition when on applying a force, a body has:

(a) Translational motion
(b) Rotational motion.
ANS;
(a) Translation motion is produced when a body is free to move.
(b) Rotational motion is produced when the body is fixed at a point.
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 22
 16.State one way to reduce the moment of a given force about a given axis of rotation.
ANS; The moment of force can be reduced by decreasing the perpendicular
distance of force from the axis of rotation.
17. A body is acted upon by two forces each of magnitude F, but in opposite
directions. State the effect of the forces if

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 23
 (a) Both forces act at the same point of the body.
(b) The two forces act at two different points of the body at a separation r.
ANS;
(a) As two forces of same magnitude are acting on a body at the same point and
they are in opposite direction so the resultant force will be zero, ie,.. F – F
=0
(b) When two forces of same magnitude act on a body at two different points at

𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 = 𝑭 × 𝒓 = 𝑭𝒓
a separation r and in opposite direction then the moment of force will be

18. Adam and Baraka carry a wooden log of mass 28 kg and length 10 m which
has almost uniform thickness. They hold it at 1 m and 2 m from the ends

ANS; the reaction (weight) given to each other are; 𝑹𝑨 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑵, 𝑹𝑩 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝑵,
respectively. Who will bear more weight of the log?

Therefore; As 𝑹𝑩 is greater than 𝑹𝑨, it is concluded that Baraka bears more

weight than Adam. That is to say; the one closer to center of mass of the log
bears more weight.

Couple
 Imagine that you want to turn the steering wheel of a car (see fig. below). You can
do it by two hands as one hand pushes up and the other one pulls down the
steering wheel. As a result, the steering wheel rotates. Your hands (ideally)
generated two equal and parallel forces but with opposite directions. This pair
of forces creates a turning effect, referred to as a couple formally defined as
below.

 A couple; Is a pair of equal but opposite parallel forces applied to the same
body but not acting in the same line, OR;
 A pair of forces which are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction and separated by a
perpendicular distance so that their lines of action do not coincide that causes a turning effect
is called a couple.
 Examples of couples are the forces exerted on the head of a screw when
turning it, on a propeller when rotating it and on the lid of a jar when
unscrewing it.

Characteristics of a couple
 Comprises a pair of forces
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 24
  The forces must be equal
 The forces must be parallel
 The forces must act in opposite directions

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 25
Moment (torque) of a couple
 The moment of a couple is the product of the magnitude of one of the
forces and the perpendicular distance between their lines of action
𝒊. 𝒆, , 𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒖𝒑𝒍𝒆 = Force x perpendicular distance between the forces

Class Activity – 4:3

1. Two forces, each of magnitude 25N, act in opposite directions at the opposite ends of
a circular ring. If the diameter of the ring is 65cm, calculate the magnitude of the
couple acting on the ring

ANS; Moment of Couple = 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 × 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆

= 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓𝒎 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟐𝟓𝑵𝒎
2. A couple of 20 Nm is needed to rotate a steering wheel. What would be the
magnitude of each force if the steering wheel’s diameter is 80 cm? [ANS; 25N]
3. It is easier to turn the steering wheel of a large diameter than that of a small
diameter. Give reason.
4. A steering wheel of diameter 0.5 m is rotated anti – clockwise by applying two
forces each of magnitude 5N. Draw a diagram to show the application of forces
and calculate the moment of forces applied. [ANS; Draw, M=2.5Nm].
5. Draw a neat labeled diagram to show the direction of two forces acting on a
body to produce rotation in it. Also mark the point O about which the rotation
takes place.
6. When does a body rotate? State one way to change the direction of rotation of a
body. Give a suitable example to explain your answer
 If a body is pivoted at a point and the force is applied on the body at a suitable
point, it rotates the body about the axis passing through the pivoted point.
 The direction of rotation can be changed by changing the direction of force.

 The figure above demonstrate the anticlockwise and clockwise moments

produced in a disc rotated at its center by moving the point of application of force F

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 26
 from A to B, which is a good example to explain.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 27
Application of Principle of Moments
 Used to unscrew a stopper on the bottle
 Used to unscrew a nut on a bolt
 Used to open a metal cap from a bottle of soda, etc
 Turning a steering wheel of a car
 When the door is opened, the force on the handle exerts a turning effect about the
hinges

Stability and Center of Gravity of body

Stability
 The position of the centre of gravity of an object affects its stability. The lower the
centre of gravity (G) is, the more stable the object. The higher it is, the more
likely the object is to topple over if it is pushed. Racing cars have really low
centres of gravity so that they can corner rapidly without turning over.
 Increasing the area of the base will also increase the stability of an object, the bigger the
area the more stable the object. Rugby players will stand with their feet well
apart if they are standing and expect to be tackled.
 If an object is tilted it will topple over if a vertical line from its centre of gravity
falls outside its base.
 The following diagrams show that the position of the centre of gravity is important in
toppling. The higher the centre of gravity the more likely an object is to topple
over if it is tilted.

 The next set of diagrams in Figure below shows a car tilting at ever increasing
angles until eventually it will topple.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 28
 In Figure (a) the car is flat on the road. In Figure (b) the car is tilted but because
the vertical line through the centre of gravity is inside the case of the car and
so the car falls back to the

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 29
 level again. But in Figure (c) the vertical line from the centre of gravity falls outside
the base and so the car topples over.
 The effect of size of the base is shown by using three stools as shown in Figure below.
The Centres of Gravity of all the stools are the same height above the ground but
because stool (c) has a much smaller base area it topples over if they are all
tilted to the same angle while the other two stools return to a level position.

 The figure below shows when three stools are tilted

 Notice that the centre of gravity is not inside the material of the stool.

Center Of Gravity
 The weight of body is due to the attraction of the earth for its particles.
 This attracting force is the weight of each individual particle. Since the body consists
of many particles then the weight is the resultant of all the parallel forces
acting on the individual particles as shown below.

 For a rigid body, there is one point at which the resultant force appears to act,
this point is known as the center of gravity G of the body.
 Center of Gravity of a body of given mass position depends on its shape,
that is on the distribution of mass. For example; Center of gravity of a uniform
wire is at its midpoint, but if this wire is bent to form a circle, its Center of
gravity will then be at the center of the circle.
 Location of Center of Gravity of some regular shaped objects is shown in the figure below
(i) Uniform rod: The centre of gravity of a uniform rod will be at the middle
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 30
 point of the rod, where the weight of the uniform rod is average

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 31
 (ii) Solid sphere (hollow sphere): Centre of gravity of the sphere is at the
centre of the sphere.
(iii) Circular disc/ring: Centre of gravity of the circular disc is at the centre of the disc.
(iv) Rectangular (Square) lamina: Centre of gravity of the rectangular lamina is
at the point of intersection of two diagonals (AC and BD).
(v) Parallelogram lamina: Centre of gravity of the parallelogram lamina is at the
point of intersection of two diagonals (AC and BD).
(vi) Triangular lamina: Centre of gravity of a triangular lamina is at the
point of intersection of three medians.

 ∴ The center of gravity: Is the point through which the resultant of the weight
of all the particles of the body acts
 OR ; Center of Gravity – Is the point on a body along which all the weight of the
body is likely to act

Difference between centre of gravity and centre of mass

Centre of gravity Centre of mass
Is the point at which the whole weight of Is the point at which the whole mass
the of the
body is likely to act body is assumed to be concentrated
Weight distribution of the body The mass distribution around the
around centre of gravity is uniform centre of mass is uniform
It changes with the change in the force It remains unchanged with the change
of gravity in the gravitational field
Class Activity – 4:4
1. Explain how the position of the center of gravity of a body determines whether it
is stable or unstable equilibrium. Illustrate your answer by diagrams
2. When does a body rotate? State one way to change the direction of rotation of a
body. Give a suitable example to explain your answer
3. Explain how will you increase the stability of a body
4. Can the centre of gravity of a body be situated outside its material of the
body? Give an example.
ANS; Yes, the centre of gravity can be outside the material of the body.
In the case of a uniform ring the centre of gravity is in the centre of the ring and
that point is outside the material of the ring.
5. State the factor on which center of gravity of a body depends. Explain your
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 32
 answer with example

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 33
 6. A person carrying a bucket of water normally leans on the opposite side. Why?
7. A square card board is suspended by passing a pin through a narrow hole at its
one corner. Draw a diagram to show its rest position. In the diagram mark the
point of suspension by the letter S and centre of gravity by the letter G.
8. Using your knowledge of the centre of mass, explain why would a forklift
truck be better carrying its load close to the ground, rather than higher up in
the air.
ANS; As the mass of the load is lowered towards the ground, the centre of mass of
the load and the truck moves towards the ground. This improves the stability
of the load and forklift truck.

Equilibrium
 Is a state achieved by a body when all the forces which act upon it are balanced
 OR Is the state of a body to balance

NB: The force which brings a body into mechanical equilibrium is called “Equilibrant”
Conditions for a body to be in equilibrium
 The net force on the object must be zero
 The system (body) must have an acceleration of 0 m/s2
OR (also you can state in this way)
 The sum of the forces in one direction must be equal to the sum of the forces in
the opposite direction
 The Sum of clockwise moment should be equal to the sum of anticlockwise moment

Conditions for equilibrium depends on three factors

 Magnitude
 Direction of forces
 Point of application

Types of Equilibrium
 Stable equilibrium
 Unstable equilibrium
 Neutral equilibrium

Stable Equilibrium
 This occurs when a body is slight displaced and then it returns to its original
position after displacement
 A body is said to be in stable equilibrium, if the line joining the centre of
gravity and the centre of earth must fall within the base of the body, after being
lightly disturbed by it.
 Examples are
(i) A ball in the valley between two hills. A small displacement of the ball toward
either side will result in a force returning the ball to the original position. Thus
the equilibrium is stable
(ii) A book lying on a horizontal surface is an example of stable equilibrium.
If the book is lifted from one edge and then allowed to fall, it will come back

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 34
 to its original position
(iii) A cone with a flat surface on the horizontal floor. If the cone is tilted
slightly, it comes back to its normal position

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 35
  From the figure, it is clear that the line joining the centre of gravity and the
centre of earth falls within the base of the body, even after being lightly
disturbed by it. So the cone is in stable equilibrium.

Unstable Equilibrium
 A body is said to be in unstable equilibrium if it does not regains its original
position after being slightly disturbed by an external force.
 Here the line joining the centre of gravity and the centre of earth falls outside its
base, after being lightly disturbed by an external force.
 Examples are;
(i) Pencil standing on its point or a stick in vertically standing position.
(ii) Thin rod standing vertically is slightly disturbed from its position it will not
come back to its original position.
(iii) A ball at the top of a rounded hill. A small displacement of the ball results
in a force that moves the ball away from the equilibrium point so that
equilibrium cannot be maintained.
(iv) A cone resting on its apex.
(v) A bottle standing on the edge of its mouth.

 From the figure above, the base of the body is small and the top portion is heavier
as it raises the height of the centre of gravity from its base.

Neutral Equilibrium
 A body is said to be in neutral equilibrium when it moves to a new place on the
application of an external force and on the removal of the external force the
body may or may not come back to its original place.
 Examples are;

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 36
 (i) A rolling ball. If a ball is pushed slightly to roll, it will neither come back to
its original nor it will roll forward rather it will remain at rest.
(ii) A cone resting on its side.

 In neutral equilibrium the line joining the centre of gravity and the centre of earth
falls within the base of the body on the application of an external force.
 The height of its centre of gravity does not change even after the application of
an external force.

Application of Equilibrium
 Vehicles used in a car race have tyres wide apart to increase stability
 Cambered wheels: The wheels of a car are slightly tilted to increase
stability. That is why when a car is tilted to the side, it only skids
 Used in designing of structures like bridges, Aeroplane, furniture, machines, car
boats, ships etc
 Our bodies muscles are always kind of equilibrium that is why we can walk,
seat, eat, run, squat, jump etc
 Tall structures such as buildings and pylon, they have wide base and low
centre of gravity hence provide stability
 Bus (car) with seated passengers and loading the lower compartments is more stable
than one with standing passengers and loaded at the top
 Ships have long and wide projecting plates extending from their bases into
the water to increase stability
 Beam balance - used for measuring masses of different objects by comparison
with known masses.
 Steel yard - is a machine used for weighing heavy objects. It uses the principle of
moments by balancing heavy objects with lighter objects on longer arm.
 Seesaw – is a long plank balanced at the fulcrum so that an increase in weight in
one side causes it to go down while the other side goes up

Self Assessment – 4
1. A spanner of length 40 cm is used to tighten a bolt. A force of 400 N is used.
Calculate the moment of the force ( ANS: 160 NM)
2. Abuu has a mass of 60 kg and he is sitting on a see – saw at a distance of 2.5
m from the pivot .Calculate the moment due to his weight
3. If a 100g weight is used to balance the weight determine the distance of the
300g weight from the point. ( ANS: x = 15 cm)

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 37
 4. A heavy uniform beam AB of weight 500 N is supported at its ends. The beam
carries a weight of 3000 N at a distance of 1.5m from the end A. if the beam
is 4m long. Find the thrust (tension) / reaction at A and B (ANS: 1375 N, 2125
N)
5. Explain what is meant by stable, unstable and neutral equilibrium. Give one
example of each
6. Explain what is meant by
(i) Moment of a force about a point (iii) Equilibrium
(ii)Centre of gravity of a body (iv) Equilibrant
7. A metallic rod of 2 m long has a mass of 500 g. The rod is balanced on a wedge
when a 50 g solid is hung 40 cm from one of its ends. The wedge is 85 cm
from the same end
a) Sketch a diagram of the arrangement
b) How far is the wedge from the centre of the metallic rod?
8. The diagram below shows a 150g rod balanced at its centre of gravity. A
20g mass is placed 120cm from the pivoted point
a. Find the value of x (ANS: 48 cm)
b. What upward force does the pivot exert on the rod? (ANS: 0.7 N)

9. A metre rule is pivoted at its mid – point. If two objects of weight 1.0 N
and 2.0N are suspended at 30 cm and 90 cm respectively from one
end ,calculate the position where an upward force of 3.0 N must be applied in
order for the metre rule to balance horizontally (ANS: 20 cm from pivot or 70
cm mark)
10. A pole AB of length 10.0 m and weight 800 N has its centre of gravity 4.0
m from the end A and lies on a horizontal ground. The end B is to be lifted by
a vertical force applied at B. Calculate the least force that is required to do
this
11. Does an object have to be at rest to be in a state of equilibrium? Explain your
answer
12. A tree trunk of length 44 m is pivoted 12 m from one of its ends. It is
balanced when a 1500 N solid is hung 8 m from the pivot. Calculate the
weight of the tree trunk ( W = 1200 N )
13. It is found that a uniform wooden lath 100 cm long and of mass 95 g can
be balanced on a knife – edge when a 5 g mass is hung 10 cm from one
end .How far is knife – edge from the centre of the lath? ( ANS: 2 cm )
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 38
 14. A uniform wooden beam of length 2m and weight 34N rests on two
supports A and B placed at 40cm from either end of the beam. Two weights of
40N and 50N are suspended at the end of the beam.
(i) Draw a diagram to show the forces acting on the beam.
(ii) Calculate the reactions at the supports.
ANS;

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 39
 (i) See the figure below

Sum of upward forces = sum of downward forces  𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟒𝟎 + 𝟑𝟒 + 𝟓𝟎

(ii) S

𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐𝟒𝑵 − − − −(𝒊)
Also; The sum of clockwise moments = sum of anti clockwise moments

𝑹𝟏 × 𝟏. 𝟐 + 𝟓𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟒 = 𝟑𝟒 × 𝟎. 𝟔 + 𝟒𝟎 × 𝟏. 𝟔 
Then, Consider the moment about R2

𝟏. 𝟐𝑹𝟏 + 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟖𝟒. 𝟒  𝟏. 𝟐𝑹𝟏 = 𝟖𝟒. 𝟒 − 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟔𝟒. 𝟒

𝟏. 𝟐𝑹𝟏 = 𝟔𝟒. 𝟒  = = 𝟓𝟑. 𝟕𝑵
𝟔𝟒.𝟒
𝟏.𝟐
𝑹𝟏
15. State the conditions of equilibrium when a body is acted upon by a
number of parallel forces. A uniform metal tube of length 5 m and mass 9 kg is
suspended horizontally by two vertical wires attached at 50 cm and 150 cm
respectively from the ends of the tube. Find the tension in each wire ( ANS:
30 N, 60 N)
16. A uniform metre rule is pivoted at the centre is balanced by four
suspended forces as shown in the figure below. Calculate the force exerted
in the 60 cm mark ( ANS: 60 N )

17. Mention the four properties (features) of a couple

18. Two parallel and opposite forces acted on the handle of a bicycle. Each of
the forces had a magnitude of 45 N. The distance between them was 50
cm .What is the torque produced?
19. A uniform wooden bar AB of length 120 cm
weighing 1.2 N rest on two sharp edged supports C and D placed 10 cm
from its either ends .A 0.2 N load hangs from a loop of a string 30 cm from A
and a 0.9 N load hangs at 40 cm from B. Find the:
(i) Reaction at C
(ii) Reaction at D
20. A uniform metre rule of weight 0.9 N is suspended horizontally by two

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 40
 vertical loops of thread A and B placed at 20 cm and 30 cm from its ends
respectively. Find the distances from the centre of the rule at which a 2 N
weight must be suspended
(a) To make loop A become slack (ANS: 29 cm)
(b) To make
loop B slack (ANS: 43.5 cm)
ANS;
Consider the free body diagrams below;

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 41
Explanation:
(a) When loop A is slack, there are three forces acting on the metre rule.
0.9 N at 50 cm
mark T at 70 cm
mark
2 N at x
Consider the moment about B:
𝟎. 𝟗 × 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟐 × 𝒙 → 𝟐𝒙 = 𝟏𝟖 𝟏
→𝒙= 𝟖 = 𝟗 𝒄𝒎
𝟐
Therefore; the distance from the center 𝒊𝒔 𝟗 𝒄𝒎 + 𝟐𝟎 𝒄𝒎 = 𝟐𝟗 𝒄𝒎
(b) When loop B is slack, there are three forces acting on the metre rule.
0.9 N at 50 cm
mark T at 20 cm
mark
2 N at x
Consider the moment about A:
𝟎. 𝟗 × 𝟑𝟎 = 𝟐 × 𝒙 → 𝟐𝒙 = 𝟐𝟕 𝟐
→𝒙= 𝟕 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟓 𝒄𝒎
𝟐
Therefore; the distance from the center 𝒊𝒔 𝟏𝟑. 𝟓 𝒄𝒎 + 𝟑𝟎 𝒄𝒎 = 𝟒𝟑. 𝟓 𝒄𝒎
21. A uniform bar AB of height 5m weights 60N. The bar is supported at a
horizontal position by two vertical strings X and Y. If string X is 0.6m from A
and string Y is 1.8m from B. Find the tension in the string. (AN: 16.5 N)

22. A uniform half metre rule is freely pivoted at the 15 cm mark and it
balances horizontally when a body of mass 40 g is hung from the 2 cm mark.
a) Draw a clear force – diagram of the arrangement
b) Calculate the mass of the rule
23. Explain the following:-
a) Why a loaded test tube floats upright?
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 42
 b) It is more difficult to balance a nail on its tip than on its base
c) A bus carrying a very big load on its carrier can easily overturn
24. A metre rule of weight 1.0 N is supported horizontally on two knife edges
each placed 10.0 cm from its ends. If the weight of 1.5 N is placed at its mid–
point, calculate the reaction at the supports.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 43
 25. A simple weighing machine is made of a uniform bar 125 cm long
and mass 5 kg and pivoted 2.5 cm from one end .Find the mass that must be
suspended at the end of the long arm so as to balance a mass of 320 kg
suspended at the end of the short arm. (ANS: m = 4.08 kg)
26. A 2.0 N weight placed on a 10 cm mark of a meter rule just balances
an object hanging from the 60 cm mark. Calculate the weight of the object.
(ANS: W =8N)
27. How can a metre rule be balanced on a knife edge?
28. Briefly explain why the handle of a door is near its outside edge?
29. Two spheres of mass 3.0 kg and 2.0kg are joined by a light rod so that their
centers are
0.45 m apart. Locate the center of gravity of the system.
30. Define centre of gravity. Hence outline the main difference between
the centre of gravity and centre of mass.
31. List the factors that affect the stability of a body
32. Explain why racing cars should have wide wheel tracks.
33. Define turning effect of force and give its SI unit
34. Why should a mechanic choose a long spanner to undo a tight nut?
35. A uniform half meter rule is pivoted at its 30 cm mark. A mass of 50 g
hung at the 45 cm mark keeps the rule horizontal. Determine the mass of the
half meter rule.
36. Force applied by a lady is 2 N and moment of force is 16 Nm, distance
of pivot from effort would be --------------
37. (a) What is meant by balanced beam?
(b) A uniform rod AB of mass 6.0 g is balanced horizontally about a knife
edge at a distance of 3 cm from end A where a mass of 8.0g is hanging. Find
the length of the rod (ANS: L= 14 cm)
38. Moment of force applied on a door is 15 Nm and force applied is 3.75
N, distance of the handle from the pivot is -------------
39. Door hinge is about 1.5 m away from handle, and a boy applies a force of 4
N. What will be the moment of force applied?
40. Bilqees has a weight of 300 N and sits 2.0 m from the pivot of see – saw.
Asia has a weight of 450 N and sits 1.5 m from pivot. Who will move down
41. A uniform meter rule of weight 16 N is pivoted at the 60 cm mark.
A 4.0 N weight is suspended from one end .At the instant when the rule is
horizontal, what is the value of the resultant turning moment about the pivot.
42. A 2.0 N weight placed on the 10 cm mark of a meter rule just balances
an object hanging from the 60 cm mark. Calculate the weight of the object.
(w= 8 N)
43. Study the diagram below and determine the value of X and hence the
length of the bar.
(ANS: X =35 cm, L = 115 cm)

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 44
 Chapter: 2
Motion in a Straight Line
Motion:
 When an object moves from one place or point to another place or point, it is
said that the object is in motion. For example falling of leaves from a tree,
blowing of air, running of a dog, running of a boy, flying of a bee, running of
a vehicle, etc.
 In the universe everything is moving whether it is a star or a meteor. Our earth
is moving around the sun, the moon is moving around the earth, and even the
sun is moving in the galaxy.
 Therefore; Motion is the process of continuously changing in position of an
object with time from one place to another.
 If an object does not change its position with time, with respect to its surrounding,
then it is said to be at Rest.
 The motion of an object along a straight line is known as Rectilinear Motion. For
example; motion of a cyclist along a straight road, motion of a train on track,
freely falling body under gravity etc.
Terms used to describe Motion
 Distance and displacement
 Speed and velocity
 Acceleration and
Retardation Distance and
displacement Distance
 The distance that an object travels is the length of the path that the object takes
from the
starting point of its motion to the endpoint of its motion.
 Distance is represented by letter s
 The distance is a scalar quantity.
 The SI unit of distance is Metre (m). Other units are Centimeter (cm), and Kilometer (km)
 The figure below shows the distance between two points(AB)

Displacement
o Is the distance moved by an object in a specific direction.
o It is a vector quantity.
o The SI unit of displacement is metre (m). Other units are centimeter (cm), and kilometer
(km)
o The diagram below shows the distance in a particular direction between the two pints.

NB;
 Although the distance traveled by an object and its displacement can be measured
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 45
 using the same units, such as kilometres or metres, the displacement must
always have its direction specified too.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 46
  Furthermore, distances are always positive, while displacements involving
motion in a straight line (one-dimensional motion) can be positive or negative.
Worked examples
1. Halima runs twice round a field track of length 500m.
(a) What distance does she covers?
(b) What is her displacement from the starting point?

Total distance covered = 𝟓𝟎𝟎 + 𝟓𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒎

ANS;
(a)
(b) Total displacement = direct distance from initial position to final position = 0m
2. John travels 250 km to North but then back-tracks to South for 105 km to pick up a
friend.
(a) What is John’s total distance?

(c)Total distance travelled by John = 𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝒎 + 𝟏𝟎𝟓𝒌𝒎 = 𝟑𝟓𝟓𝒌𝒎

(b) What is John’s total displacement?

(d) Total displacement = 𝟐𝟓𝟎 – 𝟏𝟎𝟓 = 𝟏𝟒𝟓 𝒌𝒎

3. An object moves along the grid through points A, B, C, D, E, and F as shown below.
The side of square tiles measures 0.5 km.

(a) Calculate the distance covered by the moving object.

(b) Find the magnitude of the displacement of the object.

a) Total distance covered = 𝑨𝑩 + 𝑩𝑪 + 𝑪𝑫 + 𝑫𝑬 + 𝑬𝑭

ANS;

𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝟔 + 𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝟑 + 𝟎. 𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟓 = 𝟔. 𝟓𝒌𝒎
b) Magnitude of displacement of the object = distance between Initial point A to final
point F
Then; the distance AF can be calculated by applying Pythagoras’s theorem to the
triangle AHF as shown in the figure below

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 47
 𝑨̅̅𝑭̅̅𝟐 = 𝑨̅̅𝑯̅̅̅ + 𝑯̅̅𝑭̅̅ 𝑨̅̅𝑭̅̅𝟐 = (𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝟒)𝟐 + (𝟎. 𝟓 = 𝟔.
𝟐 𝟐

× 𝟑)𝟐 𝟐𝟓
𝑨̅̅𝑭̅̅ = √𝟔. 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟐.


𝟓𝒌𝒎

Differences between Distance and Displacement

Distance Displacement
The complete length of the path It is the shortest distance between the
between final
any two points is called distance. and initial position of the object’s
motion.
Distance is a scalar quantity as it Displacement is a vector quantity
only depends upon the magnitude as it depends upon both
and not the direction. magnitude and direction.
Example; 10km Example; 10 km North
Distance can only have positive values. Displacement can be positive,
negative and even zero.
The distance travelled by the body Displacement can never be greater
can be more than or equal to than the distance travelled by the
displacement. body.

Although they have many differences, they also have a few similarities. The following are
the most common similarities.
 Both distance and displacement have the same SI unit, the meter (m).
 Both require a reference point from which they can measure.
 They are equal if the body moves in a straight line and would be even better if
they move only in one direction.
 The dimensions of both are the same.
Class Activity – 6:1
1. A car moves 8km due South and then suddenly changes its direction and
moves another 6km due west.
Determine;
(c) The total distance covered [ANS; 14 km]
(d) The displacement of the car[ANS; 10km]
2. What are the differences and similarities between displacement and distance
3. The displacement of an object for a round trip between two locations
A. Is always greater than zero. B. Is always less than zero
C. Is zero D. Is not zero E. Can have any value
Speed and Velocity
Speed
 Speed –Is the distance moved per unit time.
 OR Is the rate of change of distance.
 The speed is represented by letter v.
 It is a scalar quantity.

𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆

=
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 𝒔
Speed (v) =

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 48
𝒕

 The SI unit of speed is Meter per Second (m/s). Other unit used is kilometer per hour
(km/h)

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 49
Velocity
 Velocity – Is the rate of change of displacement

𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒔
 It is a vector quantity.
=
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 𝒕
 Velocity (v) =

 The SI unit of velocity is Meter per Second (m/s). Other units used is kilometer per hour
(km/h)
NB: 10 m/s = 36 km/h
NB:
 Initial velocity is the velocity of the body at the starting point of observation.
𝒖+𝒗
 Average velocity is the mean of initial and final velocities. → Va =
 Final velocity is the velocity of the body at the ending point of observation.

𝟐
 OR – Average velocity is the ratio of the total displacement to the total time.
𝒔
Average velocity, =𝒕
𝑽𝑨
 Uniform velocity – is the type of velocity in which the rate of change of displacement with
time is constant.
 Instantaneous velocity is the velocity of the body at an instant of time.
Worked Examples;
1. An object travelled 20 m to the right in 4 s and then 12 m to the left in 3s, for
its total motion. What was its average speed & its average velocity.
Data given
 Total distance traveled, s = 20 m + 12 m
= 32 m Total time, t = 4s + 3 s = 7 s

𝑨𝒗𝒆. 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 = = = 𝟒. 𝟓𝟕 𝒎/𝒔

𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝟑𝟐
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝟕
 When the object is moving to right its displacement is positive and when to
the left its displacement is negative
Total displacement (s) = 20 + -12 m = 8 m

𝑨𝒗𝒆. 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 = = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟒 𝒎/𝒔

𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 =
𝟖
𝟕
2. A truck travels a distance from A to B at a speed of 40km/h and returns to A at a speed
of 50 km/h, calculate the average velocity of the whole journey:
ANS;
From;
 Since the truck has returned to its original position, the total displacement = 0m

𝒙+(−𝒙)
 Therefore; 𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 = = 𝟎𝒌𝒎/h
 Time taken, T = 2t

=
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚, 𝒗𝒂
𝟐𝒕
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏

Differences between Speed and Velocity

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 50
 Speed Velocity
It is the rate of change of distance It is the rate of change of distance moved
in a specified direction
It is a scalar quantity. The speed It is a vector quantity. The velocity tells
does not tell us the direction of us the speed as well as the direction of
motion. motion
The speed is always positive The velocity can be positive or
since direction is not taken into negative depending upon the
consideration. direction of
motion.
Example; 100km/s Example 100km/s East
After one round in a circular path, After completing each round in a
the average speed is not zero. circular path, the average velocity is zero.

Class Activity – 6:2

1. A ball is dropped from a height of 20m above the ground. It hits the
ground in 2s and bounces back up to a height of 12.7m in 1.6s .What
are its average velocity (ANS: 2.03 m/s)
2. A 100m runner finishes the race in 10s. What is her average speed? (ANS: 10 m/s)
3. A body covers a distance of 480 m in 6sec. Calculate its speed.(ANS: 80 m/s)
4. Give an example of motion in which average speed is not zero, but average
velocity is zero.
5. The speed of a car is 72 km/h. Express it in m/s. [ANS; 20m/s]
6. An object starts from rest and takes 2hours to cover a distance of 160 km. How
fast is the object moving? [ANS; 80km/h]
7. A train takes 2h to reach station B from station A, and then 3h to return from
station B to station A. The distance between the two stations is 200 km.

[ANS; 𝒗 = = =
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝟐𝟎𝟎+𝟐𝟎𝟎
Find;

𝟖𝟎𝒌𝒎/h]
(i) The average speed

𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝟐+𝟑
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
(ii) The average velocity of the train
[ANS; 𝒗 = =
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
= =
𝟐𝟎𝟎−𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟎 /h]
𝟎𝒌𝒎
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝟐+𝟑 𝟓
8. A car moving on a straight path covers a distance of 1 km due east in 100 s.
What is
(i) The speed and [ANS; 10m/s]
(ii) The velocity of car ? [ANS; 10m/s due East]
NB;
 A body is said to be in a uniform motion if it travels in a straight line
covering equal distances in equal intervals of time. Here, the rate of change of
its velocity remains constant.
 A body is said to have a non-uniform motion if its velocity changes by unequal
amounts in equal intervals of time. Here, the rate of change of its velocity
changes at different points in time.
Acceleration and Retardation
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 51
Acceleration
 Acceleration – Is the rate of change of velocity.
 It is denoted by small letter “a”

𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = =
𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚−𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒗−𝒖
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕

𝒗−𝒖
∴ 𝒂=
𝒕

 Its SI unit is metre per second square (m/s2)

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 52
  Uniform acceleration is the type of acceleration in which the rate of change of
velocity is CONSTANT. (that is; Uniform acceleration occurs when an object
undergoes equal changes in velocity at equal time intervals)
 When the change in the velocity of a body in equal interval of time is not
constant, then the acceleration is called non-uniform acceleration (Variable
acceleration).
 Average acceleration. It is the change in the velocity divided by the time-
interval during which the change occurs.
𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝟐 − 𝒗𝟏
𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝒕𝟐 − 𝒕𝟏
 Where, 𝒗𝟐 is velocity at time 𝒕𝟐 and 𝒗𝟏 is velocity at time 𝒕𝟏.

Retardation (Deceleration)
 Is the rate of decreasing of velocity.
 It is referred as negative acceleration.
 Uniform retardation is the one in which the rate of decreasing of velocity does not change
NB:
 When a body starts moving from rest its initial velocity become zero, u = 0m/s2
 When a body is brought to rest by the application of brakes its final velocity, v = 0m/s2
 When a velocity of a moving object increases its acceleration become positive
 When the velocity of a moving object decreases its acceleration become negative
 When a body is moving with a uniform velocity its acceleration becomes zero, a = 0
m/s2
Worked Examples
1. An object is moving at 15 m/s to the right after 8 sec later it is moving at 5 m/s
to the left, what was the acceleration of the object?
Solution
Initial velocity, u = +15
m/s Final velocity, v = -
5 m/s Time taken, t =
8s Acceleration, a =?
∴
𝒖 𝒂 =
𝒗–
=
𝟏𝟓
−𝟓 –
=
𝟐𝟎 − = −𝟐. 𝟓 𝒎/𝒔 2

𝒕 𝟖

2. A car is moving with a velocity 20 m/s. The brakes are applied to retard it at a
rate of 2 m/s2. What will be the velocity after 5s of applying the brakes?
Solution
Initial velocity, u = 20 m/s, Final
velocity, v =? Time taken, t = 5s

𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎; 𝒂 =  𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 = 𝟐𝟎 − 𝟓 × 𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒎/s
Retardation, a = –2m/s2
𝒗–𝒖

Acceleration Retardation
If the velocity of a body increases with If the velocity of a body decreases with
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 53
 time, it is called acceleration. time, it is called retardation.
As it is increase in velocity per second As it is decrease in velocity per
so it second so
is positive acceleration. retardation is negative acceleration.

Class Activity – 6:3

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 54
 1. A car brakes and slows down from 20 m/s to 5 m/s in 3 sec. find its
acceleration
(ANS: a = - 5 m/s2 )
2. A car is moving in a straight line with speed 18 km/h. It is stopped in 5s by
applying the brakes. Find;

[ANS; −𝟏𝒎/s2]
(i) The speed of car in m/s, [ANS; 5m/s]
(ii) The retardation and
(iii) The speed of car after 2s of applying the brakes. [ANS; 3m/s]
3. Starting from rest, a sports car accelerate to a velocity of 96 km/h in 16
sec. find its acceleration (ANS: a = 1.67 m/s2)
4. A car travels at 10 m/s and increase its velocity to 30 m/s in 10 sec. find
acceleration of the car (ANS: a = 2 m/s2)
5. A car travels at 45 m/s and decreases its velocity uniformly to 20 m/s in
5 sec. find acceleration (ANS: a = -5 m/s2)
6. A car with a velocity of 90km/h under uniform retardation and brought to
rest after 10s. Calculate its acceleration (ANS: a = -2.5m/s2)
7. A body starts from rest and acquires a velocity 10 m/s in 2s. Find its acceleration.
[ANS: 5m/s2]
8. A car starting from rest acquires a velocity of 180 m/s in 0.05 h. Find the acceleration.
ANS; 1m/s2
9. An object moves with constant speed in a straight line. Which of the following
statements must be true?
(a) No force acts on the object.
(b) A single constant force acts on the object in the direction of motion.
(c) The net force acting on the object depends on the value of the speed.
(d) The net force acting on the object is zero.
(e) The net force acting on the object cannot be determined.
10. A body is moving vertically upwards. Its velocity changes at a constant
rate from 50 ms- 1 to 20 ms-1 in 3 s. What is its acceleration? [ANS; –10m/s]
11. Bus X travels a distance of 360km in 5 hours whereas bus Y travels a
distance of 476km in 7 hours. Which bus is faster?
12. In a race, cars travelled 200 times a around a field track with a length of 1km.
(a) At the end of the race, what is the distance travelled by the winner? [ANS;
200km]
(b) What is the winner’s
displacement? [ANS; 0km]
(c)If the winner completed the race in 3hours, what is his/her average speed
[A; 66.67km/h]
(d) What is his/her average velocity? [ANS; 0km/h]

Determination of velocity and acceleration of a body using a ticker Tape Time

 The ticker timer is simply a piece of apparatus that we use to measure time.
When you work out the speed of an object you need to know how far it goes in
a certain time.
 A ticker tape timer consists of an electrical vibrator which vibrates 50 times per second.
 This enables it to make 50 dots per second on a ticker-tape being pulled through it.
 The time interval between two adjacent dots on the ticker-tape is called one
tick. One tick is equal to 1/50 s or 0.02 s. The distance between two adjacent dots
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 55
 on a ticker-tape represents the displacement of the object in a tick
 We have to count the number of SPACES and not the number of dots
themselves to measure the time taken. The first dot at the direction of
movement is the starting dot.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 56
  If the object moves quickly, the dots are far apart. If the object moves slowly, the dots
are close to each other. And if the tape is pulled through at a steady speed the dots
remain the same distance apart.

 Now let us assume, we give the trolley in figure above a push down the plane.
This will give us a tape of the trolley’s motion similar to the tape in the
diagram below:
 A paper tape is driven through a ticker timer connected to a mains supply of known
frequency
e.g 50Hz by a trolley running freely on an inclined plane as shown above.
 After the trolley has reached the end of the run way, the tape is removed and
marked every after 5dots.The first mark made is the zero time.

𝒕 = 𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 × 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅𝒊𝒄 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 

 The time t between n spaces is calculated from;

=
𝒏
𝒕 = 𝒏𝑻 = 𝒏 𝒇

×
𝟏

𝒇
 The speed or velocity at different intervals is determined by measuring the distance 𝒅𝟏
𝒅
𝒅 covered in those times , thus= 𝟏 and 𝒗
𝒗
and

=𝟐
𝒅𝟐
𝟐 𝒕
𝟏 𝒕𝟐
𝟏
𝒗𝟐−
𝒂= , whereby; 𝒕 = total time taken to cover the distance d1 and d2
 The acceleration of the body is therefore determined as follow;
𝒕 𝟑
𝟑−𝒕𝟏

Worked examples;
1. Below is a tape printed by ticker- tape timer vibrating at 100Hz. Find the time
taken to print these dots.

×
𝟏

From; 𝒕 = 𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 × 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅𝒊𝒄 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 

ANS;
𝒇

𝒕 = 𝒏𝑻 = 𝒏
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 57
 =𝒇
𝒏

𝒕 = 𝒏𝑻 = 𝒏 × = = 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝒔
𝟏 𝒏

×
𝟏

𝒇 𝒇 𝟏𝟎𝟎

2. You are given the ticker tape in the diagram below. If the ticker timer had a
frequency of 4Hz find the acceleration of the tape.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 58
 Given; 𝒇 = 𝟒𝑯𝒛, 𝒔 = 𝟐𝟎𝒎𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝒎
ANS;

The big, fat first mark shows that the tape started from rest, 𝒊. 𝒆, 𝒖 =
NB;

𝟎𝒎/s From; 𝒕 = 𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 × 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅𝒊𝒄 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 

𝒕 = 𝒏𝑻 = 𝒏= 𝒇
𝒏

×
𝟏
𝒇
Therefore total time taken between A and E, 𝒕 = 𝒏𝑻 = = 𝟏𝒔
𝒏 𝟒

=𝒏× =
𝟏 𝟒
𝒇 𝒇
From; 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 → 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 = 𝟎 × 𝟐× 𝒂 × → 𝒂 = 𝟎. m/s2
𝟏 𝟏

+ 𝒂𝒕𝟐 𝟏+ 𝟏 𝟎𝟒
𝟐 𝟐
3. A ticker – tape is moved through a ticker timer for 5 seconds. If the timer is operating at
25Hz
(a) How many dots would have been printed on the tape? [A:125 dots]
(b) What kind of motion does the tape represents.
ANS: the tape represents linear motion
4. A ticker tape timer makes 40 dots in 1 second. The results of an experiment to find the
average speed of a toy car is shown below

What is the average speed of the toy car?

Answer: total time = x 10 = 0.25 s, speed = = 2.4 m/s
1 0.6
40 0.25
5. Diagram below shows a strip of ticker tape that was pulled through a ticker
tape timer that vibrated at 50 times a second.

What is the
(a) Time taken from the first dot to the last dot?
(b) Average velocity of the object that is represented by the ticker tape?
[AN: (a) t =15x0.02=0.3s, (b) v = d/t =15/0.3 =50cm/s]

Class Activity – 6:4

1. The distance between the 15th dot and 18th dot is 10cm. If the ticker timer is

= 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝒔]
vibrating at 20Hz. Calculate the
𝟑
[ANS; 𝒕 =
(a) Time
𝒏
taken,
𝒇

𝒗 =𝒕Average
𝒅 𝟎.𝟏
= 𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝒎/s]
𝟎.𝟏𝟓
(b) speed; [ANS;
=

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 59
2. The tape shown in the diagram below was made by a trolley moving with
a constant acceleration. If the frequency of the ticker – timer is 100Hz, find the

acceleration in m/s2
ANS: 𝒂 = 𝟐𝟎𝒎/s

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 60
Position – time graphs
Displacement, velocity and acceleration can be represented on a graph.
Distance (displacement) time graphs
 A distance – time graph is a graphical representation of how far a body has

between distance and time, where distance is plotted on the 𝒚 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 and
traveled in a specified amount of time. It is used to depict the relationship

time is plotted on the 𝒙 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔.

 See the figure below;

 The graphs below show the distance (displacement) – time graphs for various
types of body motion.

The following are the points concluded from the distance-time graphs above.
 When a body is at rest, then the graph is parallel to the axis where time is plotted.
 When the motion of a body is uniform, then the distance-time graph is a straight line.
 The slope of the distance-time graph is equal to the speed of the body.
 The slope of the straight-line graph is constant regardless of the chosen interval.
This implies that an object moving uniformly will always move at the same
speed.
 The speed increases as the graph become steeper.
 A negative gradient or slope means the body is returning to the starting point.
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 61
 Velocity – Time Graph

time graph. In the graph, time is represented along the 𝒙 − axis and the
 The variation in velocity of an object with time can be represented by velocity –

𝒚 −axis. If the object moves at uniform velocity, a straight line parallel to 𝒙

velocity is represented along the

−axis is obtained.
 Consider the graph shows the velocity – time graph for a car moving with
uniform velocity of 40 m/s.

 We know that the product of velocity and time gives displacement of an object
moving with uniform velocity.

 So the distance (displacement) 𝒔 covered by the car in a time interval of 𝒕 can

 The area under the velocity – time graph is equal to the magnitude of the displacement.

be expressed as 𝒔 = 𝑨𝑪 × 𝑪𝑫 = 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆

𝑨𝑩𝑪𝑫 (shaded region)

 Consider a body starts moving from rest and accelerates uniformly to a velocity, 𝒗 after
NB;

𝒕𝟏. It then moves with this velocity for time, 𝒕𝟐 and then comes to stop after another time, 𝒕𝟑.
time,

 The above information can be represented on the velocity time graph as shown.

Deduction from velocity time graph

(i) If the shape of the graph can be broken into simple geometric shapes, the total
area under the line can be calculated by adding the areas of those shapes.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 62
 (ii)The area under a speed-time graph is the distance. Speed cannot be negative,

(iii) The area under a velocity-time graph = Total displacement travelled by a body.
and neither can the distance. This is because speed and distance are scalars.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 63
 be negative. An area beneath the 𝒙 −axis has a negative value. An area above the 𝒙
Velocity can be negative if an object is moving backwards. The displacement can also

−axis has a positive value. Be careful when calculating the total displacement, when
summing the displacements remember to include the + and − signs of the
displacements
(iv) The slope of the velocity time graph represents acceleration whereby the negative slope is
the Retardation (deceleration)
The graphs below show the velocity – time graphs for various types of body motion.
(a) A body moving with uniform retardation.
(b) A body moving with variable velocity
(c) A body moving with uniform velocity
(d) A body moving with uniform acceleration

(e) A body moving with variable acceleration

(f) A body fall freely
(g) A body projected vertically upwards

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 64
Worked Examples
1. A car travel with uniform velocity of 30m/s for 5 second and then comes to rest 10
second with uniform deceleration.
i) Draw a velocity-time graph of the motion.
ii) Find the total distance travelled.
iii) Find the average velocity.
Solution:
(i) velocity-time graph of the motion

𝑺 = (𝟑𝟎 × 𝟓) +× 𝟑𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 + 𝟏𝟓𝟎 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝒎

𝟏
(ii) Total distance travelled, s = Area under the graph = Area of fig. A + Area of fig.B
𝟐
(iii) From velocity time graph
Total distance, s =

= = 𝟐𝟎 𝒎/𝒔
𝟑𝟎𝟎
300 m Total time

∴ Average velocity = =
taken, t = 15 s
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒔 𝟏𝟓
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒕

𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏

2. (a) A body at rest is given an initial uniform acceleration of 8.0 m/s 2 for 30s
after which the acceleration is reduced to 5.0 m/s2 for the next 20s. The body
maintains the speed attained for 60s after which is brought to rest in 20s. Draw
the velocity – time graph of the motion using the information given above.
(b) Using the graph, calculate the;
(i) Maximum speed attained during the motion

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 65
 (ii) Average retardation after the body being brought to rest
(iii) Total distance travelled during the first 50s

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 66
 (iv) Average speed during the same interval as in (iii)
ANS;

𝒗 = 𝒖 + = 𝟎 + 𝟖 × 𝟑𝟎 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝒎/s
(a) First find the velocity of a body attained in 30s
Then find the velocity when the body decelerates to 5m/s2
Here, 𝒖 = 𝒗 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎m/s, thus; 𝒗′ = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎 + (−𝟓 × 𝟐𝟎) =
𝟏𝟒𝟎𝒎/s
Therefore, the following is the velocity – time graph of the whole motion of a body

The maximum speed attained, 𝒗 =( 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 = 𝟎 + 𝟖 × 𝟑𝟎 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝒎/s

(b)

Retardation, 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕  𝒂 = = = = −𝟕𝒎/s2
𝒗−𝒖) 𝟎−𝟏𝟒𝟎 −𝟏𝟒𝟎
(i)
𝒕 𝟐𝟎 𝟐𝟎
(ii)
(iii) Total distance during first 50s = Area of figure OBCG = Area of OBH +
𝟏
̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅ 𝟏
̅ ̅̅̅̅̅
= × 𝑶𝑯 × 𝑩𝑯 + (𝑪𝑮 × 𝑩𝑯) × 𝑯𝑮
Area of
BCGH  Distance
𝟐 𝟐
Distance = × 𝟑𝟎 × 𝟐𝟒𝟎 + (𝟏𝟒𝟎 × 𝟐𝟒𝟎) × 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟕𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒎
𝟏 𝟏

𝟐 𝟐
Average velocity in 50s = = = 𝟏𝟒𝟖𝒎/s
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝟓𝟎𝒔 𝟕𝟒𝟎𝟎
(iv)
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 𝟓𝟎

Class Activity – 6:5

1. Draw a displacement -time graph for a particle in the following situations:
(a) A body projected vertically upwards
(b) A body at stationary
(c)Moving with variable velocity
(d) Moving with uniform velocity
(e) A body fall freely
(f) Moving with uniform acceleration
(g) Moving with uniform retardation.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 67
 2. A car starts from rest and is accelerated uniformly at a rate of 4 m/s2 for 5 sec. it
maintains a constant speed for 20 sec, brakes applied and the car stops in the
next 3 sec. find
(a) Draw a velocity-time graph of the motion.
(b) Maximum speed attained (ANS: v = 20 m/s)
(c) Find the total distance travelled. (ANS: s = 480 m)
3. Explain the importance of the position-time graph.
4. The displacement of a particle is shown in the displacement – time graph
below. Displacement is measured in meters from its starting point position and
time is measured in seconds.

(a) Find the displacement of the particle from its starting point position after
3seconds.
(b) For how long was the particle stationary?
[ANS; (a) 15m (b) 4s (c) -5m/s]
(c)Find the velocity of the particle for the last 4 seconds of its motion
5. A bike accelerates uniformly from rest to a speed of 7.10 m/s over a distance
of 35.4 m. Determine the acceleration of the bike. (ANS: a = 0.712 m/s2)
6. A body accelerates uniformly from velocity of 40 m/s to a velocity of 50 m/s in
4seconds
(a) Draw a velocity-time graph of the motion.
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 68
 (b) Find acceleration of the body (ANS: a = 2.5 m/s2)
(c) Calculate the total distance travelled by the body in meter (ANS: s = 180 m)
7. Velocity time graph below shows a car journey which lasts for160 seconds.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 69
Calculate the total distance travelled by the car on this journey [ANS; 2325m]
8. A particle is set into motion with a constant velocity of 3m/s. After 5 seconds
the particle stops and remains stationary for 6 seconds. The particle then moves
with a constant velocity of – 6 m/s until returns to its initial position. Sketch
the displacement – time graph for the motion of the particle
9. This displacement—time graph shows the motion of a particle in a straight
line. It travels away from its starting point for 15 minutes and then returns in
30 minutes.

(a) Calculate the average speed for the whole journey in kilometres per hour.
(b) Calculate the average velocity for the whole journey in kilometres per hour.

= 𝟑𝟐𝒌𝒎/h
ANS;

=
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅
=
=
(𝟏𝟐+𝟏𝟐) 𝟐𝟒𝒌𝒎
(a)
Average speed = 𝟐𝟒𝒌𝒎
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝟐𝟎+𝟐 𝟒𝟓𝒎𝒊 𝟎.𝟕𝟓𝒉𝒓
𝟓 𝒏𝒔
= 𝟎𝒌𝒎/h
= velocity = = =
(b) (𝟏𝟐−𝟏𝟐) 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒍𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
Average 𝟎𝒌𝒎

𝟎𝒌𝒎
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
 S n quation of
e d motion
Equations of uniformly accelerated Motion
(Equations of Linear Motion) c  Third
o e equation of
 First equation of motion
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 70
 𝟐𝟎+𝟐 𝟒𝟓𝒎𝒊 𝟎.𝟕𝟓𝒉𝒓
motion 𝟓 𝒏𝒔

Consider a body moving with a constant acceleration 𝒂 from an initial velocity

𝒖, to a final velocity 𝒗 .The body covers a displacement ,, after sometime 𝒕.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 71
Derivation of first equation
∆𝒗
= , 𝒎𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒗 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕
Now, find the acceleration of the body
𝒗−𝒖
From: a=

𝒕 𝒕
𝒂𝒕 = 𝒗 − 𝒖 → 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕

∴ 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝟏𝒔𝒕 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝒗=𝒖+

𝒂𝒕

𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝑡
Derivation of the second equation

𝑽 = =
𝒗+𝒖
 Find the average velocity of the
𝒔
body;

𝒂
 � 𝟐 𝒕

= =
𝒖+𝒂𝒕+𝒖 𝟐𝒖+𝒂𝒕
�
=
𝒔

𝒂
𝟐 𝒕
𝒕

= -----------------multiply by 𝒕 each side

𝟐𝒖+𝒂𝒕
𝒔

𝟐 𝒕

= 𝒖𝒕
𝟏
𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝒔 =+𝒂𝒕𝟐 𝟐
+
𝟐𝒖𝒕

𝟐

𝟏
∴ 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝟐𝒏𝒅 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 +
𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚 �
�

 Consider the 1st equation: 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕

Derivation of third equation

 Then square the equation in each side:, . . (𝒗)𝟐 = (𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕)𝟐

 This gives: 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒖𝒂𝒕 + 𝒂𝟐𝒕𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐)
𝟐𝒂(𝒖𝒕 +
 But: 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐,Therefore 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔
𝟏

∴ 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝟑𝒓𝒅 𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒗 𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 +

𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝟐𝒂𝒔
Worked Examples
1. A body moving with a velocity of 30m/s is accelerated uniformly to a
velocity of 50m/s in 5s.Calculate the acceleration and the distance
traveled by the body. Data given
Initial velocity (u) = 30m/s, Final velocity (v) = 50m/s, Time (t) = 5s Acceleration =?
 Acceleration, 𝒂 = = = 𝟒 𝒎𝒔−𝟐
𝒗−𝒖 𝟓𝟎−𝟑𝟎

𝒕 𝟓
𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 +
𝟏
𝒂𝒕 = 𝟑𝟎 × × 𝟒 × 𝟓𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒎
𝟏
𝟓+
𝟐
 Distance traveled,

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 72
 𝟐 𝟐
2. An object travelling at 10m/s accelerates at 4m/s2
for 8 seconds.
(a) Calculate the final velocity.

ANS; 𝒖 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎/s, 𝒂 = 𝟒𝒎/s2 , 𝒕 = 𝟖𝒔

(b) How far does it travel for 8 seconds

(a) 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 = 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟒 × 𝟖 = 𝟒𝟐𝒎/s
𝒔
(b)= 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕 𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟖× 𝟒 × 𝟖 = 𝟐𝟎𝟖 𝒎
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
+
𝟐 𝟐

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 73
3. A body moves from rest with a uniform acceleration and travels 270m in 3s. Find
the velocity of the body at 10s after the start.

𝒖 = 𝟎𝒎/𝒔𝟏, 𝒔 = 𝟐𝟕𝟎𝒎, 𝒕𝟏 = 𝟑𝒔, 𝒕𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝒔

ANS;

From; 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐 𝟐𝟕𝟎 = 𝟎 × 𝟓 + × 𝒂 × 𝟑𝟐  𝟓𝟒𝟎 = 𝒂 × 𝟑𝟐

𝟏

𝟐 𝟐

𝟓𝟒𝟎 = 𝒂 × 𝟑𝟐  𝒂 = = 𝟔𝟎𝒎/s2
𝟓𝟒𝟎
𝟗
Also; 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 = 𝟎 + 𝟔𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒎/s
4. A body moving with a constant acceleration travels the distances 3m and 8m
respectively in 1s and 2s. Calculate;
(a) The initial velocity, and
(b) The acceleration of body.

Given; 𝒔𝟏 = 𝟑𝒎, 𝒔𝟐 = 𝟖𝒎, 𝒕𝟏 = 𝟏𝒔, 𝒕𝟐 = 𝟐𝒔

ANS;

From; 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 +  𝟑 = 𝒖 × 𝟏 + × 𝒂 × 𝟏𝟐 𝟔 = 𝟐𝒖 + 𝒂---(i)
𝟏 𝟏
𝟐 𝟐
𝒂𝒕𝟐 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝟏  
𝟖 =𝒖×𝟐+ × 𝒂 × 𝟐𝟐 -------------------𝟒
𝟏
𝟐 𝟐
𝒂𝒕
Also;
𝟐

(a) ∴ the initial velocity , 𝒖 = 𝟐𝒎/s

Then; solve the two equations,

(b) ∴ Acceleration of the body, 𝒂 = 𝟐𝒎/s2

5. A car moves with a uniform velocity of 12m/s for 6s. It accelerates at 2.0m/s 2 for
4s. It then travels for 2 more seconds with uniform velocity. The car finally
decelerates to a stop in 15s. Calculate;
(c)The distance travelled in 5s.
(d) Average velocity for the journey, assuming that the journey is in a straight line

𝒖 = 𝟏𝟐𝒎/s, 𝒕 = 𝟓𝒔, 𝒂 = 𝟐𝒎/s, 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 = 𝟏𝟐 × 𝟓 = 𝟔𝟎m

ANS;
(a)

Distance travelled in 6s, during this stage, ∆𝒗 = 𝟎𝒎/s

(b) Total distance travelled, first calculate the distance at given different stages

Then, 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 = 𝟏𝟐 × 𝟔 = 𝟕𝟐m
Distance traveled in 4s, during this stage, 𝒖 = 𝟏𝟐𝒎/s, 𝒂 = 𝟐𝒎/s2,
𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐 × 𝟒 × 𝟐 × = 𝟔𝟒𝒎
+ 𝒂𝒕 +
𝟏
𝟒𝟐
𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
Distance traveled in 2 more seconds, during this stage, ∆𝒗 =
𝟎𝒎/s, Then, 𝒔 = 𝒗𝒕
But; before attaining this stage; its final velocity, 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 = 𝟏𝟐 + 𝟐
× 𝟒 = 𝟐𝟎𝒎/s Thus; 𝒔 = 𝒗𝒕 = 𝟐𝟎 × 𝟐 = 𝟒𝟎m
this stage, 𝒖 = 𝟐𝟎𝒎/s, 𝒗 = 𝟎𝒎/s
𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔 → 𝒔 = = ,
𝒗𝟐−𝒖𝟐 𝟎−𝟐𝟎
Distance traveled in 15s, but during
𝟐 𝟐
𝟐𝒂−𝟒 𝟐𝒂
𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒂 = = = = −𝟏. 𝟑𝟑𝒎/s2
𝒗−𝒖 𝟎−𝟐𝟎

𝒕 𝟏𝟓 𝟑
𝒔= = = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝒎
𝒗𝟐−𝒖𝟐 𝟎𝟐−𝟐𝟎𝟐

𝟐𝒂 𝟐×−𝟏.𝟑𝟑
Thus, total distance travelled = 𝟕𝟐 + 𝟔𝟒 + 𝟒𝟎 + 𝟏𝟓𝟎 = 𝟑𝟐𝟔𝒎
Therefore; Average velocity, 𝒗 = =
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒅
= 𝟏𝟐. 𝟎𝟕𝒎/s
𝟑𝟐𝟔

𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 𝟔+𝟒+𝟐+𝟏𝟓

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 74
6. An object is constrained to move along a track as shown in the figure below

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 75
The acceleration of the object on both inclined planes is 6.9m/s 2 (down), zero along
the flat section and – 6.9m/s2 up the inclined planes. If the object is released from
rest at the top of the left inclined plane, how long will it take to reach the top of
the right inclined plane?
ANS;
Consider a free body diagram;

𝒔𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝒎, 𝒔𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝒎, 𝒔𝟑 = 𝟖𝒄𝒎 = 𝟎.

𝟎𝟖𝒎
𝒂𝟏 = 𝟔. 𝟗𝒎/s , 𝒂𝟐 = 𝟎𝒎/s , 𝒂𝟑 = −𝟔. 𝟗𝒎/s , 𝒖𝟏 = 𝟎𝒎/s, 𝒗𝟏 =
𝒖𝟐, 𝒗𝟐 =?
2 2 2

= 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕  𝟎. 𝟏 = 𝟎 × 𝒕 + × 𝟔.
𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
 𝟐 = 𝟔𝟗𝒕𝟐
𝒔𝟏 𝟗 × 𝒕𝟏
𝟐 𝟏
From;
𝟐

𝒕𝟏 𝟐  𝒕𝟏 = √( ) = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝒔
= 𝟔𝟗
𝟐
𝟐

𝟔𝟗
Also; when a body moves from A to B, 𝒖 = 𝟎𝒎/s, 𝒗 =
𝒗𝟏 Thus; 𝒗𝟏 = 𝒖𝟏 + 𝒂𝟏𝒕𝟏 = 𝟎 + 𝟔. 𝟗 × 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕 = 𝟏.
𝟏𝟕𝟑𝒎/s Likewise; when a body moves from B to C, ∆𝒗
= 𝟎𝒎/s
Thus; 𝒔 = 𝒗𝒕  = 𝒗 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝒔
𝒔 𝒕 𝒕 =
𝟎.𝟐
𝒔𝟐
=

𝟐 𝟏 𝟐𝟐
𝟏.𝟏𝟕𝟑
𝒗𝟏
Lastly; when a body moves from C to D, 𝒖 = 𝒖𝟐 = 𝒗𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟕𝟑𝒎/𝒔, 𝒔𝟑 = 𝟖𝒄𝒎
From; 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔 → 𝒗𝟐𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔𝟑
𝒗𝟐𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔𝟑  𝒗𝟐 = √(𝟏. 𝟏𝟕𝟑𝟐 + (𝟐 × −𝟔. 𝟗 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖))
𝒗𝟐 = √(𝟏. 𝟏𝟕𝟑𝟐 + (𝟐 × −𝟔. 𝟗 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖)) = √𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟏𝟗 =
𝟎. 𝟓𝟐𝒎/s Also; from 1ST equation; 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕  𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐
+ 𝒂𝟑𝒕𝟑
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 76
 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝒂𝟑𝒕𝟑  𝒕𝟑 𝒗𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟓𝟐 − 𝟏.
𝟏𝟕𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟓
= 𝒖𝟐 =
−𝟔. 𝟗
𝒂𝟑
Therefore; the total time taken to reach at the top from rest, 𝒕 = + 𝒕𝟐 + 𝒕𝟑
𝒕 = 𝒕𝟏 + 𝒕𝟐 + 𝒕𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕 + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟑𝟓 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔
7. A train travelling at 30km/h stops when its brakes are applied. The train suffers a
deceleration
of 2m/s2.
(a) How long does the train take to come to rest?
(b) What is its final velocity?

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 77
 ANS; 𝒖 = 𝟑𝟎𝒌𝒎/h = = 𝟖. 𝟑𝟑𝒎/s, 𝒂 = −𝟐𝒎/s2, 𝒗 = 𝟎𝒎/s
𝟑𝟎×𝟏𝟎
𝟑𝟔
(a) From; 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕  𝒕 = = = 𝟒. 𝟏𝟕𝒔
𝒗−𝒖 𝟎−𝟖.𝟑𝟑
𝒂 −𝟐
(b) Since the train comes to stop therefore; its final velocity, 𝒗 = 𝟎𝒎/s,
Class Activity – 6:6
1. A car initially at rest, attains a velocity of 20 m/s after 8 seconds. What is the
acceleration of the car? (ANS: a = 2.5 m/s2)
2. John is driving his car with a constant speed of 8 ms−1. At 20 m away, suddenly a
child comes on his way, and he immediately applies the brakes to avoid the

−𝟏. 𝟖𝒎/s2 ]
accident. What was the deceleration with which the car came to rest? [ANS;

3. A rally car takes 5 minutes to cover a displacement of 20 km. If the initial

velocity of the car is 40 m/s, Calculate the average acceleration of the car
(ANS: a = 0.178 m/s2)
4. A rocket initially moving at a velocity of 5m/s accelerates uniformly at 1.5 m/s2
.What will be its velocity after covering 120 km? ( ANS: v= 600 m/s)
5. Starting from rest, a car accelerates uniformly at 2.5m/s 2 for 6sec. the
constant speed is maintained for one third of a minute. The brakes are then
applied making the car to retard uniformly to rest in 4sec. find
(a) Draw speed time graph
(b) Maximum speed in km/h (ANS: v = 54km/h)
(c) Displacement covered in km (ANS: S = 0.375 km)
6. A car accelerates uniformly from rest to a speed of 15km/h in 10s, Find:
a) The acceleration in m/s2 (ANS: a = 0.42 m/s2)
b) Distance covered in meters (ANS: s = 21 m)
7. A train with a velocity of 40m/s is uniformly retarded and brought to rest after
5 seconds. Determine its deceleration and draw the graph ( ANS: a = -8 m/s2 )
8. A train starts from rest and accelerates uniformly at a rate of 2 m s-2 for 10 s.
It then maintains a constant speed for 200s. The brakes are then applied and the

the maximum velocity reached, [ANS; 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 = 𝟎 + 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 =

train is uniformly retarded and comes to rest in 50 s. Find;

𝟐𝟎m/s]
(i)

(ii) the retardation in the last 50 s, [ANS; 𝒂 = = = −𝟎. 𝟒m/s2]

𝒗−𝒖 𝟎−𝟐𝟎

𝒕 𝟓𝟎
the total distance travelled, and [ANS; 𝒔𝑻 = 𝒔𝟏 + 𝒔𝟐 + 𝒔𝟑 =
𝟏
𝒔� = 𝒔𝟏 + 𝟐𝒔 + 𝒔 � 𝒔 𝟏 = 𝒖𝒕𝟏 + 𝒂 𝟐𝒕 𝟐 +𝟏 𝒗𝒕 + 𝟐𝒖
𝟒𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒎]
(iii

𝟏 𝟐 𝟐
𝒕�=+𝟎 ×𝒂 𝟏𝟎
𝒔� 𝒕𝟑 +
𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟑 𝟏 𝟑
× 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐 + 𝟐𝟎 × 𝟐𝟎𝟎 + 𝟐𝟎 × 𝟓𝟎 + ×
�
𝟐 𝟐
(−𝟎.
�
𝟒) × 𝟓𝟎𝒔𝑻 = 𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎 + 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 − 𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝟐

= 𝟒𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒎 =17.69m/s]
Therefore;
average velocity of the train. 𝑨𝒗 = 𝒔𝑻 =
[A; 𝒗
𝒕𝑻
(iv) the
𝒆

5s causing a retardation of 3m/s2. Find the car’s final velocity. [A; 𝒗 = 𝒖 +

9. A car is travelling at 20m/s along a straight road. The brakes are applied for

𝒂𝒕 = 𝟐𝟎 + (−𝟑 × 𝟓) = 𝟓m/s

Motion under Gravity

 All bodies on the earth will always fall down towards the earth’s surface when
released from a point. What makes these bodies falling downwards is the
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 78
 acceleration of free falling body called acceleration due to gravity which is 9.8 or 10
N/kg.
 Acceleration of free falling body is denoted by ‘g’. Light bodies like feathers,
paper etc are observed to fall down more slowly than iron balls. This is because
light bodies are very much affected by air resistance.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 79
 There are two important characteristics of free fall
(a) Free falling objects do not encounter air resistance
(b) All free falling objects on earth accelerate downwards at a rate of 9.8 m/s2
(often approximated as 10 m/s2)

(Here; 𝒂 = 𝒈 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔 = 𝒉)
 For a body moving downwards the following formulae are applied

𝒗=𝒖+
𝒈𝒕
1st equation is given by
𝟏
𝟐 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚
𝒏𝒅
𝒉
= 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒈𝒕𝟐 𝟐
𝟑𝒓𝒅 𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝒗𝟐 =

𝒂 = − 𝒔 = 𝒉)
 When the body moves upwards ,the formulae will change to:
(Here
𝒗=𝒖−
𝒈𝒕
1st equation is given by

𝟐 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒉 = 𝒖𝒕 −
𝒏𝒅
𝟏

𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚
𝟐
𝒈𝒕𝟐

𝟑𝒓𝒅 𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝒗𝟐 =

𝒖𝟐 − 𝟐𝒈𝒉
Worked Examples;
1. A stone is thrown vertically upward from the ground with a velocity of 30 m/s. find
(a) Maximum height reached
(b) Time taken for maximum height
(c)Time taken for reach ground again
(d) The velocity reached half-way to the maximum height
ANS;
(a) Maximum height reached, s = H =?
Data given:
Initial velocity, u = 30 m/s
Final velocity, v = 0 m/s
Acceleration, a = -g = -10 m/s2

𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 − 𝟐𝒈𝒉-------------------------make h the subject

From: third equation of motion

𝒉 = = = = 𝟒𝟓 𝒎
𝒖𝟐−𝒗𝟐 𝟑𝟎𝟐−𝟎𝟐 𝟗𝟎𝟎
𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒙𝟏 𝟐𝟎
𝟎
(b) Time taken for maximum height, t =?

𝒗 = 𝒖 − 𝒈𝒕---------------make t the subject

From: first equation of motion

𝒕 = 𝒈 = 𝟏𝟎 = =𝟑𝒔
𝒖−𝒗 𝟑𝟎−𝟎 𝟑𝟎
𝟏𝟎
(c)Time taken for reach ground again,(T = 2t) ?
T = 2t = 2 x 3 = 6 sec
(d) Velocity reached half-way to the maximum height, v =?
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 80
 𝒉 =
When stone is halfway to maximum height, the height attained is
𝑯 =
𝟒𝟓
= 𝟐𝟐. 𝟓 𝒎
𝟐
Data given: u = 30 m/s and a = -10 m/s2

𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 – 𝟐𝒈𝒉
From: third equation of motion

𝒗 = √𝒖𝟐 − 𝟐𝒈𝒉 = √𝟑𝟎𝟐 − 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟐𝟐. 𝟓 = √𝟗𝟎𝟎 − 𝟒𝟓𝟎 = √𝟒𝟓𝟎

∴ 𝒗 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟐 𝒎
2. A stone falling down a well takes 2s to reach the water surface. Calculate;
(a) The velocity with which the stone hits the surface of water

ANS; 𝒕 = 𝟐𝒔, 𝒈 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎/s2, 𝒖 = 𝟎𝒎/s, 𝒗 =?

(b) The distance of the water surface from the top of the well shaft

(a) 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 = 𝟎 + 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎𝒎/s
𝒖 = 𝟎𝒎/s, 𝒗 = 𝟐𝟎m/s 𝟐 𝟐
From; 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝟐𝒈𝒉 𝒉 = = = = 𝟐𝟎𝒎
𝒗 −𝒖 𝟐𝟎𝟐−𝟎𝟐 𝟒𝟎𝟎
(b)
𝟐 𝟐

𝟐𝒈 𝟐×𝟏 𝟐𝟎
𝟎

3. An object thrown straight upward with an initial velocity of 88.2m/s will reach its
maximum height of 396.9m in 9s. If after 3s, the object is at an altitude of
220.5m moving upward, after what time will it be at a height of 220.5m moving
downwards.

 𝟑𝒔 at 220.5m upwards, it means that an object 𝒊𝒔 𝟔𝒔 before reaching

ANS;

 Therefore the object will be at the same height when moving downwards 𝟔𝒔
its maximum height.

after reaching the maximum height, thus; 𝒕 = 𝟗𝒔 + 𝟔𝒔 = 𝟏𝟓𝒔

4. Calculate the maximum height of a ball of mass 1.2kg will attain if projected

ANS; From; 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 −𝟐𝒈𝒉 𝒉 = = = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟒𝟓𝒎

vertically upward with an initial velocity𝟐 of 𝟐17m/s𝟐 𝟐
𝒗 −𝒖 𝟎 −𝟏𝟕

−𝟐 −𝟐×𝟏𝟎
𝒈

 When an object is thrown upwards, its final velocity, at its maximum point, 𝒗 = 𝟎
NB;

 When an object falls downward or is released from a height, its initial velocity, 𝒖 = 𝟎
 The time it takes an object to travel upwards is the same time it takes to come down

Class Activity –6:7

1. Calculate the velocity of a paratrooper falling under gravity after 6 seconds (A: v = 58.8
m/s)
2. A ball is released from a cliff, 45 m high. Find the magnitude of the average velocity
during its motion till it reaches the ground ( g = 10 m/s2) (ANS: u=30 m/s)
3. An object is thrown straight up with an initial velocity of 50 m/s
(a) How long will take to reach its maximum height (ANS: t = 5 sec)
(b) To what height will it rise? (ANS: h =125 )
(c) What will be its velocity when it returns to its starting point? (AN: v = 50 m/s)
(d) How long will be in the air? (ANS: t = 10 se)
4. A ball initially at rest falls for 4 seconds at a constant acceleration. Calculate:
(a) Its velocity after 4 seconds (ANS: v = 39.2 m/s)
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 81
 (b) Its distance from the rest position (ANS: h = 156.8 m)
5. A body moved vertically upwards to a distance of 20 m. Calculate
(a) The initial velocity (ANS: v = 20 m/s)
(b) The time taken to reach the maximum height (ANS: t = 2 sec )

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 82
6. A stone is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 29.4m/s from the top of a
tower
34.3m high. Find
(a) The time taken to reach the maximum height
(b) The total time that elapses just before it reaches the ground
ANS; 𝒔𝟏 = 𝟑𝟒. 𝟑, 𝒖 = 𝟐𝟗. 𝟒𝒎/s, 𝒗 = 𝒖𝟐 = 𝟎𝒎/s
𝒗 = 𝒖 − 𝒈𝒕 → 𝒕 = = =2.94s
𝒗−𝒖 𝟎−𝟐𝟗.𝟒
(a)
−𝒈 −𝟏𝟎
= 𝒖𝒕 − 𝒈𝒕𝟐
𝟏

above the tower, 𝒔𝟐

(b)
𝟐
Height from the top of a tower to maximum point

𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 − 𝒈𝒕𝟐 = 𝟐𝟗. 𝟒 × 𝟐. 𝟗𝟒 − × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟐. 𝟗𝟒𝟐

𝟏 𝟏

= 𝟒𝟑. 𝟐𝒎
𝟐 𝟐
Thus; total distance to reach the ground, 𝒔 = 𝒔𝟏 + 𝒔𝟐 = 𝟑𝟒. 𝟑 + 𝟒𝟑. 𝟐 = 𝟕𝟕. 𝟓𝒎
= 𝒕 + 𝟐 𝒈𝒕�
𝟏 𝟐

ground, 𝒔𝟐
Then, time taken from maximum height to
𝒖𝟏 𝟐 �

𝒔𝟐 + → 𝟕𝟕. 𝟓 = 𝟎 + × 𝟏𝟎 × =√
𝟏 𝟏 𝟕𝟕.𝟓
= 𝒕 𝟐 𝟐

𝒈𝒕 𝒕
𝟓
𝒖𝟏 𝟐 �× 𝒕𝟐
= 3.94s
�𝒕𝟐

𝟐 𝟐

Therefore, the total time that elapses just before it reaches the ground, 𝒕 = 𝒕𝟏 + 𝒕𝟐
� �

𝒕 = 𝒕𝟏 + 𝒕𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟒 + 𝟑. 𝟗𝟒 = 𝟔. 𝟖𝟖𝒔

(a) How tall is the building? [ANS; 𝒉 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒈𝒕 = 𝟎 + × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟒𝟐 = 𝟖𝟎𝒎]

7. A stone was dropped from the top of a building 𝟏and hit the ground
𝟏
4s later.
𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
(b) What was the stone’s velocity when it hits the ground [ANS; 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒈𝒕 = 𝟒𝟎m/s]

Simple Pendulum
 The motion of pendulum was first studied by Galileo. Galileo discovered
the important principle of pendulum according to which: A pendulum
completes every swing (or every oscillation) in exactly the same time,
provided its length is kept constant. In other words, the time-period of
oscillation of a given pendulum is constant.
 A simple pendulum can be made by tying about one meter long thread to a
small metal ball (called bob) and suspending it from a rigid support as shown
in Figure (a), so that the bob is free to swing. When the pendulum is at rest,
then its bob is at the mean position A

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 83
  If the bob of this pendulum is pulled to one side and then released, it will begin to
oscillate to- and-fro (back and forth) like a swing [see Figure (b)]. For example,
in Figure (b), initially the

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 84
 bob is at the mean position A. Now, suppose the bob is pulled a little to the
right side to position B and then released.
 it will be seen to come back and move on to position C, at an equal distance on the
other side of the mean position A, and then go on repeating this back and forth
motion between the two extreme positions B and C. And we say that the simple
pendulum is oscillating (or vibrating).
 When the length of string change while the mass of pendulum bob is constant,
the period is always constant and that constant time is given by

𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅√
𝑳

𝒈
Whereby:
 Length (L): Is the distance between the point of suspension to the center of the
bob. The time-period of a pendulum depends on its length. As the length of a
pendulum is increased, its time-period also increases. The time-period of a
pendulum of given length is constant.
 Time Period (T): Time taken by the pendulum to finish one full oscillation. For
example, in Figure (b), the time taken by bob to travel from position B to C and
back to B is the time-period of pendulum. The time taken by bob in going from
position A to B, then from B to C, and back to A is also equal to time-period.
 Linear Displacement (x): Distance traveled by the pendulum bob from the
equilibrium position to one side.
 Angular Displacement (𝜽): The angle described by the pendulum with an imaginary
axis at the equilibrium position is called the angular displacement.
 Amplitude; As the pendulum oscillates to-and-fro, the maximum displacement of the
bob from its mean position on either side is called the amplitude of pendulum. In
Figure (b), the distance AB is the amplitude of pendulum. The distance AC is also
equal to amplitude of pendulum. Please note that whether the amplitude of
oscillations of a pendulum is large or small, the time taken for one complete
oscillation (or time-period) remains the same.
 g = Acceleration due to gravity

Application of gravitational force

 Used to launch satellites and space vehicle into space requires overcoming the
gravitational attraction forces for take off
 Used to keep satellite rotating on the earth’s orbit
 It causes everybody to be attracted towards the earth’s surface
 It is used to calculate the time taken by object to reach to ground for all
objects near the earth’s surface. E.g. army aircraft when firing bombs, parachutist move
under free fall,(a = g) etc

Class Activity – 6:8

1. The period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is 1.2 seconds in a place where

ANS; 𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅√
𝑳
g= 9.8m/s2. How long is the bob below the rigid
) = ( ) = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔𝒎
𝑻𝟐𝒈 𝟏.𝟐𝟐×𝟗.𝟖
𝒈 → 𝒍 = 𝟒𝝅𝟐
(
𝟒𝝅𝟐

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 85
 2. When the length of a simple pendulum is decreased by 20 cm, the period

ANS; 𝒍𝟏 = 𝒍, 𝒍𝟐 = (𝒍 − 𝟐𝟎), 𝑻𝟏 = 𝑻, 𝑻𝟐 = 𝑻 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝑻
changes by 10%. Find the original length and period of pendulum. g = 9.8 m/s2

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 86
 𝑻𝟏
Since; 𝑻 ∝ √𝒍 → = √𝒍
→ → =
𝑻
=
𝑻𝟏
√ 𝒍𝟏
√𝒍𝟏 √𝒍 𝑻𝟐 √𝒍 𝟎.𝟗 √𝒍−𝟐𝟎
𝑻
𝟐 𝟐

→ 𝒍 − 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟏𝒍 → 𝒍 − 𝟎. 𝟖𝟏𝒍 = 𝟐𝟎
𝟏
=
𝒍
𝟎.𝟖 𝒍−𝟐
𝟏 𝟎 → 𝟎. 𝟏𝟗𝒍 = 𝟐𝟎
𝟐𝟎
the original length, 𝒍 = 𝟏𝟎𝟓𝒄𝒎 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟓𝒎
=
 Therefore,
𝟎.𝟏𝟗
 Therefore, the original period, 𝑻 = = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟔𝒔
=
𝟐𝝅√
𝑳
𝟐𝝅√
𝟏.𝟎𝟓
𝒈 𝟗.𝟖

3. At exactly 2hr: 00min: 00sec a pendulum bob is thrown vertically upwards from
the ground with an initial velocity of 75m/s. At what time will the bob return to the

ANS; 𝒖 = 𝟕𝟓𝒎/s, 𝒗 = 𝟎𝒎/s, 𝒗 = 𝒖 − 𝒈𝒕 → 𝒈 = = = 𝟕. 𝟓𝒔

𝒗−𝒖 𝟎−𝟕𝟓
ground? (Take g =10m/s2)
−𝒈 −𝟏𝟎
Therefore; the total time of return, 2hr: 00min: 15sec
4. The diagram shows the velocity-time graph for a vertically bouncing ball,
which is released above the ground at A and strikes the floor at B. The effects
of air resistance have been neglected.

(a) What does the gradient of a velocity-time graph represent?

(b) Explain why the gradient of the line CD is the same as line AB.
(c) What does the area between the line AB and the time axis represent?
(d) State why the velocity at C is negative.
(e) State why the speed at C is less than the speed at B.
(f) The ball has a mass of 0.15 kg and is dropped from an initial height of
1.2m. After impact the ball rebounds to a height of 0.75m. Calculate;

[A; 𝟏 𝒎𝒗𝟐 = 𝒎𝒈𝒉 → 𝒗 = √𝟐𝒈𝒉 = √𝟐 × 𝟏. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 = √𝟐𝟒

(i) the speed of the ball immediately before impact,

𝟐
=4.9m/s]
(ii) e,)

[A; 𝟏 𝒎𝒗𝟐 = 𝒎𝒈𝒉′ → 𝒗 = √𝟐𝒈𝒉′ = √𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎 = √𝟏𝟓

the speed of the ball immediately after impact,
ANS; (a, b, c, d,
𝟐
=3.9m/s]
(a) Acceleration
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 87
 (b) They both represent the acceleration of free fall [or the same acceleration]
(c) The height/distance ball is dropped from above the ground [or the
displacement of the ball from when it is dropped until it hits the
ground]
(d) It is moving in the opposite direction to when it was at B
(e) Because the Ball dos not bounce as high as initial position or some
kinetic energy is lost (as heat/internal energy) during the bouncing

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 88
Self Assessment– 6
1. Calculate the distance in metres covered by a body moving with a uniform speed of
180 km/hr in 30 seconds. (ANS: d = 1 500 m)
2. Calculate the time in seconds taken by a body moving with uniform speed of
360 km/h to cover a distance of 3000 km. (ANS: t = 30,000 s)
3. What is the speed of a racing car in metres per second if the car covers 360 k/h
in 2 hours? (ANS: V = 50 m/s)
4. The average speed of a car is 25 m/s .Calculate the distance travelled by the
car in 30 minutes.(ANS: d = 45 000 m or 45 km)
5. Which of the following quantities are scalar?
Displacement, speed, acceleration, velocity and distance.
6. A race car accelerates uniformly from 18.5 m/s to 46.1 m/s in 2.47s.
Determine the acceleration of the car and the distance traveled (a = 11.2m/s2 ,
d = 79.8 m)
7. State the difference between distance and displacement
8. A man runs 800 m due North in 100 seconds , followed by 400 m South in 80
seconds
.Calculate,
a) His average speed (ANS: V = 6.67 m/s)
b) His average velocity (ANS:V = 2.22 m/s due North)
c) His change in velocity for the whole journey (ANS:V = 3 m/s due North)
9. Define speed and explain what is meant by average speed. A motorist travels
from a town A to town B , 145 km distant in 3 h 45 minutes. Find his average
speed:
(a) In km/h (ANS: V = 38.7 km/h)
(b) In m/s (ANS: V = 10.7 m/s)
10. A car initially moving at a velocity of 2 m/s takes 2 minutes to reach a velocity
of 20 m/s. What is the average acceleration of the car? (ANS: a = 0.15 m/s2)
11. How long does it take a truck initially at rest to accelerate to 20 m/s if the
acceleration is 2 m/s. (ANS: t = 10 s)
12. A kangaroo is capable of jumping to a height of 2.62 m. Determine the
takeoff speed of the kangaroo. (ANS: v = 7.17 m/s)
13. A car accelerates uniformly from rest to a speed of 15 km/hr in 10 seconds. Find
(a) The acceleration in m/s2 (ANS: a = 0.42 m/s2)
(b) Distance covered during this period in meters . (ANS: s = 21 m)
14. A dragster accelerates to a speed of 112 m/s over a distance of 398 m.
Determine the acceleration of the dragster. (ANS: a = 15.8 m/s2)
15. The maximum retardation with which the breaks of a locomotive can reduce
its speed is 1.8 m/s2. Calculate the time in which the locomotive can be brought to
rest . (ANS: t = u/1.8)
16. A bullet leaves a riffle with a muzzle velocity of 521 m/s. While accelerating
through the barrel of the riffle, the bullet moves a distance of 0.840 m.
Determine the acceleration of the bullet.(assume a uniform acceleration.)
(ANS: a = 1.62 x 105 m/s2)
17. A car moving along a straight road ABC as shown in the figure below.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 89
 It maintains an average speed of 90 km/h between point A and B and 36
km/h between point B and C. Calculate the:

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 90
 a) Time taken in seconds by the car between points A
and C. (ANS: t = 300 s)
b) The average speed in metres per second of the car between
points A and C. (ANS: V = 13 m/s)
18. A tennis ball is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 20 m/s. Calculate the
time taken for the ball to return to its starting point. (ANS: t = 4 s)
19. (a) Sketch a velocity – time graph for a car moving with uniform acceleration
from 5 m/s to 25 m/s in 15 seconds.
(b) Use the sketch graph to find the values for:-
(i) The acceleration. (ANS: a = 1.33 m/s2)
(ii)The total distance travelled during acceleration. (ANS: s = 225 m)
20. A car with a velocity 50 m/s is uniformly retarded and brought to rest
after 10 seconds. Calculate its acceleration. (ANS: a = - 5 m/s)
21. What is the mass of a body which when acted on by a force of 3 N accelerates at
7m/s2 (ANS: m = 0.428 kg)
22. A car travelled from town A to town B 200 km east of A in 3 hours. The car
changed direction and travelled a distance of 150 km due North from town B to
town C in 2 hours. Calculate the average
4. Speed for the whole journey (ANS: V = 70 km/h)
5. Velocity for the whole journey (ANS: V = 50 km/h)
23. A tennis ball hits a vertical wall at a velocity of 10 m/s and bounces off at the
same velocity. Determine the change in velocity. (ANS:V = 20 m/s)
24. A football kicked horizontally from a vertical cliff has a vertical velocity of
30 m/s when it reaches the sea below
(a) Calculate the time the ball takes to reach the sea. (ANS: t = 3 s)
(b) The initial horizontal velocity of the ball is 15 m/s. Calculate the horizontal
distance travelled by the ball. (ANS: s = 45 m)
25. The velocity of a body increases from 72 km/h to 144 km/h in 10
seconds. Calculate its acceleration. (ANS: a = 2 m/s2)
26. A car is brought to rest from 180 km/h in 20 seconds. What is its
retardation? (ANS: a = -2.5 m/s2)
27. A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly at a rate of 2 m/s 2 for 20 s.It then
maintains a constant velocity for 10 s. The brakes are then applied and the car
is uniformly retarded and comes to rest in 5 s. Draw the velocity – time graph
for the motion and find:
(a) The maximum velocity. (ANS: v = 40 m/s)
(b) The retardation in the last 5 seconds. (ANS: a = -8 m/s2)
(c) Total distance travelled. (ANS: s = 900 m)
(d) Average velocity. (ANS: V = 25.71 m/s)
28. A car starts from rest and attains a velocity 20 m/s in 10 s. If it travels at this
velocity for 5 s and then decelerates to stop after another 6 s. Draw the velocity
time graph for this motion. From the graph:
a) Calculate the total distance moved by the car (ANS: s = 260 m)
b) Find the acceleration of the car at each stage
(ANS: a1 = 2 m/s2, a2 = 0 m/s2 and a3 = - 3.33 m/s2)
29. Define the term acceleration due to gravity
30. A stone is let to fall vertically down from a window on the 10th floor of a
building 40 m above the ground. Find the time taken by the stone to reach the

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 91
 ground.
31. A ticker – tape is moved through a ticker – timer for 5.0 seconds. If the timer
is operating at 25 Hz

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 92
 (i) How many dots would have been printed on the tape? (ANS: n=125 dots)
(ii) What kind of motion does the tape represents? (ANS: Linear motion)
32. A stone dropped down a well takes 3.0 s to reach the surface of the
water .How far is the water surface below the top of the well? (ANS: h = 45 m)
33. A car on a straight road accelerates from rest to a speed of 30 m/s in 5 s. It then
travels at the same speed for 5 minutes and then brakes for 10 s in order to
stop. Calculate the:
(a) Acceleration of the car during the motion (ANS: a = 6 m/s2)
(b) Deceleration of the car (ANS: a = -3 m/s)
(c) Total distance travelled (ANS: d = 9 225 m)
34. A car accelerates from rest to a velocity of 20 m/s in 5 s. Thereafter it decelerates to a
rest in 8
s. Calculate the acceleration of the car
(a) In the first 5 s (ANS: a = 4 m/s2)
(b) In the next 8 s (ANS: a = -2.5 m/s2)
35. A rocket fired vertically upward with a velocity of 60 m/s falls back to
earth .Ignoring the effects of air resistance ,Calculate the greatest height reached
by the rocket (ANS: h = 180 m)
36. An electric train moving at 20 km/h accelerates to a speed of 30 km/h in
20 s. Find the average acceleration in m/s2 and the distance travelled in
metres during the period of the acceleration. (ANS: a = 0.14 m/s2 , s = 139 m)
37. A tennis ball is dropped on to the floor from a height of 10 m. It rebounds to a
height of 2.5 m. If the ball is in contact with the floor for 0.01 s. What is the
average acceleration during the contact? Take g = 10 m/s2 (AN: a = 2121 m/s2)
38. The speed of goods truck which has been shunted on to a level siding falls
from 10 km/h to 5 km/h in moving a distance of 30 m. If the retardation is
constant, how much further will the truck travel before coming to rest? (ANS: s
= 10 m)
39. A stone is dropped into a deep well and is heard to hit the water 3.41 s after
being dropped. Determine the depth of the well. (ANS: d = 57.0 m)
40. A car travelling at 22.4 m/s skids to a stop in 2.55 s. Determine the skidding
distance of the car. (ANS: d = 28.6 m)
41. A train, 90 m long, stops in a station with its front buffers in line with a
lamp – post on the platform. Later it starts off with an average acceleration of
0.45 m/s2. What will be its speed, in km/h, when the tail buffers pass the lamp –
post? (ANS: V = 32.4 km/h)
42. A car runs at a constant speed of 15 m/s for 300 s and then accelerates
uniformly to a speed of 25 m/s over a period of 20 s. This speed is maintained for
300 s before the car is brought to rest with uniform deceleration in 30 s. Draw a
velocity – time graph to represent the journey described above. From the graph
find:
(i) The acceleration while the velocity changes from 15 m/s to 25 m/s. (ANS: a = 0.5
m/s2)
(ii) The total distance travelled in the time described; (ANS: s = 12 775 m)
(iii) The average speed over the time described. (ANS: V = 19.7 m/s)
43. A bird flying horizontally at 4.8 m/s drops a stone from its beak. The stone hits
the ground after it has travelled a horizontal distance of 12 m
(a) After the bird dropped it , how long did it take the stone to fall to

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 93
 the ground (ANS: t = 2.5 s)
(b) Calculate the vertical velocity of the stone when it hits the ground (ANS: v = 25
m/s)
44. A car initially at rest, attains a velocity of 20 m/s after 8 seconds.
What is the acceleration of the car? (ANS: a = 2.5 m/s)
45. A body moves with a uniform acceleration of 10 m/s2 covers a distance of
320 m. If its initial velocity was 60 m/s. Calculate its final velocity (ANS: v = 100
m/s)
46. A body whose initial velocity is 30 m/s moves with a constant retardation of 3
m/s2. Calculate the time taken for the body to come to rest. (ANS: t = 30 s)

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 94
47. Two stones are thrown vertically upwards from the same point with the same
velocity of 20 m/s but at an interval of 2 seconds. When they meet, the
second stone rising at 10 m/s. Calculate:
a) The time taken by the second stone in air before they meet. (ANS: t = 1 s)
b) The velocity of the first stone when they meet. (ANS: V = 10 m/s, downward)
48. Explain the difference between speed and velocity. Draw a graph of velocity
against time for a body which starts with an initial velocity of 4 m/s and continues
to move with an acceleration of
1.5 m/s2 for 6 s. Show how you would find from the graph:
(a) The average velocity. (ANS: V = 8.5 m/s)
(b) The distance moved in the 6 s. (ANS: s = 51 m)
49. A body is uniformly accelerated from rest to a final velocity of 100 m/s I 10
seconds. Calculate the distance moved. (ANS: s = 500 m)
50. A stone is projected vertically upward with a velocity of 30 m/s from the ground.
Calculate
a) The time it takes to attain maximum height (ANS: t = 3 s)
b) The time of flight (ANS: T = 2t = 6 s)
c) The maximum height reached (ANS: h = 45 m)
d) The velocity with which it lands on the ground (ANS: V = 30 m/s)
51. Two cars A and B start moving at the same time along a straight line with uniform
acceleration of 5 m/s2 and 3 m/s2, respectively. If A is 60 km behind B, after
how long will car overtake car B? (ANS: t = 245 s)
52. Define the term uniform acceleration of a body
53. A small solid sphere falls freely from rest, in air, with an acceleration of 10
m/s2.How far does it fall in 5.0 s? (ANS: h = 125 m)
54. A motorcyclist accelerates from 10 m/s to 30 m/s in 20 s. Calculate:
(a) The acceleration of the motorcyclist
(b) The displacement of the motorcyclist
55. An object is thrown vertically upward from the ground at 30 ms-1.
(a) What is the displacement after 4 s?(ANS: h = 42 m)
(b) What is the velocity after 4 s? (ANS: v = - 9 m/s)
(c) What is the maximum height it attains? (ANS: H = 46 m)
(d) What is the time of flight? (ANS: T = 6.1 s)
56. A small iron ball is dropped from the top of a vertical cliff and takes 2.5 s to
reach the sandy beach below. Find:
(a) The velocity with which it strikes the sand. (ANS: v = 25 m/s)
(b) The height of the cliff .If the ball penetrates the sand to a depth of 12.5
cm, calculate its average retardation. (ANS: h = 31.25 m ,a = 2500 m/s2)
57. A balloon is ascending at the rate of 12 m/s. When it is at a height of 65 m from
the ground, a packet is dropped from it. After how much time and with what
velocity does the packet reach the ground? Take g = 10 m/s2 (t = 5 s, v = 38 m/s)
58. An object is seen to fall from an aeroplane and observed to take 15 seconds
in reaching the ground . Assuming that air resistance is negligible, calculate
(a) the height of the plane. (ANS: h = 1103 m)
(b) the velocity with which the object strikes the ground (ANS: v = 147 m/s)
59. A stone is dropped from the top of a tower 400 m high and at the same time
another stone is projected upward vertically from the ground with a velocity of
100 m/s. Find when and where the two will meet. (ANS: t = 4 s, h = 78.4 m)
60. A body is dropped from rest at a height of 150 m and simultaneously another
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 95
 difference of their heights after they have fallen for 3 seconds? .(AN: ∆𝒉 = 50 m)
body is dropped from rest from a point 100 m above the ground .What is the

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 96
61. A car travels at a uniform velocity of 20 m/s for 5 s. The brakes are then
applied and the car comes to rest with uniform retardation in a further 8 s. Draw a
sketch graph of velocity against time. How far does the car travel after the
brakes are applied. (ANS: s = 80 m)
62. A trolley starts from rest on an inclined plane and moves down it with
uniform acceleration. After having moved a distance of 40 cm its velocity is 20
cm/s. Find its acceleration: (a) in cm/s2 (b) in m/s2 (AN: a = 5 cm/s2 ,a = 0.05
m/s2)
63. A motorist, travelling at 90 km/h, applies his brakes and comes to rest with
uniform retardation in 20 s. Calculate the retardation in m/s2. (ANS: a = 1.25 m/s2)
64. Define speed, velocity and acceleration.
(a) A stone is released from rest at the top of a tall tower .Draw a distance –
time graph of its free fall under gravity during the first 6 s. Show your table
of values.
(b) A bullet, fired vertically upwards from a gun held 2 m above the ground
,reaches its maximum height in 4 s. Calculate:
(i) The initial velocity of the bullet. (ANS: v = 40 m/s)
(ii) The total distance the bullet travels by the time it hits the ground,
given that g = 10 m/s2. (ANS: s = 162 m)
65. A body starts from rest and accelerates at 3 m/s2, for 4 s. Its velocity remains
constant at the maximum value so reached for 7 s and it finally comes to rest
with uniform retardation after another 5 s. Find by a graphical method:
(a) The distance moved during each stage of the motion.(s =24 m, s= 30 m)
(b) The average velocity over the whole period. (ANS: V = 8.6 m/s)
66. An object travelling at 10 m/s decelerates at 2.0 m/s2 .How long does the
object take before coming to rest? Calculate the distance travelled by the object
before it comes to rest.
67. A car travelling at a speed of 72 km/hr is uniformly retarded by an
application of brakes and comes to rest after 8 seconds. If the car with its
occupants has a mass of 1,250 kg. Calculate
(a) The braking force (ANS: F = 3,125 N)
(b) The work done in bringing it to rest.(ANS: Wd = -2.5 x 105 J)
68. A bus starts to move with acceleration of 1 m/s2 .A man who is 48 m behind
the bus runs to catch it with a constant velocity of 10 m/s. In how much time he
will catch the bus? (ANS: t = 8 s or 12 s)
69. A ball is thrown straight up. What is its velocity and acceleration at the top?
(ANS: V at top = 0 m/s, acceleration at top = 9.8 m/s2)
70. A stone is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 30 m/s from the top
of a tower 20 m high. Find:
(a) The time taken to reach the maximum height. (ANS: t = 3 s)
(b) The total time which elapses before it reaches the ground. (A:t = 6.6 s)
71. A projectile is fired vertically upwards and reaches a height of 125 m. Find
the velocity of projection and the time it takes to reach its highest point. (ANS:
V = 50 m/s, t = 5 s)
72. A cyclist starts from rest and accelerates at 1.0 m/s 2 for 30 s. The cyclist
then travels at a constant speed for 1 minute and then decelerates uniformly
and comes to a stop in the next 30 s.
(a) Find the maximum speed attained in

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 97
 i) Metres per second
ii) Kilometer per hour
(b) Calculate the total distance travelled
73. A racing car accelerates on a straight section of a road from rest to a velocity of 50
m/s in 10
s. Find:
(a) The acceleration of the car
(b) The distance travelled by the car in 10 s.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 98
 Chapter: 3
Newton’s Laws of Motion
There are three Newton’s laws of motion. These include the following
o Newton’s first law of motion
o Newton’s second law of motion
o Newton’s third law of motion
Newton’s First Law of Motion (the law of inertia or the seat belt – law)
 Newton’s first law of motion tells us that all bodies resist a change in their
state of motion. We know that this property of bodies is called inertia. That is
why, Newton’s first law of motion is also known as the law of inertia.
 Thus; Inertia is the property of body that causes it to resist changes in motion.
 Inertia is directly proportional to the mass of the object. So in other words,
the more mass an object has the more inertia and thus the more effort is needed
to start it or more force is needed to stop it.
 Newton’s First law of motion has many applications in our daily life.
Have you ever asked yourself that, “Why do the passengers standing in a bus
fall in the backward direction when the stationary bus begins to move
suddenly?”
 This observation can be explained on the basis of first law of motion as follow.
The feet of passengers are in contact with the bus. When the bus starts
suddenly, the feet start moving with the bus. But the upper part of the
passengers tries to remain at rest due to inertia of rest and tends to fall in
the backward direction. Then, what happen when the moving bus stops
suddenly? In this case the passengers standing in the bus fall in the forward
direction. Can you think the reason of it on the basis of the explanation
of the above example?
Types of Inertia
 Inertia of rest
 Inertia of motion
 Inertia of direction
Inertia of Rest
 An object stays where it is placed, and it will stay there until you or something
else moves it. The property of a body to oppose any change in its state of rest is
known as inertia of rest.
 For example, If an index card is placed on top of a glass with a coin on top of it,
the index card can be quickly removed while the coin falls straight into the
glass, as The cardboard moves away due to the force applied by the finger but
the coin remains at its position due to inertia of rest and hence falls into the

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 99
 glass.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 100
  Also; when a bus or a train starts suddenly, the passenger standing inside it falls
backward: It happens because the feet of the passenger being in contact with the
floor of the bus come in motion along with the bus but the upper part of the body
remains at rest due to inertia of rest. Hence the passenger falls backward.
Inertia of Motion
 An object will continue at the same speed until a force acts on it. The property
of a body to oppose any change in its state of uniform motion is known as
inertia of motion.
 For example; when the bus stops suddenly, people fall forward. When the
driver of a bus brakes suddenly, the lower part of the body comes to rest as
the bus comes to rest but the upper part of the body continues to move
forward due to inertia of motion. As a result, a forward force is exerted on the
body and we fall in the forward direction.
 Another example is that, Luggage is usually tied with a rope on the roof of a bus.
When the bus stops suddenly, the luggage kept on the roof may fall from the
roof of the bus due to inertia of motion therefore, it is advised to tie any
luggage kept on the roof of a bus with a rope.
 Adding more examples on this; A cyclist does not come to rest immediately
after she stops pedaling: A cyclist riding along a road does not come to rest
immediately after she stops pedaling. The bicycle continues to move forward
due to the inertia of motion.
 The electric fan continues to move for a period after the electricity is turned
off. The blades of the fan were in motion. Hence, they will take time to come to
rest after being switched off.
Inertia of Direction
 An object will stay moving in the same direction unless a force acts on it. The
property of a body to oppose any change in its direction of motion is known as
inertia of direction
Examples of Inertia of Direction;
 If you jump from a car or bus that is moving, your body is still moving in the
direction of the vehicle. When your feet hit the ground, the grounds act on your
feet and they stop moving. You will fall because the upper part of your body
didn’t stop, and you will fall in the direction you were moving.
 When a fast-moving bus negotiates a curve on the road, passengers fall towards
the centre of the curved road. This is due to the tendency of the passengers to
continue to move in a straight line.
 A stone tied to a string is whirling in a horizontal circle. If the string breaks, the
stone flies away tangentially.
 When you stir coffee or tea and stop, the swirling motion continues due to inertia of
direction.
 Satellites (that establish orbit around the earth) continue on their trajectory due to
inertia.
Therefore the Newton’s first law of motion state that
“Every object continues to be in the state of rest or of uniform motion (constant
velocity) unless there is external force acting on it.
OR
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 101
“An object will remain at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon by an
external force”
NB:
Two conditions on which the first law is dependent are explained below
(i) Objects at rest: When an object is at rest, both the velocity and acceleration are zero.
(ii) Objects in motion: V ≠ 0 and a = 0 (Object continues to be in motion at a
constant speed and in the same direction until and unless some unbalanced
force is applied)

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 102
Some examples of inertia in everyday life
 When a train suddenly starts moving forward, the passenger standing in the
compartment tends to fall backwards: This is because the lower part of body of
the passenger is in close contact with the train. As the train starts moving, the
lower part of passenger’s body shares the motion, but the upper part due to
inertia of rest cannot share the motion simultaneously and so it remains at
rest. Consequently, the lower part of the body moves ahead and the upper part
is left behind due to the inertia of rest and the passenger tends to fall backwards.
 Traveling in a Bus: You would have felt like a jerk while traveling on a bus. The
passengers standing in a moving bus experience a sudden forward fall
when the driver applies the brakes, this sudden forward fall is due to inertia
of motion. Similarly, when a speeding bus stops suddenly, then the body
moves forward because the lower part of the body is at rest and the upper part
of the body tends to remain in motion. Hence, this causes the passengers to feel
a forward push
 Marathoner running beyond finish line. A marathon runner is not able to stop himself
right after crossing the finish line. He/she tends to take time and cover a few
meters of distance running beyond the finish line. This is because the inertia of
motion or Newton’s first law of motion resists a sudden termination of motion
and compels the body to maintain its state of motion.
 When a passenger jumps out of a moving bus/train, he falls down: This is so
because inside the bus/train, his complete body was in a state of motion
with the bus/train. On jumping out of the moving bus/train as soon as his feet
touch the ground, the lower part of his body comes to rest, while the upper part
still remains in motion due to the inertia of motion. This makes him falls in the
direction of motion of the bus/train. To avoid falling, the passenger should run on
the ground in the direction of motion of the bus/train for some distance as soon as
his feet touch the ground.
 A ball thrown vertically upwards by a person in a moving train comes back to
his hand: the reason is that, at the moment the ball was thrown, the ball was
in motion along with the person and the train, due to the inertia of motion. So
during the time ball remains in air, both the person and the ball move ahead
by the same distance. This makes the ball to come back to his hand on its
return.
 Fruits and leaves fall off on shaking tree branches; Initially both the tree and the
fruits hanging to its branches are in a state of rest. When the branches of the tree
are shaken, it is set into motion while the fruits remain in a state of rest due to
the inertia of rest. Thus, the fruits get detached from the branches and fall
down due to the pull of gravity.
 A ball rolling on the ground. As per Newton’s first law of motion, a ball rolling on the
ground tends to maintain its state of motion till infinity, if no external force acts on it;
however, the force of friction acting on the ball from the outside helps to break the
motion of the ball and brings it to rest.
 Dusting a Carpet. To remove the dust particles from a carpet, it is hanged on a
wire and a piece of the stick is used to hit the carpet repeatedly. This induces
motion in the carpet, whereas the dust particles continue to maintain their
state of rest. When the carpet moves back, the dust particles get carried away

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 103
 with air or fall to the ground due to gravity, thereby demonstrating the law of
inertia
 An object through in outer space. If an object is thrown in outer space, it tends to
move in a direction to infinity. This is because outer space lacks environment,
air, and the force of gravity. Hence, the object does not receive any
resistance to the motion; therefore, it continues to exhibit motion until it hits
a celestial body, strikes a meteorite, or enters the gravitational field of a planet,
thereby demonstrating the first law of motion in real life.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 104
Class Activity – 7:1
1. Why does water comes out from a wet piece of cloth when you shake it?
2. Why do we fall forward, when a moving bus stops suddenly?
3. Why first law is called as 'Law of Inertia?
4. Name the factor on which inertia of a body depends and state how does it
depend on the factor stated above.
5. “More the mass, the more difficult it is to move the body from rest”. Explain
this statement by giving an example.
6. When a train suddenly moves forward, the passenger standing in the
compartment tends to fall backwards.
7. A person driving a car suddenly applies the brakes on seeing a child on the road
ahead. If he is not wearing seat belt, he falls forward and hits his head against the
steering wheel. Why?
8. A man jumping out of a moving train falls with his head forward. Why?
9. While driving to work, Mika keeps his wallet in the passenger seat, and by the time
he gets to work, his wallet would have fallen on the floor in front of the passenger
seat. One day, he asks you to explain why this happens in physics. What do you
say?
10. If an object is not accelerating, can you conclude that no force acts on it?
11. Why is it advised to tie any luggage kept on the roof of a bus with a rope?
12. Your Inertia can kill you! With reference to moving vehicles, discuss the
Physics behind this statement.
13. Using Newton’s first law of motion, explain what would happen to the passengers
if they were not wearing seatbelts while the aircraft is landing?
14. Suppose an object is not moving, can you conclude that there are no forces acting
on it? Explain your answer.
ANS;
 Newton's first law states that an object that is at rest will remain at rest or an
object that is moving will continue to move in a straight line with constant
velocity, if and only if the net force acting on the object is zero. This means
when the object is at rest, the net force on it, is zero but there are more than
one force act on it but the forces act on it with the same magnitude in the
opposite direction.
 For example, a book on a table, the earth exerts the force gravity on it down
while the table exerts the normal force on it upward with the same magnitude,
so it remains at the rest.
 Hence, the answer is no, we couldn't conclude that there are no forces acting on it
Momentum
 You have learnt in the earlier section that the force required to stop a moving
body depends upon its mass. Now suppose two balls of same mass are
moving with different velocities. Which ball will need more force to stop? You
will find that the faster moving ball require more force to stop it. Thus, the
force required to stop a body also depends upon its velocity.
 You must have noticed that a small bullet when fired from a gun can kill a
person. But the same bullet if thrown with hand can hardly do any harm.
Similarly a truck parked along a road side does not require any attention. But
a moving truck may kill a person standing in its path. Is it only the velocity of the
truck which makes us frightened? If it is so, then a toy car moving with the same
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 105
 velocity as the truck would have equally frightened to us.
 From these observations it appears that the impact produced by the objects
depends on their mass and velocity. These two quantities help us to define a
new quantity called momentum.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 106
 mass, m and velocity, v., 𝒊𝒆, . 𝒑 = 𝒎𝒗
 Therefore; the momentum, p of a moving body is defined as the product of its

 ... The S.I unit of momentum is kg m/s. Momentum has both magnitude and
direction. Its direction is same as that of velocity.

Example;
A man of mass 1000 kg is moving with a velocity of 60 km/h. find its momentum
Solution:
Given: Mass of a car, m = 1000 kg , Velocity of a car, v = 60km/h = 16.7 m/s
Momentum of a car, p =?
From: Momentum (p) = mass x velocity = mv = 1000 x 16.7 = 16700 kgm/s

Class Activity – 7:2

1. Two similar trucks are moving on a road with the same velocity. One of them is
empty while the other one is loaded. Which of the two has more momentum?
2. If a body of mass 5 kg moves with a velocity of 10 ms–1, then what is the
momentum of the body?

Newton’s Second Law of Motion

 Newton’s second law of motion is closely related to Newton’s first law of motion.
It mathematically states the cause and effect relationship between force and
changes in motion (change in velocity). Newton’s second law of motion is more
quantitative and is used extensively to calculate what happens in situations
involving a force.
 A change in velocity means that there is an acceleration. Newton’s first law says
that a net external force causes a change in motion; thus, we see that a net
external force causes acceleration
It states that: “The rate of change momentum of a body is directly proportional to
the applied force and takes place in the direction in which the force acts”
 Newton’s second law of motion also gives a relation between force and

 Suppose force 𝑭 acts on a body of mass ‘𝒎’ for time 𝒕. This force causes the
acceleration. Let us derive this relationship.

velocity of the body to change from initial velocity ′𝒖′ to final velocity ′𝒗′ in
that interval 𝒕
 The change in momentum will then be 𝒎𝒗 – 𝒎𝒖
𝒎𝒗−𝒎𝒖
rate of change of momentum is =
The
𝒕
 by Newton’s second law of
𝒑𝟐−𝒑𝟏
𝒕

→ 𝑭∝ 𝒎( )
𝒗−𝒖
motion

𝑭∝
𝒎𝒗−𝒎𝒖 𝒕
�

is the rate of change of velocity, which is the acceleration ‘𝒂’ of a body.

�
𝒗−𝒖
But;
𝒕
Therefore, we have; ∝ 𝒎𝒂
 If a constant of proportionality k is introduced in the above relation, then
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 107
 𝑭 = 𝒌𝒎𝒂. This equation can be used to define unit of force. If 𝒎 = 𝟏𝒌𝒈
𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂 = 𝟏𝒎/𝒔𝟐, then the unit of force is chosen in such a way that
when 𝑭 = 𝟏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒌 = 𝟏, hence 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
 If a mass of 1kg is accelerating with 1m/s2, then a force 1N is said to be acting on the

 ∴ A Force (F) of 1N is the force which when acting on the body of mass 1kg
body.

produces an acceleration of 1m/s2. ∴ 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 108
 𝑭
 We can also write the equation 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂 as 𝒂 =
𝒎
 It is obvious from the above relation that: The acceleration produced in a
body is directly proportional to the force acting on it and inversely
proportional to the mass of the body.
 Since the acceleration produced is inversely proportional to the mass of a body,
therefore, if the mass of a body is doubled, its acceleration will be halved.
And if the mass is halved then acceleration will get doubled (provided the force
remains the same). Moreover, since the acceleration produced is inversely
proportional to the mass of the body, it means that it will be easier to move light
bodies than heavy bodies.

Worked Examples
1. Suppose you exert an upward force of 10 N on a 3kg object. What will be
the object acceleration?
Solution:
Given: Force applied, f = 10 N, Mass of object, m = 3 kg = 30
N Acceleration of an object, a =?

From: 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂 ---------------- make a the subject ∴ 𝒂 = = 𝟔. 𝟔𝟕 m/s2

𝟐𝟎
Net force (F) = 30 - 10 = 20 N

=
𝑭 𝟑
𝒎

2. A tennis ball whose mass is 150 g is moving at a speed of 20 m/s. it is then

brought to rest by one player in 0.05 s. find average force applied
Solution:
Mass of tennis ball, m = 150 g = 0.15 kg, Initial velocity, u
= 20 m/s Final velocity, v = 0 m/s Time taken, t =
0.05 s Force applied/average, f =?
∴ 𝑭 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 × = −𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 𝒙 = −𝟔𝟎 𝑵
𝟎−𝟐𝟎 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎

𝟎.𝟎𝟓 𝟓

3. A body at rest is acted upon by a force for 20 seconds. The force is then
withdrawn, and the body moves a distance of 60 m in the next 5seconds, If

ANS; 𝒕𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎𝒔,𝟔𝟎 𝒕𝟐 = 𝟓𝒔, 𝒎 = 𝟏𝟎𝒌𝒈, 𝒔 = 𝟔𝟎𝒎, 𝒖∆𝒗

= 𝟎𝒎𝒔 ,
the mass of the body is 10kg, calculate the magnitude of the force.
∆𝒗 𝟏𝟐
−𝟏

𝒔
𝒔 = = 𝟏𝟐𝒎𝒔 , 𝒕𝒉𝒖𝒔 ; 𝒂 =
−𝟏
= = = 𝟎. 𝟔𝒎𝒔−𝟏
𝒗= =
𝒕 𝒕𝟐 𝟓 𝒕 𝒕𝟏 𝟐𝟎
From; 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂 ∴ = 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟔 = 𝟔𝑵
4. A trolley of mass 20 kg loaded with a bag of maize of mass 100kg rest on a smooth
horizontal track. If two opposing forces of magnitude 55 N and 90 N are applied to

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 109
 the trolley as shown in figure below, find

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 110
 (a) Acceleration of the trolley;
(b) Direction of the resulting motion
(c)The distance travelled by the trolley in 4
seconds

Fro= 𝒎𝒂 → 𝒂 = =
𝑭𝑵𝒆𝒕 −𝟓𝟓+𝟗𝟎
m; Net Force = mass x acceleration → 𝑭
ANS;
(a)
𝑵𝒆𝒕 𝒎 𝟐𝟎+𝟏𝟎𝟎
∴𝒂= = 𝟎.
𝟑𝟓
𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝟐𝟗𝒎/s2
(b) The direction of the resulting motion is towards the right (or towards 90N) since
90N >55N
𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕 ∴ 𝒔 = 𝟎 × 𝟒 +× 𝟎. 𝟐𝟗 × 𝟒= 𝟐. 𝟑𝟐𝒎
𝟐 𝟐
(c)From;
5. Calculate the force required to impart to a car a velocity of 30 m/s in 10 seconds starting

rest. The mass of the car is 1500 kg. [A; 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂 = 𝒎=) 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 × =4500N
𝟑𝟎−𝟎
from
𝒗−𝒖 𝟏𝟎
(
𝒕
6. A bullet of 0.05kg travelling at 500m/s horizontally strikes a thick vertical wall. It
stops after penetrating through the wall a horizontal distance of 0.25m. What is

ANS; 𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝒌𝒈, 𝒖 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒎/s 𝒔 = 𝟎.𝟐𝟐𝟓𝒎, 𝑭 =? , 𝒗 = 𝟎𝒎/s

the magnitude of the average force the wall exerts on the wall?
(𝒗 −𝒖𝟐) (𝟎𝟐−𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟐)
Deceleration, ; 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔  𝒂 =
𝟐 𝟐
= = −500,000m/s2
𝟐𝒔 𝟐×𝟎.𝟐𝟓
(the negative sign indicates deceleration of the
bullet)
Therefore; 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 × 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 = −𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓𝑵
NB:

 Impulse is the change in momentum → Impulse = change in momentum

 The product of force and unit time is called impulse

∴ I = Ft
OR Impulse = Force x time

 Its SI unit is Newton second

( Ns) Worked Examples;
1. During a collision, a truck applies a force of 20000N on a 250 kg van for
0.5 seconds. Determine the impulse experienced by the van
Solution
Given: F = 20000 N, t = 0.5 s , m = 250 kg

2. A force of 5N acts on a body for 3× 𝟏𝟎−𝟔𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠. Find

From: Impulse (I) = Force x time = Ft = 20000 x 0.5 = 10000 Ns

(c) The impulse

ANS; 𝑭 = 𝟓𝑵, 𝒕 = 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔𝒔, 𝒎 = 𝟓𝒈 = 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝒌𝒈

(d) If the mass of the body is 5g, calculate the change in velocity

From; 𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒔𝒆 (𝑰) = 𝑭𝒕 = 𝟓 × 3× 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 = 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 Ns

𝒎(∆𝒗) 𝑭𝒕
From; 𝑭 = → 𝑭𝒕 = ∆𝒗 = =
(a)
−𝟓
(b)
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 111
 𝟏.𝟓×𝟏𝟎
= 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝒎/s
𝒕 𝒎 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟓

Application of Newton’s second law (Momentum & Impulse) in our daily life
In our everyday life we see many applications of second law of motion. In many
situations we try to decrease or increase the rate of change of momentum by changing
the time in which the change of momentum takes place. Let us consider some
examples.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 112
  The high jumpers usually bend their knees on landing. This increases the
time of impact thus reducing the chance of injuries. This reduces the
possibility of them cracking on sudden stop or start
 Hitting a Ball. A ball develops a certain amount of acceleration after being

force applied to it (𝒊. 𝒆, 𝑭 ∝ 𝒂). This means that the harder you hit the
hit. The acceleration with which the ball moves is directly proportional to the

ball, the faster it will move, thereby demonstrating Newton’s second law of
motion in daily life
 Two People walking together. Consider two people, having different masses,

acceleration (𝒊. 𝒆, 𝒂 ∝ ) , the person having more mass tends to move

walking together. Due to the inverse relationship between mass and
�
�
slower, and the person having less mass tends to move faster. This scenario
justifies Newton’s second law of motion in real life by
establishing a relationship between mass, acceleration, and force.
 Lowering of hands while catching a ball. As we know that; Force = rate of change of
momentum. If a player does not lower his hands while catching the ball, the
time to stop the ball is very little. So a powerful force has to be applied to change
the momentum of the ball. When a player lowers his hands, the time to stop the
ball is increased and hence less force has to be applied to cause the same change
in the momentum of the ball. Therefore, the hands of the player are not
injured.
 A person is better off falling on a wooden floor than a concrete floor. Because

lesser force of impact �than a concrete floor (𝒊. 𝒆, 𝑭 ∝ ).

the wooden floor allows for a longer time of impact and, therefore a
𝟏

 Glass wares are wrapped � in a paper before packing to avoid breakage.

Because this increases the time of impact between various articles during jerks,
thereby decreasing the force of impact on the articles
 When the car goes out of control while driving, you would prefer to hit something
soft than something hard. It is because by hitting soft material you extend
your time of impact
,thereby reducing the impact force
 Pushing a shopping Cart. Pushing an empty shopping cart is easier than
pushing a loaded shopping cart. This is because of the relation between the

relationship with acceleration (𝒊. 𝒆, 𝒂 ∝

mass of the object, the force applied to it, and the acceleration produced.
),
𝟏
Since mass has an inverse �
therefore the loaded cart tends� to move at a slower
pace than the empty cart.
 Rocket Launch. For a rocket to leave the earth’s orbit and enter outer
space, a force called thrust is required. As per the second law of motion
given by Sir Isaac Newton, the force is proportional to the acceleration;
therefore, to launch a rocket, the magnitude of thrust is increased, which in
turn increases the acceleration. The speed achieved by the rocket finally helps
it to escape the earth’s gravitational field and enter space.
 The use of Seat Belts in Cars. These days all the cars are provided with seat
belts for passengers to prevent injuries in case of an accident. In a car
accident, a fast running car stops suddenly. Due to this the car’s large

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 113
 momentum is reduced to zero in a very short time. The slightly stretchable
seat belts worn by the passengers of the car increase the time taken by the
passengers to fall forward. Due to longer time, the rate of change of
momentum of passengers is reduced and hence less stopping force acts on them.
So, the passengers may either not get injured at all or may get less injuries. It is
obvious that seat belts reduce the passengers’ momentum more gently and
hence prevent injuries.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 114
  Cement floor cause more injury than heap of sand: When a person falls
on a cemented floor, the rate of change of momentum is very high
because the person is abruptly stopped i.e. stopped in a very short interval of
time. Hence the person gets injured due to the application of a large force on his
body due to the floor. On the other hand, when a person falls on a heap of
sand, the sand yields under the weight of the person. As a result of this,
the person comes to rest in a longer period of time. So the change in
momentum takes place in longer interval of time. Hence a small force is
exerted on the body of the person when he falls on a heap of sand. Therefore,
he does not get injured.

Class Activity – 7:3

1. A net force of 15 N is exerted on an encyclopedia to cause to accelerate at a rate of
3ms-2
.Determine the mass of the encyclopedia (ANS: m = 5 kg)
2. A trolley of mass 400 g has a velocity of 600 cm/s. Calculate the momentum of
the trolley (ANS: p = 2.4 kgm/s)
3. Suppose that a sphere is accelerating at rate of 2 m/s2 .If the net force is tripled
and the mass is halved, then what is the new acceleration of the sphere?
(ANS: acceleration will increase by six times)
4. Can the impulse of a force be zero, even if the force is not zero? Explain why or why
not?
Answer:-
 Yes, the impulse of a force can be zero, even if the force is not zero.
 This is because; Impulse of a force is defined as the change in momentum
produced by the force and it is equal to the product of force and the time
for which it acts. The impulse of a force can be zero, if the net force acting
on the particle during that time interval is constant. Since the force is
constant (both magnitude and direction), so change in momentum
produced by the force will be zero. Therefore impulse of the force will be
zero.
 From the above observation we conclude that, impulse of a force can be
zero, even if the force is not zero.
5. A car of mass 1800 kg is moving at an initial velocity of 20m/s. It hits a wall and
stops after covering 1.8m. What is the average stopping force that the wall applied

ANS; 𝒎 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈, 𝒖 = 𝟐𝟎𝒎/s 𝒔 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝒎, 𝑭 =? , 𝒗 = 𝟎𝒎/s

on the car?

(𝒗𝟐−𝒖𝟐) (𝟎𝟐−𝟐𝟎𝟐)
From; 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂 = 𝒎 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎 × = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎 × = −𝟐. 𝟎 ×
−𝟒𝟎𝟎

𝟏𝟎𝟓𝑵
𝟐𝒔 𝟐×𝟏.𝟖 𝟑.𝟔

6. Suppose that the acceleration of an object is zero. Does this mean that there are no
forces acting on the object? Give an example of a everyday situation
 An object with zero acceleration (or constant velocity) will still have forces acting
on it; normal force and force due to gravity. It is the resultant of these forces
acting on the object that equal to zero, therefore, balancing out. This means
that; when the object is at uniform motion, the net force on it, is zero but there
are more than one force act on it but the forces act on it with the same
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 115
 magnitude in the opposite direction.
 A common, everyday situation would be a person in an elevator. When
the elevator reaches a constant velocity, acceleration is zero, normal force
and force due to gravity are balanced, which is why our bodies don't sense
that we are moving up or down. When the elevator speeds up/slows down, we
will then feel a resultant force; feeling heavier or lighter when acceleration is
not zero.
7. If a force is exerted on an object, is it possible for that object to be moving with constant
velocity? Explain.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 116
 ANS;
 When we apply a force on an object, it makes the object accelerating,
that's what is Newton's law states where the acceleration is inversely

the applied force, 𝑭 and this force is given by equation in the form of
proportional to the mass of an object while it is directly proportional to

𝑭𝑵𝒆𝒕 = 𝒎𝒂 − − − (𝒊)
 Where 𝒎 is the mass of the object while 𝒂 is the acceleration.

zero, and in this case, from equation (i) the net force will be zero, 𝑖. 𝑒,,
 To make the object moves with a constant velocity , the acceleration must be

𝑭𝑵𝒆𝒕 = 𝟎
 The net force equals zero doesn't means there is no force is exerted on the object but
there
are more than one force are exerted with same magnitude in opposite directions.
 So, the answer is yes, it possible for that object to be moving with constant velocity.
8. Determine the momentum of a 1000 kg truck moving Northwards at a velocity of
20 m/s
(ANS: p = 20000 kgm/s----------northward)
9. An athlete has a westward momentum of 5000 kgm/s. If the athlete has a mass
of 75 kg, at what velocity is he moving? (ANS: v = 66.7 m/s-1)
10. A cricket ball of mass 180 g travelling at 25 m/s is hit
towards the bowler at 15 m/s .The impact lasts for 0.04 s. (ANS: I = 7.2 Ns, F =
180 N to the left)
Find: (a) the impulse (b) the average force applied
11. An unbalanced force of 12 N acts on a mass of 2 kg. Calculate
a) The resulting acceleration (ANS: a = 6 m/s2)
b) The force that would give a body of 10 kg the same acceleration (ANS: F = 60
N)
12. A train of mass 22,400kg moving at the rate of 112km/hr is brought to rest in
24 seconds by the action of the brakes. Calculate the braking force. [ANS;
29,037 N]
13. A Cricket ball of mass 100g is moving with a speed of 25m/s and is brought
to rest in 0.025s. Find the average force applied and the impulse. [ANS: 100N,
2.5Ns]
14. A cricket ball of mass 100 g strikes the hand of a player with a velocity of 20
m/s and is brought to rest in 0.01s. Calculate:
(i) The force applied by the hand of the player (ANS: 200 N)
(ii) The acceleration of the ball (ANS: -2000 m/s2)
15. Ali, who has a mass of 50 kg, is driving his car at 35 ms−1. A dog suddenly
crosses his path, causing him to brake immediately to avoid an accident. The
seat belt brings his body to a gradual stop in 0.5 s. What is the average force
that the seat belt exerts on him?
16. Can a body moves with zero acceleration still the force acting on it is not
equal to zero? explain
17. A force of 20 N acts on a rocket for 350s, causing the rocket’s velocity
to increase. a.Calculate the impulse of the force. [ANS: 7000 Ns]
b. By how much does the rocket’s momentum increase? [ANS; 7000kgm/s]

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 117
Newton’s Third Law of Motion
 You must have already noticed that when you jump from a boat to the river
bank, the boat moves in the backward direction. Why does this happen?
 This happens because; while jumping out of the boat, your foot exerts a backward
force on the boat. This force is called Action. At the same time a force is
exerted by the boat on your foot, which makes you move forward. This force
is known as Reaction.
 Remember that two bodies and two forces are involved in this problem. You
pushed the boat backward and the boat pushes you forward. These two forces
are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 118
  Newton in his third law of motion stated a relation between action and reaction.
 According to this law, to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
The action and reaction act on two different bodies if action and reaction are on same
body they will constitute a balanced force and body will not move.
 Also consider a book lying on a table in the figure below. The book exerts a downward
force due to its weight, but it does not fall down, therefore the net force on the book is
zero. This is because the table exerts an equal and opposite force on the book in
the upward direction.

 Since two forces are equal Isaac Newton established a law which state that:
“To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction’’
 Newton’s third law is also known as the law of reciprocal actions or law of
action and reaction

Application of Newton’s Third Law

The following are some practical examples involving Newton’s 3rd law of motion
 Walking: While walking on the ground we push the ground with our foot in the
backward direction. This is the force of Action. In return the ground exerts
an equal force of Reaction on our foot in the forward direction. The force
that actually makes us walk in the forward direction is this Reaction Force

 Throwing a Ball. When a ball is thrown on the floor or a wall, it bounces back.
The force exerted by the ball on the ground or wall is the Action Force. The
force that the ground or wall exerts on the ball in response to the action force
causes the ball to jump or bounce back. This force is nothing but the Reaction

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 119
 Force.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 120
  Rowing of a boat: When rowing a boat, the boatman pushes the water backwards
with the oars (this is Action). According to Newton’s third law of motion, the water
exerts an equal and opposite push on the boat, which moves forward. (this is
Reaction). In fact, the harder the boatman pushes back the water with oars (i.e.

the greater the action) the greater the reaction (force) exerted by the water
and faster the boat moves forward.
 If a car is accelerating forward, it is because its tyres are pushing backward on
the road (action) and the road is pushing forward on the tryres (reaction).
Thus; this mutual interaction of forces with an equal amount of magnitude
but in opposite direction causes the car to move (accelerates forward).
Therefore this is also a good illustration of Newton’s third law of motion
 When a person throws a package out of a boat, the boat moves in opposite
direction from the package. The package exerts an equal but opposite force
on the person
 A falling object exerts upward force on the earth as much as the earth is
exerting a downward force on the object
 Recoiling of gun: When a bullet is fired from a gun, it exerts forward force on
the bullet and the bullet exerts equal and opposite force on the gun. Due to the
high mass of the gun, it moves a little distance backward and gives a
backward jerk to the shoulder of the gunman. The jerk felt on the gun that
pulls it in the backward direction exists due to the reaction force. This is the
reason why a person operating a gun takes the support of his shoulder to
avoid injury.

 In Swimming. A person swimming in a forward direction pushes the water in the

backward direction with his/her hands. This force applied by the person acts as the
Action force, which leads to the generation of a Reaction force. This pair of
forces, acting together simultaneously on the persons’ body and the
water, causes the person to swim in the forward direction.
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 121
  Pain caused during hammering: We feel pain in our hand when we hammer a nail
into a wooden plank. While hammering a nail, the force of the hammer on the
nail is the action. According to Newton’s third law of motion the nail exerts
an equal and opposite force on

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 122
 the hammer (the reaction). Since the hammer is held in our hand firmly, our
hand experiences the force due to the reaction, and feels hurt.
 When the air is released from balloon it rushed out (action) tend to give
reaction balloon so it acquire the motion
 Pushing a wall: When we exert a force on a wall by pushing the palm of our
hand against it (this is action); then, according to Newton’s third law of motion,
the wall exerts an equal and opposite force (called reaction) on our palm, and
therefore we feel pain in our hand.
 Flying of Jet plane and rocket: In jet engines and rockets, the fuel is burnt to
produce a large quantity of hot gases. These hot gases come out of a nozzle
(a fine opening) with a great force (this is action). According to Newton’s
third law of motion, the equal and opposite reaction pushes the Jet
Aeroplane and Rockets forward with a great speed (this is reaction)

 Jumping out from boat: When we start jumping out of a rowing boat, we push
the boat backward with our feet. The boat exerts equal and opposite force on
us in the forward direction which enables us to move forward.
 An airplane pushes back on the air and the air pushes forward on the plane.

Apparent weight of man in lift (elevator)

 Suppose a man of mass m is standing on a weighing machine placed in lift or elevator
 The man exerts on the floor a force vertically downward which is the weight of the
man (W)
 On the other hand, the floor exerts an equal force R on the man in the
upward direction (Newton’s 3rd Law of motion) . Therefore R = W
 Since the two forces are acting on the man ,Then the difference of the two
forces will determine in which direction the net force acts
(a) When the lift is at rest

𝑹 − 𝒎𝒈 = ∴𝑹=
Acceleration is zero and net force is zero

𝟎 𝒎𝒈
(b) When the lift is moving with constant velocity
Again in this case acceleration is zero (a = 0 m/s2)

∴ 𝑹 = 𝒎𝒈 = 𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒂𝒏
(c) When the lift is moving upward with acceleration, 𝒂

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 123
 𝑵𝒆𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 = 𝑹 − 𝒎𝒈→ 𝒎𝒂 = 𝑹 − 𝒎𝒈
 Here the net force is acting in the upward direction

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 124
 ∴ 𝑹 = 𝒎𝒂 + 𝒎𝒈 = 𝒎 (𝒂 + 𝒈)

∴ 𝑹 > 𝑊 ( = 𝑚𝑔)
 Therefore, apparent weight (R) is greater than the actual weight
W (= mg) of the man.The man can feel it if he walks on the floor of lift
(elevator),he will need more effort to walk naturally
(d) When the lift is moving downward with acceleration a

𝑵𝒆𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 = 𝒎𝒈 − 𝑹 → 𝒎𝒂 = 𝒎𝒈 − 𝑹
 Net force is acting downward

∴ 𝑹 = 𝒎𝒈 − 𝒎𝒂 = 𝒎 (𝒈 − 𝒂)

∴ 𝑹 < 𝑊 ( = 𝑚𝑔)
 Therefore the apparent weight (R) of the man is less than the actual
weight W(= mg) of the man .The man will feel lighter as he walks about on
the floor of the lift (elevator)

 If the lift (elevator) cable breaks , then the lift(elevator) will fall freely and 𝒂 =
(e) For free fall.

𝒈
From: 𝑹 = 𝒎𝒈 − 𝒎𝒂 = 𝒎 (𝒈 − 𝒂) = 𝟎
 Therefore the apparent of the man will become zero
(f) When the lift moves downward with 𝒂 > 𝑔
 In this case 𝑹 = 𝒎 (𝒈 − 𝒂) becomes negative
 Therefore the apparent weight of the man becomes negative and
this indicates that the man will rise from the floor of the lift (elevator)
and stick to the ceiling of the lift (elevator)

Worked examples;
1. Fuel was consumed at a steady rate of 5.0x10 -2kg per second in a rocket engine
and ejected as a gas with a speed of 4x103m/s. Determine the thrust on the
rocket.
ANS;
From 3RD of Motion;
Rate of momentum of expelled gas = Force (thrust) experienced by the rocket (aircraft)

𝑭 = 𝟓. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 × 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑵

Thrust (Force) = rate of change of momentum = mass of fuel per second x velocity

2. A pilot jumps from a plane on an air cushion. His/her speed is 24m/s. The
average force of the cushion on the body while he/she is being stopped is 9
400N. If his/her mass is 70kg, calculate the distance he/she will sink into the

ANS; 𝒖 = 𝟐𝟒𝒎/s, 𝑭 = 𝟗 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝑵, 𝒎 = 𝟕𝟎𝒌𝒈,

cushion.

From; 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂 → 𝒂 = = = 𝟏𝟑𝟒. 𝟑𝒎s-2, but; 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔

𝑭 𝟗𝟒𝟎𝟎
𝒎 𝟕𝟎
𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔  𝟎𝟐 = 𝟐𝟒𝟐 + 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟑𝟒. 𝟑 × 𝒔
−𝟓𝟕𝟔
𝟐 𝟐

𝟎𝟐 = 𝟐𝟒𝟐 + 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟑𝟒. 𝟑 × 𝒔  𝒔 =
𝟐𝟔𝟖. 𝟔
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 125
= −𝟐. 𝟏𝟒𝒎
Therefore; the distance he/she will sink into the cushion is 𝟐. 𝟏𝟒𝒎

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 126
 3. A person standing in a lift holding a spring balance with a load of 5kg
suspended from it. What is the reading on the spring if the lift is descending with
an acceleration of 3.8m/s2 When the lift is moving downward with acceleration,

It is given that; 𝑹 = 𝒎𝒈 − 𝒎𝒂 = 𝒎 (𝒈 − ) = 𝟓(𝟏𝟎 − 𝟑. 𝟖) = 𝟑𝟏𝑵

a

Class Activity – 7:4

1. A monkey has a mass of 50 kg and it climbs on a rope which can stand maximum
tensional force(T) of 600 N. when you expect the rope to break if Monkey:
a) Climb up with acceleration of 6 m/s2 (ANS: R= 800
N, it will break)
b) Climb up with uniform speed of 5 m/s (ANS: R =500 N, it will not break)
c) Fall down the rope will acceleration due to gravity (AS: R= 0 N, it will not break)
d) Fall down the rope will acceleration of 4 m/s2 (ANS:R = 300N,will not break)
(NB: Where R>T, the rope will break and for R<T, The rope will not break)
2. If forces are always equal and opposite in action and reaction, how is it possible for an
object to accelerate?
3. If you push a book on a table with a force of 10 N to the right, what is the
reaction force exerted by the table on the book?
4. When a shot is fired from a gun, the gun gets recoiled. Explain.
5. A 80 kg man stands in a lift .Calculate the force he exerts on the floor of the lift
when the lift is (Assume g = 9.8 m/s2)
a) Stationary (ANS: F = 780)
b) Ascending upward at 2 m/s 2 (ANS: F = 940 N)
c) Moving with a constant velocity (upward) 4 m/s (ANS: F = 780 N)
6. A girl of mass 50kg stands inside a lift which is accelerated upwards at a rate of 2m/s 2.
Determine the reaction of the lift at the girl’s feet. [ANS: 600N, the force is greater
than the girl’s weight, she therefore feels some pressing force under the feet]
7. An elevator weighing 6000 kg is pulled upward by a cable with an acceleration of 5m/s 2,
what is the tension in the cable? (g =10m/s2). [ANS: T = m (g + a) = 90, 000N]
8. A man is standing on a weighing machine placed in a lift, when stationary, his
weight is recorded as 40 kg. If the lift is accelerated upwards with an acceleration
of 2 m/s2, what is the weight recorded in the machine (g = 10m/s2) [ANS: R = m
(a + g) = 480N]
9. A body of mass 2 kg is hung on a spring balance mounted vertically in a lift. If the
lift descends with acceleration equal to the acceleration due to gravity ‘g’, what is
the reading on the spring balance? [ANS: R = m (g –a) = m (g – g) = 0 N]
10. A Jet engine develops a thrust of 270Ns when the velocity of the exhaust gases
relative to the engine is 300m/s. What is the mass of the material ejected per
second

𝑭 = 𝒎𝒗 𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝒌𝒈
𝑭 𝟐𝟕𝟎
ANS; Thrust on engine = mass of gas ejected per second x velocity

=
𝟑𝟎𝟎
𝒗

11. Newton pair forces are equal in size and opposite in direction and yet they do not
cancel each other out. Explain
ANS: Forces can only cancel each other out if they act on the same object,
Newton pair forces act on different objects
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 127
12. Explain, in detail, using the third law of motion, how a person is able to walk forward
13. If a bike collides with a fast moving truck, which object experiences
greater acceleration?
ANS; According to Newton’s third law both experiences the same magnitude of
force. As the mass of the bike is lesser compared to trucks so the bike experiences
greater acceleration

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 128
 14. If a fly collides with the windshield of a fast moving bus, which object
experiences impact force with larger magnitude?
15. Give an example to explain Newton’s 3rd law of motion?
16. Action and reaction forces occur all the time. Can you think of an example in your
daily life?
17. A rocket engine expels exhaust gases backward with a force of 1,000 N.
According to Newton’s Third Law, what is the force that propels the rocket
forward?
18. Explain the motion of a rocket with the help of Newton’s third law.
19. When two spring balances joined at their free ends, are pulled apart, both show
the same reading. Explain.
ANS;
 The spring of balance A pulls the spring of balance B due to which we get some
reading in balance B. The same reading is seen in balance A because the spring
of balance B also pulls the spring of balance A by the same force.
 The pull on the spring B by the spring A is the action FBA and the pull on the
spring A by the spring B is the reaction FAB.
 This demonstrates that "to every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction" (i.e., in magnitude FAB = FBA but they are in opposite directions)
20. To move a boat ahead in water, the boatman has to push the water backwards by
his oar. Explain.

Conservation of Linear Momentum

Collision
 Is an occurrence where momentum or kinetic energy is transferred from
one object to another
Types of Collisions
 Elastic collisions
 Inelastic collisions

Elastic Collision
 In elastic collisions all of the energy remains as kinetic energy — no energy is
lost to other forms. This means that both kinetic energy and momentum are
conserved after collision.

 Figure above shows a simple case. Before the collision, particle A with mass 𝒎𝑨
is moving towards particle B with a speed 𝒖𝑨, while particle B with mass
𝒎𝑩 is moving towards particle A with a speed 𝒖𝑩. The collision is elastic,
so both momentum and kinetic energy must be conserved.
 Before the collision the particles have a total momentum (taking to the right as positive) of
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science �level 1 & II Page 129
�
 𝒑 = 𝒎𝑨 𝒖
− 𝒎𝑩 𝒖and 𝑲. 𝑩𝒆𝒇𝒐= 𝟐 𝒎𝒖𝑨
𝟏
� 𝟐+ 𝒎𝑩 𝒖𝑩
𝟐

𝑨 𝑩 𝑬 𝒓𝒆 �

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 130
  After the collision, the particles have a total momentum and kinetic energy of

𝒑 = −𝒎𝑨 𝒗
�
+ 𝒎𝑩 𝒗and 𝑲. =
𝟏
𝒎 � 𝟐+ 𝒎� 𝑩𝒗𝑩𝟐
𝟐 𝒗𝑨
𝑨 𝑩 𝑬𝑨𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 �
�
�
 Equating momentum and kinetic energies gives:
𝒎𝑨𝒖𝑨 − 𝒎𝑩𝒖𝑩 = −𝒎𝑨𝒗𝑨 + 𝒎𝑩𝒗𝑩 − − − − − (𝒊)

𝒎 𝒖
𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
𝟐
𝟏
𝟏
𝑨 𝑨 + 𝒎𝑩 𝒖𝑩 = 𝒎𝑨𝒗𝑨 + 𝒎𝑩 𝒗 𝑩 −−
− − − (𝒊𝒊)
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

Inelastic Collision
 An inelastic collision is a collision in which the kinetic energy of the colliding
objects is not conserved after collision. In other words, the total kinetic
energy before the collision is not equal to the total kinetic energy after the
collision.
 It is converted into dissipative energy like sound, heat, or friction.
 For example, when a tennis ball is released from a height, it bounces to a lower
height. The reason is that some of its kinetic energy is lost due to sound and
friction with the ground.

Difference between elastic and inelastic collision

Elastic collision Inelastic collision
Both momentum and kinetic Only momentum is conserved
energy are conserved (kinetic energy is changed into other
energies such as heat and sound
energy)
Forces during collision are conservative Forces during collision are not
and mechanical energy is not conservative and mechanical
transformed into some other form of energy is transformed into some
energy such as sound and thermal other form of energy such as
energy sound and thermal
energy
Bodies move apart after collision Bodies stick together after collision
Each body moves with individual velocity Bodies move with common velocity
An example of elastic collision is the An example of inelastic collision is
movement of the swinging balls an
automobile collision

Principle of Conservation of linear Momentum

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 131
  It states that: “when two or more bodies collide, their total momentum
remains constant provided no external forces are acting”
 Consider the case of firing a gun, as the bullet leaves the gun (reaction), the one
holding it feels a backward force (reaction from the bullet of the gun)

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 132
  According to Newton’s 3rd law of motion, these two forces are equal and
opposite. Since these two forces act at the same time, the impulses (i.e.
change in momentum) produced must be equal in magnitude and opposite in

 Let two bodies A and B having masses 𝒎𝟏 and 𝒎𝟐 move with initial
direction.

𝒖𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒖𝟐 in a straight line. Let the velocity of the first body be higher
velocity

than that of the second body. i.e., 𝒖𝟏 > . During an interval of time 𝒕
second, they tend to have a collision. After the impact, both of them move

𝒗𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒗𝟐 respectively. See the figure below

along the same straight line with a velocity

 Let 𝑭𝑨 and 𝑭𝑩 be the forces acting on 𝒎𝟏 and 𝒎𝟐 during collision.

= 𝒎𝟐
(𝒗𝟐−𝒖𝟐)
𝑭𝑩
 Force on body B due to A, 
𝒕

=
(𝒗𝟏−𝒖𝟏
𝑭𝑨
 Force on body A due to B, 
)
𝒎𝟏 �
�
 By Newton’s third law of motion the forces are equal and opposite since the two
forces act during the same time t, the impulses produced are therefore equal

... 𝑭𝑨𝒕 = − 𝑭𝑩𝒕

and opposite

 But 𝑭𝑨𝒕 = 𝒎𝟏𝒗𝟏 − 𝒎𝟏𝒖𝟏 and 𝑭𝑨𝒕 = 𝒎𝟐𝒗𝟐 − 𝒎𝟐𝒖𝟐

From: 𝑭𝑨𝒕 = − 𝑭𝑩𝒕
Thus: 𝒎𝟏𝒗𝟏 − 𝒎𝟏𝒖𝟏 = −(𝒎𝟐𝒗𝟐 − 𝒎𝟐𝒖𝟐)

𝒎𝟏𝒗𝟏 − 𝒎𝟏𝒖𝟏 = −𝒎𝟐𝒗𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐𝒖𝟐

𝒎𝟏𝒗𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐𝒗𝟐 = 𝒎𝟏𝒖𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐𝒖𝟐

∴ 𝒎𝟏𝒖𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐𝒖𝟐 = 𝒎𝟏𝒗𝟏 +

𝒎 𝟐𝒗 𝟐
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 133
  The above equation confirms in the absence of an external force, the algebraic
sum of the momentum after collision is numerically equal to the algebraic
sum of the momentum before collision.
NB:
 If the two bodies are moving in opposite side (after or before collision), then
minus sign (–ve) is introduced in the formula

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 134
Worked Examples
1. A bullet of mass 10 g leaves a gun of mass 500 g with a velocity of 100 m/s. Find
the velocity of the gun coil.
Data given
Mass of a bullet, m1 = 100 g, Mass of a gun, m2 = 500 g
Initial velocity of a bullet, u1 = 0 m/s Initial velocity of a gun,
u2 = 0 m/s Final velocity of a bullet, v1 = 100 m/s Final
velocity of a gun, v2=?
Solution

𝒎𝟏𝒖𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐𝒖𝟐 = 𝒎𝟏𝒗𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐𝒗𝟐

From: The Principle of conservation of linear momentum

𝟓𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟓𝟎𝟎 × 𝒗𝟐

0 = 1000 + 500V2 = − = −2𝑚/𝑠
1000

→ 𝒗𝟐
500

∴ 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒖𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝟐 𝒎/𝒔 to the opposite side

2. A small car with a mass of 300 kg is moving at 175 m/s. It crashes head on with a
950 kg truck moving at 100 m/s in the opposite direction. If the two cars become
intertwined and mangled, with what velocity does the wreckage move?
ANS:
𝒖− 𝒖 = + )𝒗 → = 𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐
𝒎𝟏 𝒖 𝟏 − 𝒎𝟐𝒖 𝟐
𝒎𝟏 𝟏 𝒎𝟐 𝟐 (𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐 𝒄 𝒗𝒄
From;

𝒎𝟏 𝒖 𝟏 − 𝒎𝟐𝒖 𝟐 𝟑𝟎𝟎×𝟏𝟕𝟓−𝟗𝟓𝟎×𝟏𝟎𝟎
∴ 𝒗 = = −34 m/s in direction of the truck
𝒄
𝒎𝟏 + 𝟑𝟎𝟎+𝟗𝟓𝟎
𝒎𝟐

3. Trolley A of mass 0.80 kg collides head-on with stationary trolley B at speed

3.0 m s–1. Trolley B has twice the mass of trolley A. The trolleys stick together
and travel at a velocity of
1.0 m s–1.Determine whether this is an elastic or inelastic collision.
ANS;
In order to determine the kind of collision based on this case. Let’s us find
𝑲. 𝑬 𝟏= 𝒎 𝒖 𝟐
𝟏
𝟏
kinetic energy before and after
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝟏

+ = × 𝟎. 𝟖 × + × 𝟏. 𝟔 × = 𝟑. 𝟔𝑱
𝑨
𝟑 𝟎
𝒎𝑩 𝒖𝑩
𝑩 𝟐 𝑨 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝑲. 𝑬
= )𝒗
𝟏
(𝒎 +
𝒎 )
(
𝟐 𝟏 𝟐

𝑨 = × 𝟎. 𝟖 + 𝟎. 𝟖 × = 𝟏. 𝟐𝑱
×𝟐
𝟐 𝑩
𝟏
𝑨
𝑪 𝟐
Since; 𝑲. 𝑬𝑩 ≠ 𝑲. 𝑬𝑨, therefore the energy is not conserved and it is inelastic
collision
4. A car A of 2000 kg travelling at 10 m/s, has a head – on collision with a car B of 500

ANS; 𝒖𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎/s, 𝒎𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈, 𝒎𝟐 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈, 𝒗𝑪 = 𝟎𝒎/s, 𝒖𝟐 =?

kg. If both cars stopped on colliding, what is the velocity of B?

From; 𝒎𝟏𝒖𝟏− 𝒎𝟐𝒖𝟐 = (𝒎𝟏+ 𝒎𝟐) → 𝒎𝟏𝒖𝟏− 𝒎𝟐𝒖𝟐 = 𝟎

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 135
 𝒎𝟏 𝒖 = 𝒖 
= = = 𝟒𝟎𝒎/s
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎×𝟏𝟎
𝟏 𝒎𝟐 𝟐 𝒖𝟐 𝒎𝟏 𝒖 𝟏 𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝒎𝟐
5. Calculate the recoil velocity of a pistol of mass 4.0 kg, which shoots a 0.040 kg bullet at
a speed of 280 m s-1.
From: The Principle of conservation of linear momentum

𝒎𝟏𝒖𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐𝒖𝟐 = 𝒎𝟏𝒗𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐𝒗𝟐

(the sum of momentum before collision is equal to the sum of momentum after collision)

𝟒 × 𝟎 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒 × 𝟎 = 𝟒 × 𝒗𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒 × 𝟐𝟖𝟎 𝟎 = 𝟒 𝒗𝟏 + 𝟏𝟏. 𝟐
= = −𝟐. 𝟖𝒎/s
−𝟏𝟏.𝟐
𝟒 𝒗𝟏 = 𝟎 − 𝟏𝟏. 𝟐 


𝒗𝟏
𝟒

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 136
 The negative sign indicates that the direction of the pistol is opposite to the

Therefore, the recoil velocity of the pistol is 𝟐. 𝟖 𝒎/𝒔 to the opposite side
direction of the bullet.

6. A 4kg ball travelling at 6m/s to the right collide head – on with a 6 kg ball

velocities of the two balls after collision? ANS; 𝒖𝟏 = 𝟔𝒎/s, = 𝟒𝒌𝒈, 𝒎𝟐 =

travelling at 4 m/s to the left. If the collision is perfectly elastic what are the

𝟔𝒌 , 𝒖𝟐 = 𝟒𝒎/s, 𝒗𝟏 =?, 𝒗𝟐 =?

𝒎𝟏𝒖𝟏 − 𝒎𝟐𝒖𝟐 = −𝒎𝟏𝒗𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐𝒗𝟐

From conservation of linear momentum and kinetic energy

𝟒×𝟔−𝟔×𝟒= + =
−𝟒𝒗𝟏 𝟐𝒗𝟏 𝒗𝟏 =
𝟔𝒗𝟐 𝟑𝒗𝟐
𝟑𝒗𝟐
  --- (i)
𝟐
𝒎 𝒖
𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
𝟐
𝟏
𝟏
𝟏 𝟏 + 𝒎 𝟐𝒖 𝟐 = 𝒎𝟏𝒗𝟏 + 𝒎 𝟐𝒗 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
𝟏 𝟐
𝟏
×𝟒× + ×𝟔× = ×𝟒× + × 𝟔 × 𝒗𝟐
𝟔 𝟒
𝟐 𝟐 𝒗𝟏𝟐 𝟐

𝟕𝟐 + 𝟒𝟖 = 𝟐𝒗𝟏𝟐 + 𝟑𝒗𝟐𝟐  𝟏𝟐𝟎 = 𝟐𝒗𝟏 + 𝟑𝒗𝟐𝟐------(ii)

𝟐

𝟏𝟐𝟎 =
Then substitute equation (i) into (ii)
𝟐𝒗 + 𝟏𝟐𝟎 = 𝟐𝟑𝒗 𝟐
( 𝟐) + + 𝟑𝒗
 𝟑𝒗 𝟗𝒗=
𝟐 𝟐
𝟑𝒗
𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝟐

𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝟐
𝟗𝒗
𝟐
𝟐
+ =
𝟏𝟐𝟎 + = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 × 𝟐
𝟗𝒗 𝟐 𝟐 𝟔𝒗 𝟐 𝟐

𝟑𝒗𝟐
𝟐 𝟐

𝟑×𝟒
𝟏𝟓𝒗𝟐 𝟐 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎  = 𝟒𝒎/s, also = = 𝟔𝒎/s
=𝟐𝟒𝟎 =
𝒗𝟏
𝟐
√
𝟑𝒗𝟐
𝟐
𝒗𝟐
𝟏𝟓

Examples of conservation of linear momentum

1. Recoil of a Gun: When the bullet is fired from the gun, it gives a large velocity to the
bullet in the forward direction. Since no external force acts on the system, so
the momentum of the system (gun + bullet) must be zero after firing. Thus,
gun moves backwards with a momentum equal to the momentum of the
bullet. Since the mass of the gun is much greater than the mass of the bullet
therefore, the velocity of recede of the gun is much less than the velocity of
the bullet. That is why gun recoils or moves backwards.
2. When the bullet is fired ,the gun is always held close to the shoulder otherwise
the shoulder may get hurt due to the recoil velocity of the gun
3. When a man jumps from a boat , the boat slightly moves away from the shore
4. Movement of a rocket. The movement of a rocket in the upward direction
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 137
 can also be explained with the help of the law of conservation of momentum. The
momentum of a rocket before it is fired is zero. When the rocket is fired, gases
are produced in the combustion chamber of the rocket due to the burning of
fuel. These gases come out of the rocket with high speed. The direction of the
momentum of the gases coming out of the rocket is in the downward direction.
To conserve the momentum of the system (rocket + gases), the rocket moves
upward with a momentum equal to the momentum
of the gases. The rocket continues to move upward as long as the gases are
ejected out of the rocket.
5. Explosion of a bomb. Suppose a bomb is at rest before it explodes. Its momentum is
zero. When it explodes, it breaks up into many parts, each part having a
particular momentum. A part flying in one direction with a certain
momentum, there is another part moving in the

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 138
 opposite direction with the same momentum. If the bomb explodes into two equal
parts, they will fly off in exactly opposite directions with the same speed, since
each part has the same mass.

Class Activity – 7:5

1. Trolley A of mass 6 kg is rolling across a smooth horizontal desk with a
velocity of 0.8 m/s. The trolley collides with a stationery trolley B of mass 2
kg .After the collision the trolleys couple and move off together in the
direction in which A was travelling .Calculate the velocity of the trolleys
after the collision (ANS: VC = 0.6 m/s)
2. A body of mass 8 kg moving with a velocity of 20 m/s collides with another
body of mass 4 kg moving with a velocity of 10 m/s in the same
direction .The velocity of the 8 kg is reduced to 15 m/s after collision .If
the bodies do not stick together after the collision
,calculate the velocity of the 4 kg body
3. A 1000 kg cannon launches a cannon ball of mass 10 kg at a velocity of 100
m/s. At what speed does the cannon recoil?(ANS: VR = 1 m/s)
4. During a shunting operation, a truck of total mass 15 metric tones (t)
moving at 1 m/s, collides with a stationary truck of mass 10 t .If the two
trucks are automatically connected so that they move off together , find their
velocity . Also calculate the kinetic energy of the trucks (a) before (b) after
collision. Explain why these are not equal (ANS: VC = 0.6 m/s, KEB = 7.5 KJ,
KEA = 4.5 KJ)
5. A 350 kg van moving at a velocity of 20 m/s crashes on a lorry of mass 600
kg that was at rest .Assuming the van and the lorry stick together upon impact,
how fast will they come to a rest? (ANS: VC = 7.4 m/s)
6. Why the recoil velocity of a gun is much less than the velocity of the bullet? Explain
by using the principle of conservation of linear momentum.
7. A 4 kg object is moving to the right at 2 m/s where it collides elastically head
on with a stationary 6 kg object as shown in the figure below after the
collision, the velocity of the 6 kg object is 1.6 m/s to the right. Find
21. Velocity of 4 kg after the collision (ANS: V = 0.4
m/s)
22. Total kinetic energy before and after collision

23. Change in kinetic energy before and after collision (ANS: ∆ 𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝟎 𝑱)

(ANS: KEB = KEA = 8 J)

8. Bilqees, Jenifer and Husna were riding in a motorcar that was moving with a
high velocity on an expressway when an insect hit the windshield and got
stuck on the windscreen. Bilqees and Jenifer started pondering over the
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 139
 situation. Jenifer suggested that the insect suffered a greater change in
momentum as compared to the change in momentum of the motorcar
(because the change in the velocity of the insect was much more than that of the
motorcar). Bilqees said that since the motorcar was moving with a larger
velocity, it exerted a larger force on the insect. And as a result, the insect died.
Husna while putting an entirely new explanation said that both the motorcar and
the insect experienced the same force and a change in their momentum.
Comment on these suggestions.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 140
 9. In a laboratory experiment to measure the mass of an object X, two identical trolleys A
and B, each of mass 0.5kg, were initially stationary on a track. Object X was fixed
to trolley A. When a trigger was pressed, the two trolleys moved apart in opposite
directions at speeds of 0.3 m/s and 0.25m/s.

(a) Which of the two speeds given above was the speed of trolley A? Give
reason for your answer.
(b) Show that the mass of X must have been 0.1kg
10. Suppose two balls with a mass of 5 Kg and 2 Kg are moving in the same
direction at 6 m/s and 2 m/s respectively collide, and after the collision, the 5
kg ball is moving at a speed of 5 m/s. What is the speed of the 2 kg ball?
[ANS; 4.5m/s]
11. Consider the diagram below and answer the questions that follows

(b) Total kinetic energy conserved (ANS: Since KEB≠KEA, Not conserved)
(a) What is their velocity after the collision (ANS: VC = 0.8 m/s)

Self Assessment – 7
1. A car of mass 600 kg moves with a velocity of 40 m/s .Calculate the
momentum of the car (ANS: P = 24,000 kgm/s)
2. Stones of 8 kg and 4 kg move with velocities of 3 m/s and 6 m/s
respectively .Compare their momentum (ANS: Have the same momentum
of 24 kgm/s)
3. A cricket player catches a ball of mass 150 g moving with a velocity of 25 m/s. Find:
a) the momentum of the ball (ANS: P = 3.75 kgm/s ,F = 10.7 N)
b) the average force applied by the players hands to stop the ball in 0.35 s
4. Find the force required to accelerate a mass of 0.6 kg from 20 cm/s to 140
cm/s in 6 s (ANS: F = 0.12 N)
5. Explain the following terms:
(a) momentum (c) elastic collision
(b) inelastic collision (d) Impulse of a force
6. A van of mass 3 metric tons is travelling at a velocity of 72 km/h. Calculate the
momentum of the vehicle. (ANS: p = 6.0 x 104 kgm/s)

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 141
 7. A hockey player applies a force of 80 N to 250 g hockey ball for 0.1 s
.Determine the impulse experienced by the hockey ball

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 142
 8. A rocket pushes out exhaust gas at the rate of 150 kg/s. The velocity of the gas is
250 m/s. Calculate the forward thrust on the rocket
9. A fire fighter directs a horizontal jet of water onto a wall. The water strikes the
wall at 6 m/s and bounces at 2 m/s. Find the force exerted on the wall if the mass
of water hitting the wall is 30 kg per second
10. Maryanne , who has a mass of 50 kg is driving at a velocity of 35
m/s ,Suddenly ,she slams on the brakes to avoid hitting a pedestrian
crossing the road .She is tightly held by the seatbelt which brings her body to
rest in 0.5 s
(a) What force does the seatbelt exert on her
= 𝒎𝒂 = = −𝟑𝟓𝟎𝟎𝑵 ]
𝟓𝟎(𝟎−𝟑𝟓)
𝟎.𝟓
[F1 = –F2

𝑭𝟏
(b) If she had not been wearing the seatbelt and not had an airbag, then
the wind screen would have stopped her head in 0.002 seconds .What
force would the wind
screen have exerted on her? = 𝒎𝒂 = 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟐 = −𝟖𝟕𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑵
𝟓𝟎(𝟎−𝟑𝟓)

[𝑭𝟏
11. Describe any four applications of the law of inertia in everyday life
12. Starting from the definition of Newton’s 2nd law of motion ,show that F = ma
13. A mass of 3.0 kg is moving at a velocity of 30 m/s. How long will a
force of 15 N take to stop it?
14. A person of mass 60 kg jumps in air and lands with a speed of 6 m/s
.If he bends his knees , he comes to rest in 0.8 s. Find the:
(a) Deceleration of the person
(b) Average force acting on the person
15. A 5 kg block moving at a velocity of 4 m/s strikes a 3 kg toy moving
towards it at a velocity of 10 m/s. What will be the final velocity of the
combined system after they experience an elastic collision
16. A rocket expels gas at a rate of 0.5 kg/s. If the force produced by the
rocket is 2000 N, What is the velocity with which the gas is expelled? (ANS: v
= 4000 m/s2)
17. A kick that lasts 0.03 s sends a ball of mass 0.65 kg with a velocity of 15 m/s
northwards.
Find the
(a) Change of momentum of the ball
(b) Average force exerted on the ball
(c) Displacement of the ball in 2 s.
18. A football of mass 500 g attains a velocity of 17 m/s after being in contact
with the player’s boot for 0.03 s .Find the
(a) The average force exerted on the ball
(b) Impulse of the force
19. A body A of a mass 4 kg moves to the left with a velocity of 7 m/s.
Another body B of mass 7 kg moves to the right with a velocity of 6 m/s.
Calculate
a) The momentum of A (ANS: PA = -28 kgm/s)
b) The momentum of B (ANS: PB = 42 kgm/s)
c) The total momentum of A and B (ANS: PT = 14 kgm/s)
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 143
 20. (a) Find the average force required to stop a train weighing 200 tons
travelling at 54 km/h in two minutes from the application of the brakes.
(ANS:F = 25 000 N)
(b) what distance will the train travel in that time? (ANS: d = 900 m)
21. An object of mass 3 kg
changes its velocity from 16 m/s to 30 m/s in 7.0 s. Calculate (a) the
acceleration (b) the force applied on the object (ANS: a = 2m/s2 ,F = 6N)
22. State Newton’s Laws of motion and explain how the second law may
be used to define a unit of force ,the Newton

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 144
 23. A breakdown truck tows a car of mass 1000 kg along a level road, and
accelerates at 0.5 m/s2. What is the tension in the towline? If the towline
breaks when the car reaches a speed of 36 km/h , how far will the car
travel before coming to rest if a breaking force of 5000 N is applied? (ANS:
T=500 N, S=10 m)
24. A resultant force of 12 N acts for 5 s on a mass of 2 kg . What is the
change in momentum of the mass? What would be the change in momentum
of a mass of 10 kg under the same conditions? (ANS: p= 60 kgm/s, p2 = 60
kgm/s)
25. A trailer of mass 1000 kg is towed by means of a rope attached to a car
moving at a steady speed along a level road. The tension in the rope is 400 N
.Why is not zero?. The car starts to accelerate steadily .If the tension in the rope
is now 1650 N with what acceleration is the trailer moving? ( ANS: a = 1.25
m/s2)
26. A wooden trolley of mass 1.5 kg is mounted on wheels on
horizontal rails. Neglecting friction and air resistance, what will be the final
velocity of the trolley if a bullet of mass 2 g is fired into it with a horizontal
velocity of 400 m/s along the direction of the rails?
(ANS: V = 0.53 m/s)
27. An arrow of mass 100 g is shot into a block of wood of mass 400 g
lying at rest on the smooth surface of an ice rink .If at the moment of impact
the arrow is travelling horizontally at 15 m/s, Calculate the common velocity
after the impact (ANS: VC = 3 m/s)
28. State the law of conservation of momentum. Explain why the recoil
velocity of a gun is much less than the velocity of the bullet
29. Two boys of masses 45 kg and 60 kg sit facing one another on light
frictionless trolleys holding the ends of a strong taut cord between them .The
lighter boy tug s the cord and acquires a velocity of 2 m/s. What is the initial
velocity of the other boy? What happens to their motion when they collide?
(ANS: U = 1.5 m/s, they will either stop or rebound with velocities such that their total momentum
will be zero)
30. A bullet of mass 12 g strikes a sold surface at a speed of 400 m/s. If
the bullet penetrates to a depth of 3cm , calculate the average net force
acting on the bullet while it is being brought to rest (ANS: F = 32 000 N)
31. Explain the terms; velocity and momentum. What is the relation
between force and momentum ?
32. A rocket of total mass 5000 kg, of which 4000 kg is propellent fuel
is to be launched vertically. If the fuel is consumed at a steady rate of 50 kg/s,
what is the least velocity of the exhaust gases if the rocket will just lift off the
launching pad immediately after firing?
(ANS: 1000 m/s)
33. A girl of mass 50 kg stands on roller skates near a wall. She pushes herself
against the wall with a force of 30 N. If the ground is horizontal and the
friction on the roller skates is negligible, determine her acceleration from the
wall. (ANS: a = 0.6 m/s2)

What is the change in momentum of the body? (ANS: ∆𝒑 = 𝟏𝟐 𝑵𝒔)

34. A resultant force of 12 N acts on a body of mass 2 kg for 10 seconds.

35. The cork of a bottle of mass 4g is ejected with a velocity of 10 m/s in

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 145
 0.1 s. Find the force exerted on the bottle. (ANS: F= 0.4 N)
36. A man whose mass is 70 kg stands on a spring weighing machine inside a
lift .When the lift starts to ascend its acceleration is 2.5 m/s2.What is the
reading of the weighing machine? What will it read: (ANS: m = 87.5 kg)
(a) When the velocity of the lift is uniform (ANS: m = 70 kg)
(b) As it comes to rest with a retardation of 5.0 m/s2. (ANS: m = 35kg)

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 146
 37. A stationary bomb of mass 5 kg explodes into one part A of mass 2 kg
flying off with a velocity of 60 m/s and another part B of mass 3 kg flying off
with a certain velocity in the opposite direction. Calculate the,
(a) velocity of part B (ANS: v = - 40 m/s)
(b) total kinetic energy produced by the explosion (ANS:K.E = 6000 J)
38. An inflated balloon contains 2.0g of air which is allowed to escape from a
nozzle at a speed of 4.0 m/s .Assuming that the balloon deflects at a steady
rate in 2.5 s, what is the exerted on the balloon. (ANS: F = 0.0032 N)
39. A vertical spring of unstretched length 30 cm is rigidly clamped at its
upper end. When an object of mass 100 g is placed in a pan attached to the
lower end of the spring its length becomes 36 cm. For an object of mass
200 g in the pan the length becomes 40 cm . Calculate the mass of the
pan. Name and state the clearly the law you have assumed. (ANS: m = 50 g)
40. A body of mass 0.25 kg moving with a velocity of 12 m/s is stopped by applying a
force of
0.6 N. Calculate the time taken to stop the body. Also calculate the impulse of this force.
(ANS: t = 5 s, Impulse = - 30 N)
41. A 1200 kg car initially moving at 20 m/s strikes a tree and comes to rest in a
distance of 1.5
m. Find the average stopping force the tree exerts on the car (ANS: F = 1.6 x 105 N)
42. A hunter has a machine gun that can fire 50 g bullets with a velocity of
150 m/s .A 60 kg tiger springs at him with a velocity of 10 m/s .How many
bullets must the hunter fire per second into the tiger in order to stop him in
his track (ANS: n= 80 bullets)
43. A ball of mass 10 g hits a hard surface vertically with a speed of 5 m/s
and rebounds with the same speed. The ball remains in contact with the
surface for 0.01 s. Find the average force exerted by the surface on the ball
(F = 10N)
44. A shell of mass 30 kg is fired at a velocity of 600 m/s from a gun of mass 7000
kg
(a) What is the recoil velocity of the gun? (ANS: vR = 2.57 m/s)
(b) Briefly explain the significance of the answer obtained in (a) above
45. A 450 kg van moving at a velocity of 30 m/s crashes on a truck of
mass 3000 kg that is at rest .Upon impact the two vehicles moved some
distance while stuck together
(a) What is the common velocity of the motion after the impact?
(b) If after the impact the two vehicles moved together for 10
seconds ,calculate the distance they moved
46. A 30 kg shell is flying at 48 m/s. When it explodes, its one part of 18 kg
stops while the remaining part flies on. What is the velocity of the latter? (v=
120 m/s)
47. A cart of mass 500 kg is standing at rest on the rails. A man weighing
70 kg and running parallel to rail track with a velocity of 10 m/s jumps onto the
cart on approaching it. Find the velocity with which the cart will start moving
(ANS: v = 1.23 m/s)
48. A mass of 3 kg moving with a velocity of 4 m/s collides with another
mass of 2 kg which is stationary. After collision the two masses stick together.
Calculate the common velocity for the two masses (ANS: VC = 2.4 m/s)

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 147
 49. A 5 kg mass moving with a velocity of 10 m/s collides with a 10 kg mass
moving with a velocity of 7 m/s along the same line. If the two masses join
together on impact, find their common velocity if they were moving
(a)
In opposite direction (ANS: VC = 1.33 m/s to the left)
(b)
In the same direction (ANS: VC = 8 m/s to the right)
50. A bus of mass 3000 kg travelling at a velocity of 20 m/s collides with a
stationary car of mass 600 kg. The two then move together at a constant
velocity for 30 s .Find:
(a) The common velocity
(b) The distance moved after impact

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 148
 (c) The impulsive force
(d) Kinetic energy before and after collision
51. A resultant force of 25 N acts on a mass of 0.5 kg starting from rest. Find:
(a) Find the acceleration in m/s2 (ANS: a = 50 m/s2)
(b) The final velocity after 20 s (ANS: v = 1000 m/s)
(c) The distance moved in metres (ANS: s = 10 000 m)
52. A bullet of mass 15 g travelling at 400 m/s becomes embedded onto a
block of wood of mass 300 g which is at rest. Calculate the initial speed of
the block immediately after collision.
53. A bullet of mass 0.006 kg travelling at 120 m/s penetrates deeply into
a fixed target and is brought to rest in 0.01 s. Calculate:
(a) The distance of penetration of the target (ANS: s = 0.6 m)
(b) The average retarding force exerted on the bullet (ANS: F = 72 N)
54. A man stand in a lift holds a spring balance with load of 5 kg suspended
from it. What is the reading on the spring if the lift is descending with an
acceleration of 3.8 m/s2? (A: F = 31 N)
55. Differentiate between elastic and inelastic collision
56. A rugby player of mass 75 kg, running east at 8 m/s ,tackles another
player of mass 90 kg and who is running directly towards him at 5 m/s. If the two
players cling together after the tackle, what will be their common velocity?
57. A 3 kg hammer is used to drive a nail into a piece of wood. If at
the time of impact the hammer’s speed is 5 m/s and it drive the nail 1 cm
into the wood. Calculate:
a) The acceleration (ANS: a = 125 m/s2)
b) Force exerted on the nail by hammer (ANS:
F = 375 N)
c) Time of impact (ANS: t = 0.04 s)
d) The impulse (ANS: I = 15 Ns)
58. A mass of 2.0 kg, travelling at 1.5 m/s catches up and collides with
another ball of mass 3.0 kg travelling at 0.8 m/s in the same direction. If they
stick and move together , calculate
(a) The velocity after collision for each ball
(b) The change in momentum for each ball
59. A small car of mass 500 kg is involved in a head – on collision with a
heavy car of mass 4 000 kg travelling at 20 m/s. The small car is thrown onto
the bonnet of the heavy car which continues after impact tat 4 m/s in the
original direction .How fast was the small car moving?
60. If a 2 kg ball travelling north at 6 m/s collides with 4 kg ball travelling
in the same direction at 4 m/s ,the velocity of 4 kg ball increased to 5.5 m/s
to the north , what happens to the 2 kg ball?
61. A car of mass 600 kg travels at 20 m/s towards a stationary pick –
up of 1200 kg. After colliding the two stick and move together .Find their
common velocity
62. An object of mass 20 kg collides with a stationary object of mass 10 kg. The
two objects join together and move at a velocity of 5 m/s. Find the original
velocity of the moving object
63. A driver jumps from a plane on an air cushion. His speed is 24 m/s. the
average force of the cushion on the body while he is being stopped is 9400 N. if
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 149
 his mass is 70 kg. Calculate the distance he will sink into the cushion (ANS: s
= 2.15 m below)
64. Give an explanation to the following:
(a) A gun recoils when it is fired
(b) A fireman moves backwards when a water hose he is aiming at a fire is suddenly turned
on
65. Explain why action and reaction forces never cancel each other
66. A 10 kg object on Jupiter would weigh 260 N. What is the acceleration due to gravity
on Jupiter?

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 150
 67. If you see an object that is not moving, Can you conclude that there are no
forces acting on it? Explain your answer
68. What is net force required to keep a 5 kg object moving with a constant
velocity of 10 m/s?
69. What is net force required to keep a 5 kg object moving with a constant acceleration
of 10 m/s2?
70. Outline the types of inertia
71. A 4 kg object is acted upon by three horizontal forces: Force 1 is 20 N to
the right, force 2 is 8 N to the left. If the acceleration of the object is 0.75 m/s 2 to
the left, what is the magnitude and direction of force 3?
72. A 12 kg object is acted upon by an upward force of 150 N. What is
the magnitude and direction of its acceleration?
73. A 0.2 kg helium balloon is acted upon by an upward buoyant force of 4
N. If released from rest, what is the time required for the balloon to reach an
altitude of 200 m?
74. A model car of mass 2 kg is travelling in a straight line .If its velocity
increases from 3 m/s to 9 m/s in 4 s, what is the resultant force on it?
75. A bullet of mass 10 g was fired into a block of wood of mass 390 g
lying on a smooth surface .The wood then moves a at a velocity of 10 m/s
(a) What was the velocity of the bullet?
(b) What was the K.E before and after the collision?
76. A 0.2 kg ball is travelling at 20 m/s to the left when it is struck by a
bat. After being struck the ball has a velocity of 25 m/s to the right. If the ball
and bat were in contact for 0.3 s, what was the average force exerted on the
ball?
77. Object A has a mass of 5 kg and a velocity of 10 m/s .Object B has a
mass of 10 kg and a velocity of 5 m/s
(a) Which object has the greatest momentum?
(b) Which object has the most kinetic energy?
78. A railway truck of mass 2.4 t is shunted on to a stationary truck on a level
track and collides with it at 4.7 m/s. After collision the two trucks move on
together with a common speed of
1.2 m/s .Find:
a) The mass of the stationary truck
b) The original kinetic energy of the first truck
c) The total kinetic energy of both trucks after collision. Account for the
apparent loss in kinetic energy
79. A rocket taking off vertically, pushes out 25 kg of exhaust gas every
second at a velocity of 100m/s. If the total mass of the rocket is 200 kg,
(i) what is the resultant upward force on the rocket? (ANS: F= 2500 N)
(ii) What is the upward acceleration of the rocket? (ANS: a = 12.5 m/s2)
(iii) Calculate the acceleration of the rocket in (a) above when it has
burned off 100 kg of fuel (ANS: a = 25 m/s2)
80. Briefly explain the following statements
(a) A person doing high jump prefers to land on sand or plastic foam instead of the ground.
(b) A car tends to skid on muddy roads
81. A Car of mass 1 200 kg is brought to rest by a uniform force of 300 N, in
80s. What was the speed of the car?
82. A stationary bomb of mass 5 kg explodes into one part A of mass 2 kg
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 151
 flying off with a velocity of 60 m/s and another part B of mass 3kg flying off
with a certain velocity in the opposite direction .Calculate the,
(a) Velocity of part B
(b) Total kinetic energy produced by the explosion.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 152
 Chapter: 2
Current Electricity
Current electricity: The branch of physics which deals with the study of charges in motion
OR Is a flow of electric charges along a conductor

Electric Charge
 The distribution of charge in a body is measured in coulombs. The quantization of

charges in an electron. Therefore, we have the relation; 𝑸 = 𝒏𝒆

charge requires that a charge on a body always remain the integral multiple of

 Where, 𝑸 is the charge on the body, 𝒏 is the number of electrons and 𝒆 is

 The SI unit of electric charge is coulomb, denoted by the letter ‘𝑪’.

the charge on electrons (1.6 ×10–19)

 Number of electrons in 𝟏𝑪 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆

 Total charge possessed by one electron = 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗𝑪
𝒊. 𝒆, 𝟏 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 = 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗𝑪
 Thus; 𝟏𝑪 𝟏.𝟔
=
𝟏
×𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 𝟔. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒔
 Hence, we can say that one coulomb of electric charge contains 𝟔. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖
𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒔.

Electric current
 When we speak of electric current, often we are referring to a specific quantity
– the rate at which charge flows. A large current, such as that used to start a truck
engine, moves a large amount of charge in a small time, whereas a small
current, such as that used to operate a hand-held calculator, moves a small

 mathematically, electric current 𝑰 is defined as;-

amount of charge over a long period of time.

→𝑰=
𝑸𝒖𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝑸
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝑰) =
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆(𝑸)
𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒕) 𝒕

 Where 𝑸 is the amount of charge passing through a given area in time 𝒕.

 OR; Electric current – Is the amount of charge passing a given point in a circuit

 The common SI unit of current (I) is ampere (A); whereby; 𝟏𝑨 = 𝟏𝑪/𝒔

in one second.

 Ampere (A): Is the current through a point in a conductor when a charge of one
coulomb passes through the point after every one second.
 The device used to measure electric current is called Ammeter.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 153
 The other units are mill Ampere (mA), Kilo ampere (kA), and micro ampere (μA)
 Their equivalence to the ampere is as follows
1A = 10 6 μA, 1A =103 m A and 1kA = 1000A

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 154
Coulomb
 Coulomb – Is the charge transported by a constant current of one ampere in one second
OR
 Coulomb – Is the quantity of electricity passing at a given point in 1second
when steady current of 1A is flowing in a circuit

Worked Examples;
1. An electric current of 0.12A passes a point B along a conducting wire. How
much electric charge is flowing through this point in a minute?
Solution:
Charge = current x
time Q = It = 0.12 x
60 = 7.2 C
2. Change 0.25mA into A

𝟏𝒎𝑨 = 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝑨
ANS;

𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝒎𝑨 =? → = 𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒𝑨
𝟎.𝟐𝟓𝒎𝑨×𝟏×𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝑨

𝟏𝒎𝑨

Uses of Current Electricity

Electric current has numerous applications in various fields. Some of the major
applications of electric current are:
 Power generation and distribution: Electric current is used to generate,
transmit, and distribute electrical power to homes, businesses, and
industries.
 Lighting: Electric current is used to power various types of lighting systems,
including incandescent bulbs, fluorescent lamps, LED lights, and others.
 Heating and cooling: Electric current is used to heat and cool homes and
buildings using devices such as heaters, air conditioners, and refrigerators.
 Electronics: Electric current is used to power electronic devices such as
computers, televisions, radios, and mobile phones.
 Transportation: Electric current is used to power electric vehicles, trains, and other
forms of public transportation.
 Medical applications: Electric current is used in various medical devices and
treatments, such as electrocardiograms (ECGs), electroencephalograms (EEGs),
and nerve stimulation therapies.
 Manufacturing: Electric current is used in various manufacturing processes, such as
welding, electroplating, and electrolysis.
 Communication: Electric current is used to power various communication systems,
such as telephones, telegraphs, and internet networks.

Source of Current Electricity

 Cells
 Batteries
 Generators
Electrical Cell
 An 'electric cell' is a device that converts chemical energy into electrical
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 155
 energy, thus producing a small amount of electricity. A cell is a single unit.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 156
 A battery is a collection of two or more cells. It is the main source of electric current.
 A battery can be made by connecting the positive terminal of a cell to the negative
terminal of another cell. It is not necessary to place the electric cells one after
another. It can be placed next to each other.

Generators
 It converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Simple Electric Circuit

 An electric circuit is the continuous closed path along which current flows from
the positive terminal to the negative terminal of the battery.
 Construction of a circuit: An electric circuit consists of a cell or a battery,
connecting wires, a bulb, and a switch.

Switch.
 A switch is a simple device which breaks a circuit or completes a circuit as desired by us.
 A switch works by opening and closing a gap in an electric circuit.
 When the switch is in “off position”, a gap opens up in the circuit due to which
electricity stops flowing in the circuit and hence the electrical appliance stops
working
 When the switch is turned on, the gap in the circuit is closed and a complete
circuit is made. Due to complete circuit, electricity starts flowing in the circuit and
electrical appliance will now start working. The purpose of using a switch is to
“turn on” or “turn off” an electrical appliance by closing the circuit or opening the
circuit respectively.

Complete (Closed) circuit and Open Circuit

 An electric circuit in which there is no gap in the connections between the
terminals of the cell, wires and bulb, etc, is called complete circuit or closed
circuit. A bulb will light up if there is no gap in the circuit (if the circuit is closed).
 An electric circuit in which there is a gap in the connections between the terminals
of the cell, wires and bulb, etc,. is called incomplete circuit or open circuit.
Electricity does not flow through an open circuit because there is a gap in its
path. A bulb will not light up if there is a gap in the circuit. A will not light up if
the circuit is open (broken)

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 157
Consider the electric circuit components and their uses, in the table below,
Table Showing Electric circuit components
Circuit device Purpose Symbol
Connecting wire Carrying current from one point
Wire joined to another

Wire crossing
(not
connected)
Cell Supplies electrical energy.

Battery
Battery (multiple cells)

Alternate current (AC)

supply
Dc supply

Lamp / Bulb Convert electrical

energy to heat
and light energy
Resistor Impedes the flow of current
Switch Opens and closes a circuit
Rheostat (variable) Controls amount of current

Galvanometer Detectingthe presence

of current
Ammeter and
Measure current
milliammeter
Capacitor Stores electric charges

Fuse Breaks the circuit if excessive

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 158
 current flows

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 159
Detection and measurement of electric current
 A galvanometer is a sensitive electrical instrument used for detecting and
measuring small electric currents.
 In order to measure large currents it is converted into an ammeter. It can be
converted into an ammeter by connecting a low resistance called shunt
resistance in parallel to the galvanometer.

Voltage
 Voltage is the energy or work done required to move a unit charge from one point
to another (from higher potential to lower potential)
 We can also describe the Voltage as an electrical pressure, which forces the

measured in volts, abbreviated as ‘𝑽’.

electric charges (electrons) to move in an electrical circuit. Voltage is

 To understand the concept of voltage, consider a water pump which is pumping

the water. The pump pushes the water to flow in the pipes. The pump acts like

flowing through the pipe (𝒊𝒆. . 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅

the voltage and the water acts like charges. The more you pump, the more water is

𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒏𝒕, 𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕; 𝑽 ∝ 𝑰).

 However, it is not necessary that when the voltage is applied, the electric
charges will flow (current). Charges need a complete closed path to flow.
 Every cell has a voltage commonly referred to as potential difference (P.d),
across its terminals.

Volt, V
 Is the potential difference between two locations when a charge of one
coulomb will gain a potential energy of one joule when the charge is moved
between the two locations
Potential difference:
 Potential difference – Is the difference of electrical potential between two points
 OR; Is the work done in moving a unit charge from one point to another
 Voltage is measured by using a device known as Voltmeter
 The SI unit of voltage is Volt (V)
 It is always connected parallel to the device whereby you want to measure its
voltage drop across it. A parallel connection is used because devices in parallel
experience the same potential difference. See figure below

 Wrong connection of an ammeter can damage it, so the red terminal (positive) of

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 160
 the ammeter should be connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the
black lead will always go to the negative terminal of the battery.
 Ammeter is always connected in series with a circuit

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 161
 Current
 Electric current is the number of electrons flowing through a point in a circuit.
Consider a circuit, which is marked ‘A’ at a point. The number of electrons that
will pass through the point ‘A’ in one second will be the current of the circuit.
You can consider the current in a circuit as a flow of water in the pipes.
 The current in a circuit is caused by the voltage, much like the water flow in
the pipes is caused by the pump. Electric current is measured in the amperes,
sometimes called “amps”. It is denoted by the letter ‘I’.
 Current is like the diameter of the hose. The wider it is, the more water will flow
through. It is measured in amps (I or A).
 Current is measured by using a device known as Ammeter
 Ammeters are connected in series with whatever device’s current is to be
measured. A series connection is used because objects in series have the same
current passing through them. See the figure above

Resistance
 Resistance, as the name suggests, It is a measure of the opposition to current
flow in an electrical circuit. It always tries to stop the current from flowing.
Every material around the world has resistance for electric current.
 Some materials have very small resistance, called conductors. While, other
materials have very high resistance, called insulators. We use the conductors in
the circuit for electric current to pass easily
 Resistance is like sand in the hose that slows down the water flow.
 It is measured in ohms (Ω).
 The device which measures the resistance is known as Resistor
 Resistor is an electrical component with two terminals that is used to limit or
regulate the flow of electrical current in electronic circuits

Ohm (Ω) – Is the resistance of a conductor such that, when a potential

difference of 1volt is applied to its ends a current of 1 ampere flows
through it.

Types of Resistor
(i) Fixed resistor (Standard resistor)
 As the name suggests, fixed resistors have a constant resistance value
that does not change during their operation. They are designed to
offer a specific amount of resistance in a circuit, limiting the flow of
current accordingly.
(ii) Rheostat (variable resistor)
 Variable resistors, on the other hand, allow for the adjustment of their
resistance value during operation. They are used in applications where it is
necessary to change the resistance in a circuit to control voltage, current, or
signal levels. Variable resistors can be further divided into two categories:
potentiometers and rheostats.

The relationship between Current, Voltage and Resistance

 When it comes to understanding the flow of current in an electric field, Ohm's
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 162
 Law is a fundamental concept. This law describes the relationship between
voltage, current, and resistance in an electrical circuit.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 163
  The law is named after Georg Simon Ohm, a German physicist who first
described the relationship in 1827.
 Ohm's Law states that;

“At constant temperature and other physical factors, a current passing through a
conductor (wire) is directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends”
That is: ∝ 𝑰  𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹
Where: 𝑲 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 (𝑹) = 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆

∴𝑽=
𝑰𝑹
 In this algebraic expression, Voltage (V) is equal to current (I) multiplied by
resistance (R). Using algebra techniques, we can manipulate this equation into
two variations, solving for I and for R, respectively:
𝑽
𝑰 = , 𝑹 =
𝑽
𝑰 𝑰
 Let’s see how these equations might work to help us analyze simple circuits:

 In the above circuit, there is only one source of voltage (the battery, on the
left) and only one source of resistance to current (the lamp, on the right).
This makes it very easy to apply Ohm’s Law. If we know the values of any two of
the three quantities (voltage, current, and resistance) in this circuit, we can use
Ohm’s Law to determine the third quantity.
 Ohm's Law tells us that if a conductor is at a constant temperature, the
current flowing through the conductor is directly proportional to the voltage
across it. This means that if we plot voltage on the y-axis of a graph and current
on the x-axis of the graph, after collecting experimental data, which includes
various current and voltage values, we will get a straight- line.

Verification of Ohm’s law

 Ohm's law can be easily verified in the laboratory. You need a voltmeter, an
ammeter, power supply (dry cells), resistors, switch and connecting
wires.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 164
  A simple procedure to verify Ohm's law is given below:

Procedure:
 Connect the circuit as above. Connect the resistor, ammeter, battery,
rheostat and key in series. Connect the voltmeter parallel to the resistor as

shown in figure below.

 The experimental setup used in the laboratory makes use of a Rheostat

to vary the potential difference V across a standard resistor R while noting
down the corresponding value of current I from the ammeter.
 The table of results is as follows
S/No
Potential difference (V) in Volt Current (I) in Ampere
1
2
3

 If you plot a graph of the current I against the potential difference V, it will be a
straight line. This shows that the current is proportional to the potential
difference.
 The graph below illustrates the relationship between current and voltage for Ohm’s
Law.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 165
 𝜟𝑽
 From the graph above, 𝑺𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 (𝒎) =
𝜟𝑰

 Whereby the physical meaning of the Slope = Resistance

Factors affecting Resistance of a wire

The word Resistance is an important term in electrical terminology. It means
opposition to electric current. An electrical circuit has resistance to control to flow of
current. It is dependent on certain factors. Let us see what factors affect the
resistance in this article.
(i)Length of the conductor
 The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length. The longer the
conductor, the greater the resistance.

 The higher the temperature the higher the resistance and vice versa (𝑇 ∝ 𝑅 )
(ii) Temperature

 The resistance of a conductor increases as the temperature increases. This is

because the atoms in the conductor vibrate more at higher temperatures, which
makes it more difficult for the electrons to flow.
(iii) Type of material (Nature of material)
 Different materials have different resistivities. Resistivity is a measure of how much
a material opposes the flow of electric current. The higher the resistivity, the
greater the resistance.
 Example nichrome wire has more resistance than a copper wire of the same
dimension. That is why Nichrome wire is used in heating element of electric fires while
Copper wire is mostly used for connecting wires.
(iv) Cross – sectional Area
 The resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area.
The greater the cross-sectional area, the lower the resistance. A wide wire has
less resistance than a narrow wire of the same material. Electricity flowing
through a wire is like water flowing through a hose. More water can flow
through a wide hose than a narrow hose. In a similar way, more current can
flow through a wide wire than a narrow wire
Worked examples;
1. The current through a resistor is measured to be 5 amperes. The resistance of
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 166
 the resistor is 10 ohms. What is the voltage across the resistor?
ANS;
Using Ohm’s Law

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 167
 𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹  𝑽 = 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟓𝟎𝑽
2. Voltage across a resistor was found to be 12 volts, and the current through
it was 0.5 Amperes. What is the resistance of the resistor?
ANS;

𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹  𝑹 = = = 𝟐𝟒
𝑽 𝟏𝟐
Using Ohm’s Law
𝑰 𝟎.𝟓

3. Voltage across a resistor was measured to be 50 volts. The value of the resistor is
100 ohms. What is the current through it?
ANS;

𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹  𝑰 = = = 𝟎. 𝟓𝑨
𝑽 𝟓𝟎
Using Ohm’s Law

𝑹 𝟏𝟎𝟎
Class Activity – 2:1
1. A battery is 5V has a resistance wire of 20Ω connected across it. Calculate the
current in the circuit. (ANS: I = 0.25A )
2. The electric cables that carry current are made of thick bundles of wires. Why?
ANS: Higher the cross-sectional area, the lower is the resistance.
3. Draw a diagram showing an ammeter correctly connected in a circuit.
4. An Ohmic conductor has a voltage drop of 9V measured across it. The current
flowing in the conductor is 3 mA what is its resistance? (ANS : R = 3000 Ω = 3
kΩ)
5. Explain why a voltmeter must be connected in parallel with the circuit.
6. Calculate the reading of the voltmeter, P and the ammeter, Q in the electric circuit
battery.
(ANS: P =10V , Q = 3 A )

7. State any two important requirements for a complete circuit

8. Draw a simple circuit to show two bulbs in series connected to a battery of two cells
9. Name the device that measures the potential difference across two points in an
electric circuit. How it is connected in an electric circuit?
10. What is meant by saying that potential difference between two points is 1V?
11. Explain the purpose of using electric switch in an electric circuit
12. Explain how will distinguish between open and closed circuit
13. Will current flow more easily through a thick wire or a thin wire of the same
material, when connected to the same source? Why?
14. (a) How do we connect the ammeter and voltmeter in an electrical
circuit?
(b) Draw a circuit diagram in order to justify your answer in part (a)
above.
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 168
 (c)What will be happening if the positions of these instruments are interchanged?
Specify the reasons.
ANS;

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 169
 (a) An ammeter is always placed in series to get the full current flowing
through a branch and must have a small resistance to limit its effect on the
circuit. While a voltmeter is always connected in parallel with the voltage source
to receive full voltage and must have a large resistance to limit its effect on
the circuit.
(b) See the figure below;

(c)On interchanging their position, An ammeter is usually connected in parallel.

Since it will be having a very low resistance, most of the current will be
flowing through it and will be resulting in a short circuit and can also
damage the circuit. Now, if the Voltmeter has been connected in series as it
will be having a high resistance no current will flow through it, and the voltage
indicated will be zero.
Therefore, it is important to connect the voltmeter and ammeter in the correct positions in a
circuit to obtain accurate measurements and avoid any damage to the instruments or the
components being measured.
15. Suppose you are asked by your teacher to prepare electrical components and
instruments for an experiment to determine the relationship between voltage and
current;
(a) Give five electrical components that can be used in this experiment.
(b) Draw a simple electric circuit which will be suitable for that experiment
(c) From the simple electrical circuit drawn in part (b) above, explain how will you
connect the electrical devices used for measuring the current and the potential
difference?
16. How many electrons would it be necessary to remove from an object in
order to give it an overall charge of 6 x 10-8 C? (Charge on one electron = 1.6 x
10-19 C.) [ANS; 3.7511 electrons]

Combination of Resistors
 Apart from potential difference, current in circuit depends on resistance of the
circuit. So, in the electrical circuits of radio, television and other similar things,
it is usually necessary to combine two or more resistances to get the required
current in the circuit.
 We can combine the resistances lengthwise (called series) or we can put the
resistances parallel to one another. Thus, the resistances can be combined in
two ways:
(i) Series combination (ii) Parallel combination

Series Connection
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 170
 Consider three resistors of resistances; 𝑹𝟏, 𝑹𝟐 and 𝑹𝟑 connected in series to
cell of potential difference 𝑽 as shown in figure below. Since the three
resistors are connected in series therefore the current 𝑰 through each of them is

𝑽𝟏 = 𝑰𝑹𝟏, 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑰𝑹𝟐, 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑽𝟑 = 𝑰𝑹𝟑

same. Then by Ohm’s law the potential drop across each resistor is given by;

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 171
  Since 𝑽 is the total potential in the circuit therefore by conservation of energy we have
𝑽 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑
Substituting for 𝑽𝟏, 𝑽𝟐 and 𝑽𝟑 in above equation we have,
𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹𝟏 + 𝑰𝑹𝟐 + 𝑰𝑹𝟑 − − − (𝒊)
 If 𝑹𝑬𝒒 is the equivalent resistance of the series combination, then by Ohm’s law we
have
𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹𝑬𝒒 − − − −(𝒊𝒊)
 Therefore; if we compare the equations (i) and (ii), we will have
𝑰𝑹𝑬𝒒 = 𝑰𝑹𝟏 + 𝑰𝑹𝟐 + 𝑰𝑹𝟑  𝑹𝑬𝒒 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑
 Thus in series combination the equivalent resistance is the sum of the individual
resistances.

𝑹𝑬𝒒 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 − − − − − − + 𝑹𝒏
 For more resistors, the above expression would have been:-

NB:
In a circuit, if the resistors are connected in series:
 The current is same in each resistor of the circuit:
 The resistance of the combination of resistors is equal to sum of the individual resistors.
 The total voltage across the combination is equal to the sum of the voltage
drop across the individual resistors.
 The equivalent resistance is greater than that of any individual resistance in
the series combination.

Parallel Connection
 Consider two resistors 𝑹𝟏 and 𝑹𝟐 connected in parallel as shown in figure
below. When the current 𝑰 reached point 𝑨, it splits into two parts (ie,. 𝑰𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅
𝑰𝟐) whereby; 𝑰𝟏 going through
𝑹𝟏 and 𝑰𝟐 going through 𝑹𝟐. If 𝑹𝟏 is greater than 𝑹𝟐, then 𝑰𝟏 will be less than
𝑰𝟐 i.e. the current will tend to take the path of least resistance.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 172
 Since charge must be conserved, therefore the current 𝑰 that enters point 𝑨
must be equal to the current that leaves that point. Therefore we have 𝑰 =
𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (i)

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 173
 Since the resistors are connected in parallel therefore the potential across each
𝑽 𝑽 𝑽
𝑰 = , 𝑰 = , substituting into equation (i)  𝑰 = +--------
must be the same, hence by Ohm’s law we have;
𝟏 𝟐
(ii)
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐

 Let 𝑹𝑬𝒒 be the equivalent resistance of the parallel combination, then by Ohm’s law we
have,
𝑰 =𝑽 Hence from equations (ii) we 𝑽
= 𝑹𝟏+ 𝑹𝟐 → 𝑹𝑬𝒒= 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
𝑽 𝑽 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑹𝑬𝒒 𝑹𝑬𝒒
have,

𝑶𝑹
𝟏
 Therefore the sum of two resistors in parallel arrangement is given by:

=𝑹 +𝑹 =
𝟏 𝟏 𝑹𝟏𝑹𝟐
𝑹
𝑬𝒒 𝟏 𝟐 𝑹𝑬𝒒 𝑹𝟏+𝑹𝟐

 An extension of this analysis to three or more resistors in parallel gives the following
𝟏 𝟏
𝟏 + − − − − − +
general

= 𝑹𝟏+ 𝑹𝟐
𝟏
𝑹𝑬𝒒 𝑹𝒏
expression;

NB:

equivalent resistance, 𝑹𝑬𝒒

 The sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistance is equal to the reciprocal of

 The currents in various resistors are inversely proportional to the resistances,

higher the resistance of a branch, the lower will be the current through it. The
total current is the sum of the currents flowing in the different branches.
 The voltage across each resistor of a parallel combination is the same and is also
equal to the voltage across the whole group considered as unit.
 It is advisable to connect bulbs in parallel during electrical installation so that
when the bulb blows out or disconnected, the other bulbs will keep working
 If you connect in series when one bulb disconnected (blows out) will cause the other
bulbs not working

Worked Examples
1. Two resistors of resistance 10 Ω and 50 Ω respectively are to be connected
between two points A and B. What will be the resistance between A and B if
the two resistors are to be connected in (a) series (b) parallel
Solution:
Given: R1 = 10 Ω, R2 = 50 Ω

In parallel: 𝑹 = = = = 𝟖. 𝟑
(a) In series: RT = R1 + R2 = 10 + 𝑹50𝟐 = 60𝟏𝟎Ω× 𝟓𝟎 𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝑻
(b)
𝑹𝟏+𝑹𝟐 𝟏𝟎+𝟓𝟎 𝟔𝟎
2. Three resistors of 2, 3 and 6 are connected in series to a 3V battery.
What is the current in the circuit?

 In series connection; 𝑹𝑬𝒒 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 − − − − − − + 𝑹𝒏

ANS;

 𝑹𝑬𝒒 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 = 𝟐 + 𝟑 + 𝟔 = 𝟏𝟏
 Total voltage through the circuit, V = 3V,
𝑹
=
 Therefore; the current in the circuit = 𝑽

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 174
 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝑨
𝑹𝑬𝒒 𝟏𝟏
=
𝟑

3. Two resistors of 2 Ω and 3 Ω are connected (a) in series, (b) in parallel, with a
battery of 6.0 V and negligible internal resistance. For each case draw a circuit
diagram and calculate the current through the battery.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 175
 ANS;
(a) For series connection

 Total resistance; 𝑹 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟐 + 𝟑 = 𝟓𝛀
 Current through the battery; 𝑰 = =
𝑽 𝟔
𝑹 𝟓
= 𝟏. 𝟐𝑨
(b) For parallel connection;

𝟏
=  𝑹= =
𝟐×𝟑
= 𝟏. 𝟐𝛀
+
𝟏
 Total resistance;
𝟏
𝑹𝟏𝑹𝟐

𝑹 𝑹𝟏 𝑹 𝑹𝟏+𝑹𝟐 𝟐+𝟑
𝟐

 Current through the battery; 𝑰 =

= 𝟓𝑨
=
𝑽 𝟔

𝑹 𝟏.𝟐

4. Consider the circuit in the figure

below;

(a) Find the equivalent resistance.

(b) Determine the current in the
circuit;
ANS;
𝑹=𝑹 =𝟐+ =𝟐+ = 𝟐 + 𝟐. 𝟒 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝛀
(a) Total resistance, 𝟒×𝟔 𝟐𝟒

+
𝑹𝟐𝑹𝟑

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 176
 𝟏
𝑹𝟐+𝑹𝟑 𝟒+𝟔 𝟏𝟎
The current in the circuit; 𝑰 = = = 𝟐. 𝟕𝑨
𝑽 𝟏𝟐
(b)
𝑹 𝟒.𝟒

Class Activity – 2:2

1. Consider the figure below .Calculate P.d across: (a) 4 Ω (b) 6Ω

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 177
 ANS: (a) V1= 9.6 V (b) V2= 14.4 V

2. Two lamps are connected in series. The current in one lamp is 5A. What is
the current in the other lamp [ANS; 5A]
3. In the circuit, shown in the figure below

(ii) Would any of the bulb glow when the switch is in the “OFF” position?
(iii) What will be the order in which the bulbs A, B and C will glow when
the switch is moved to the “ON” position?
4. A student connects three resistors in a series circuit, and then in a parallel
circuit. Which circuit has the least overall resistance? Explain your answer.
ANS; The parallel circuit has the least overall resistance. This is because in series,
each charge carrier must flow through each resistor and so the resistances
add up. In parallel, the charge carriers have multiple possible paths and so
resistance is less.
5. Calculate the combination resistance in

ANS: (a) R = 18 Ω (b) R = 3.61 Ω (c) R = 9.2 Ω

Class activity – 2

1. A p.d of 12 v is applied across two resistors of 10 Ω and 20 Ω connected in series .Find:

a) The equivalent resistance for the circuit (ANS: R = 30 Ω)
b) The total current in the circuit (ANS: I = 0.4 A)
c) The current through each resistor (ANS: I = 0.4A)
d) The voltage drop across each resistor (ANS: V1 = 4v, V2 = 8 v)
2. What do you understand by the following term?
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 178
 (a) electric current (b) electric circuit

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 179
 3. Calculate the amount of charge that passes through a point in a circuit in 3
seconds, if the current in the circuit is 0.5 A (ANS: Q = 1.5 C)
4. A torch is switched on for 30 minutes .The current in the bulb of the torch is 0.45 A.
Calculate the charge which flowed through the bulb. (ANS: Q = 810 C)
5. State the two conditions which are necessary for charge to flow in a circuit.
6. A charge of 4500 coulombs flows through a point in a conductor .It causes the
ammeter to show a reading of 5.0 A .For how long does the charge flow
through the point (in minutes) (ANS: t = 15 minutes)
7. A charge of 300 coulombs flows through a point in a conductor for two
minutes. What is the ammeter reading for this flow? (ANS: I = 2.5 A)
8. Three resistors of resistances 5.0 Ω, 7 Ω and 12 Ω were arranged in series.
Calculate the equivalent resistance in the circuit (ANS: RT = 24 Ω)
9. A parallel circuit consists of two resistors. Calculate the effective resistance of the
circuit
(ANS: RT = 2.5 Ω)
10. Three resistors of resistances 5 Ω,7 Ω and 12 Ω were placed in a parallel
circuit. Calculate the equivalent resistance of the circuit (ANS: RT = 2.3 Ω)
11. A 12 V battery is connected to two resistors as shown in the fig. below. Find

(a) Total current (b) the current through each

resistor (ANS: (a) I = 6 A (b) I1 = 4A , I2 = 2 A)
12. A current of 4.5 A flows through a point for 25 minutes. Calculate the charge
through the point after 25 minutes.
13. During a flash of lightning, 600 C of charge is transferred in 0.15 s. Calculate
the average current. (ANS: I = 4000 A)
14. Draw a series circuit containing a battery ,switch ,lamp, a variable resistor
and an ammeter connected so that it can be used to measure the current in
the lamp
15. Draw a circuit with a battery and switch in series, two lamps in parallel and
a voltmeter connected so that it can be used to measure the voltage across
one of the lamps
16. A student is carrying out an experiment with ten 10 Ω resistors. The student
connects all of the resistors firstly in series, and then in parallel.
(a) Calculate the total resistance of the ten resistors when they are
connected in series. (ANS: RT = 100 Ω)
(b) calculate the total resistance of the ten resistors when they are
connected in parallel (ANS: RT = 1.0 Ω)
17. An electric torch contains two 1.5 V batteries .The current in the bulb of the torch is
0.45 A
.Calculate the resistance of the torch bulb.(ANS: R = 6.7 Ω)
18. Define the terms below as used in Physics:
a) Volt

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 180
 b) Current electricity
c) Voltage
19. State two essential requirements of a circuit.

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 20. A current flows through a coil of wire of resistance 80 Ω w when it is
connected to the terminals of a battery .If the potential difference is 60 V.
Find the value of the current (ANS: I = 0.75 A)
21. In the circuit below , the current in the 5.0 Ω resistor is 0.5 A

(i) State the current in the 4.0 Ω resistor (ANS: I = 0.5 A)

(ii) Calculate the battery voltage. (ANS: V = 4.5 V)
22. In a circuit below, a 12 volt power supply was used. Calculate.

a) The equivalent resistance.

b) The total current through the circuit.
c) The voltage drop across each resistor.
23. Which figure below has a lower combined resistance?

24. The current through the 6 Ω resistor is 2.5 A. Calculate.

a) The
voltage from the power supply
b) The
current through the 8 Ω resistor.
c) The
equivalent resistance.
d) The
total current.
25. When resistors are connected are connected in series,
which of the following is the same for all the resistors (a) current (b) potential
difference?
26. If a pd of 6.0 V is measured across the ends of a wire of resistance 12 Ω,
(a) What current flows through it?
(b) What pd is required to make a current of 1.5 A flows through it?
27. How does ohm’s law explain the fact that the resistance of a conductor depends
on the area of cross – section of the conductor?
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 28. Why does a bird safely porch on a high potential electric wire? (ANS:
When a bird is perched on a single wire, its two feet are at the same electrical
potential, so the electrons in the wires have no motivation to travel through the bird’s
body)
29. Match the items in list A with those in List B.
Lit A List B

(b) 𝑽 ∝ 𝑰
(a) Ammeter (i) Measures pd
(ii) Measures current
(c) Rheostat (iii) Ohm
(d) Series connection (iv) Controls current
(e) Charge (v) Ohm’s law
(vi) Controls pd
(vii) Coulomb
(viii) Constant current
(ix) Galvanometer
(x) Constant pd

30. State ohms’ law

31. State the factors that affect the resistance of a conductor.
32. What do you understand by an ohmic conductor?
33. Which has a greater resistance between a long, thin, hot nichrome wire OR a
short, thick, cool wire?
34. Distinguish between.
(a) Parallel circuit and series circuit.
(b) Ammeter and voltmeter
(c) Resistance and equivalent resistance
35. A current of 0.25 A flows through a circuit of voltage 10 V across a bulb
.What is the resistance of the bulb?
36. Find the equivalent resistance for the resistors connected as shown below.

37. In an experiment to determine the value of resistance, the following results were
obtained.
Voltage (v ) 2.0 3.0 4.0 6.0
Current (A) 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0
(a) Plot a graph of V against the I
(b) Determine the resistance R of the conductor
38. Three resistors of resistance 8 Ω, 10 Ω and 12 Ω are connected in series. A
voltmeter connected across the 10 Ω resistor reads 6 V. Calculate the.
(a) Current through the circuit (c) Total voltage in the circuit
(b) Voltage across the circuit

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 Chapter–3: Magnetism
 A magnet is a substance which attracts metals or magnetic materials. OR
 A magnet – is a piece of metal with either natural or induced properties of
attracting another metal objects
 Magnetism is the behavior shown by a magnet, the behavior of attracting metals
(magnetic materials) OR;
 Magnetism –is the ability of one magnet to attract (pull towards) and repel
(push away) another magnet without touching one another.

Magnetic and Non-Magnetic Materials Magnetic

materials
 Those materials which are attracted by a magnet are called magnetic materials.
Iron, steel, nickel and cobalt are attracted by a magnet, so they are magnetic
materials.
 The objects made of these materials like nails, paper clips, sewing needle, hair
pins, paper pins, drawing pins, safety pins, knife blade, scissors, spade, blade,
etc., are all attracted by a magnet. The objects made of nickel and cobalt metals
are also attracted by magnets and hence they are also magnetic in nature.
NB;
 If a large number of pins from a pin box fall on the floor and get scattered, we
can collect all the pins quickly by using a magnet (instead of picking up each
other and every pin by hand). So, if we move a magnet over the pins scattered on
the floor, all the pins (being magnetic) will get attracted to the magnet and stick
to it.
 Suppose a carpenter has mixed some iron nails and screws with lots of wood
shavings while working. We can help him in getting back the nails and screws
from the wood shavings by using a magnet. If we move a magnet through the
wood shavings containing nails and screws, then the nails and screws (being
magnetic) will get attracted to the magnet and stick to it. Wood shavings are
non – magnetic and hence they do not stick to the magnet
 A pencil sharpener gets attracted by a magnet though its body is made of a non
– magnetic material called plastic. There is also a steel blade in the middle of
sharpener. It is due to the presence of a steel blade (which is magnetic) in the
middle of a sharpener that it is attracted by a magnet. Magnets attract only
magnetic materials. Magnets do not attract non magnetic materilas

Non-magnetic materials
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 184
 Those materials which are not attracted by a magnet are called non – magnetic materials.
 All the materials other than iron, steel, steel, nickel and cobalt are non – magnetic
materials.
 For example: wood, plastic, rubber, paper, cloth, glass, leather, thermocol,
copper, Alluminium, brass, lead, stone, diamond, graphite, paint, charcoal, air,
water, skin and bones, etc,. are all non – magnetic materials (because they are not
attracted by a magnet)
 The objects made of non – magnetic materials are also non – magnetic in
nature. Thus, a wooden spoon, a plastic scale, pencil, rubber, eraser, copper
wire, alluminium can, brass utensils, a book, leather shoes and wood shavings,
etc,. are all non – magnetic objects

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 185
  Non – magnetic materials cannot be magnetized. This means that non – magnetic
materials cannot be converted into magnets.

Identification of Magnetic and Mon Magnetic Materials

There are two simple methods to test if a material is Magnetic or Non Magnetic
(i)Magnet Test
 The easiest, simplest, and most basic way of testing if something is
magnetic is by using a magnet.
 Simply use a magnet and hold it close to the object you are wanting to test,
if the object is magnetic it will attract towards the magnet, but if the
object is non-magnetic, it will not attract.
(ii)Compass Test
 Another method of testing if something is magnetic is by using a
compass, firstly place the object you are testing on a flat surface and then
place the compass close to the object.
 If the object is magnetic the compass needle will move and point toward the
object, if the object is non-magnetic the compass needle will not move.

Types of Magnetic Materials

 The Magnetic Materials are classified into three types namely; Diamagnetic
materials, Paramagnetic materials and Ferromagnetic materials
Diamagnetic Materials
 Diamagnetic Materials are those substances in which the spin of the electrons are
paired and hence there is no magnetization in presence of a magnet. In presence
of external magnetic field the spin of the electrons arrange themselves in a
direction opposite to that of the magnetic field. In general they are repelled by
the magnetic field.
 Examples of Diamagnetic Materials include Mercury, Copper etc.
Paramagnetic Materials
 Paramagnetic Materials are those materials which get weakly magnetized in the
presence of external magnetic field. In paramagnetic materials, spin of the
electrons are randomly organized and when magnetic field is applied few of
them get aligned in the direction of magnetic field exhibiting partial
magnetization.
 Examples of Paramagnetic Materials include Magnesium, Lithium, Molybdenum etc.
Ferromagnetic Materials
 Ferromagnetic Materials are those materials which get strongly magnetized in the
presence of magnetic field. In Ferromagnetic Materials, spin of the electrons are
already aligned hence they get spontaneously magnetized when they come
under the influence of magnetic field.
 Examples of Ferromagnetic Materials include Iron, Cobalt and Nickel
Poles of Magnets
 If bar magnet is put into a heap of iron fillings, then the iron fillings will cling to
it or stick to it. The maximum amount of iron fillings cling to the two ends of

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 186
 the bar magnet. The force of attraction of the magnet is strongest near the two ends
of the bar magnet. The two ends of the bar magnet are called poles of the magnet.
The two poles of a magnet are always different.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 187
  One pole of the magnet is called North pole denoted by “N” and the other pole of
magnet is called South Pole denoted by “S”
 The North pole and South pole of a magnet always exists together. Every
magnet, whether big or small, must have the North Pole and South Pole. For
example; if we break a magnet into several pieces, each piece will be a separate
magnet with a North and South Pole. Some forces of attraction also exists in the
middle part of the bar magnet but it is very small
 The same type of magnetic poles are called like poles while the different types
of magnetic poles are called unlike poles
Determination of polarity of an unmarked magnet
 There are a number of methods you can use to identify the polarity of unmarked
magnets:
(a) The traditional method of discovering the polarity of an unmarked
magnet involves attaching the magnet to a piece of string with the help of a
paper sling. You will also need a compass for this task. If you hold the end of
the string and allow the magnet to move freely, it will align itself with the
north and south magnetic poles, which can be identified by a compass.

(b) Another way of testing the polarity of an unmarked magnet is to use an

already marked magnet to highlight the North and South Poles. The marked
magnet attracts itself to the opposite pole of the unmarked magnet. For example,
the marked magnet’s South Pole will attach itself to the North Pole of the
unmarked magnet as shown in the figure below.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 188
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 189
 (c) The use of a compass can also aid in the identification of the North and South
Pole of a magnet. When you place a compass next to a magnet, the North
Pole of the magnet will follow the line of the North Pole of the compass.

Types of Magnets
Temporary magnets
 Temporary magnets can be magnetized in the presence of a magnetic
field. When the magnetic field is removed, these materials lose their magnetic
property.
 Iron nails and paper clips are examples of the temporary magnet.
 It is possible to magnetize temporary magnets, such as iron nails and paper
clips, in the presence of a magnetic field. However, these magnets will only
maintain their magnetic property as long as the magnetic field is present.
Once the field is removed, the magnetic property of these temporary magnets
will be lost.

 For example; You must have seen how paper clips get attached to each
other when a permanent magnet is nearby. Every paper clip becomes a
temporary magnet attracting other paper clips in the presence of a magnetic field. Once
the permanent magnet is taken away, the paper clips lose their magnetic
properties
Permanent magnets
 Permanent magnets are materials where the magnetic field is generated by the
internal structure of the material itself. That is, Permanent magnets are those
types of magnets that maintain their magnetic properties even after the
magnetizing force is removed.
 Permanent magnets produce a magnetic field due to their internal structure.
They do not lose their magnetism easily. Permanent magnets are made of
ferromagnetic materials that do not stop producing their magnetic field
regardless of external influence. Thus, they are stable against demagnetising
forces.
Electromagnets
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 190
  Electromagnets are magnets in which an electric current causes the magnetic field.
Usually they consist of a wire that is wound into a coil. The current creates a
magnetic field through the wire. When the current is turned off the magnetic
field disappears.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 191
  Electromagnets consist of wire turns which are usually wound around a magnetic
core that is made from a ferromagnetic field. The magnetic flux is concentrated
by the magnetic core, producing a more powerful magnets
 An advantage of electromagnets compared to permanent magnets is that; a change can
be applied quickly to the magnetic field by regulating the electric current
in the winding. However, a major drawback of electromagnets is that; there is a
need for a continuous supply of current to maintain the magnetic field. Other
drawbacks are that they heat up very fast and consume a lot of energy. They
also discharge huge amounts of energy in their magnetic field if there is an
interruption on the electric current.
 These magnets are often used as components of various electrical devices, such
as generators, relays, electro-mechanical solenoids, motors, electric bells and
buzzers, MRI machines, loudspeakers, and magnetic separation equipment.
Another great use in industry is for moving heavy objects and picking up iron
and steel crap.
 Some few properties of electromagnets are that; magnets attract ferromagnetic
materials like nickel, cobalt, and iron and like most magnets like poles move
away from each other while unlike poles attract each other
 There are three ways to increase the strength of an electromagnet
(i) Increasing the current flowing through it – the greater the current, the
greater the strength of the field
(ii) Increasing the number of turns of wire on the coil - this does not mean
making the coil longer, but packing more turns into the same space to
concentrate the field
(iii) Add a soft iron core – an iron core becomes strongly magnetised by the
field and this makes the whole magnetic field much stronger

Class Activity – 3:1

1. Few iron nails and screws got mixed with the wooden shavings while a
carpenter was working with them. How can you help him in getting the nails
and screws back from the scrap without wasting his time in searching with
his hands?
2. What do you suppose would happen if you cut the bar magnet along the line
between the north and south poles?
ANS: Both halves of the magnet would also have north and south poles. If you cut
each of the halves in half, all those pieces would have north and south poles
as well. Pieces of a magnet always have both north and south poles no
matter how many times you cut the magnet.
3. You are given a piece of thread and three bars, one of which is a magnet, the
second of which is a magnetic material that is not magnetised, and the
third of which is a non- magnetic material. Explain how you would distinguish
between the three bars.
4. Why repulsion is the surest test for magnetism than attraction? Describe one
application of the attractive property of magnets.
 This is because, Repulsion takes place only between two likes poles of a
magnet whereas attraction takes place between two unlike poles of a
magnet and also between a magnet and a magnetic material. So by attraction
it cannot be surely identified the substance is a magnet or not. Therefore,
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 repulsion is the surest test of magnetism
 Magnet is used to separate the useful magnetic substances like steel and iron
from waste by the method known as magnetic separation.

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 Properties of Magnets
 Magnet possesses two poles northern pole (N) and southern pole (S).
 The magnetic force is strongest near the poles of a magnet. When iron filings are spread
evenly on a magnet, most of the filings get attracted to the poles. This shows
that the poles have the strongest magnetic strength in a magnet.
 Like magnetic poles repel but unlike magnetic poles attract. When two magnets
are placed with their like poles facing each other, the lines of force are in
opposite directions and hence like poles repel each other. When the unlike poles of
a bar magnet face each other the magnetic lines of force are in the same direction
and hence unlike poles attract each other.
 The magnetic force is an action – at – a distance force. This because magnetic
force comes into play even when the magnet and other object like iron are kept
at a distance and not in direct contact with each other.
 A freely suspended bar magnet will always point along the north-south direction.
The earth acts like a giant magnet. The geographical North Pole is the magnetic
South Pole, whereas the geographical South Pole is the magnetic north pole.
The North Pole of a freely suspended magnet is attracted by the magnetic
South Pole of the earth. Hence, a freely suspended bar magnet always points in
the North-South direction.
 A magnet attracts another magnet or magnetic substances towards itself. The
attractive force is maximum near the end of the bar magnet. When a bar
magnet is dipped into iron filling, they cling to the ends of the magnet.
 When a magnet is broken into pieces, each piece behaves like a magnet with poles
at its ends. Magnets cannot have isolated poles. A new North Pole and South
Pole will be formed at the edges where the bar magnet is cut as shown in the
figure below. Therefore, the two halves will attract each other.

 Two poles of a magnet have pole strength equal to one another.

 The length of the bar magnet is called geometrical length and the length
between two magnetic poles in a bar magnet is called magnetic length.
Magnetic length is always slightly smaller than geometrical length.

Shapes of Magnets
Magnets are made in different shapes and size so that they can be used for different
purposes. Magnets are available in a variety of materials, sizes, and shapes including
discs, bars, rings, and several other shapes. The following are some of them
(a) A Rectangular bar magnet: Magnetic strength and magnetic field of a
rectangular bar magnet are more significant than other magnets.
Rectangular bar magnets are in the manufacturing as well as engineering
industries.
(b) Cylindrical bar magnet: Cylindrical bar magnets are also known as rod
magnets. The magnetism property of this magnet is higher than other
magnets as its thickness is more significant than its diameter. Cylindrical bar
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 194
 magnets are popular in research, experimental, education and other industries.
(c)Horseshoe magnets. The magnet shape of a horseshoe magnet is U-shaped or
shaped like a horseshoe. The most significant advantage of a horseshoe magnet
is its stronger magnetic

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 195
 field than many others. This is because the magnetic poles of a horseshoe magnet are
much closer to each other. Horseshoe magnets pick up large pieces of metals that
are heavy.
(d) A disc magnet is a circular magnet that is thin and flat. Disc magnets are round in
shape and defined by their diameter being greater than their thickness.
They have a wide, flat surface as well as a large magnetic pole area, making
them the ideal choice for all types of strong and effective magnetic solutions.
(e) Spherical magnets are also known as ball magnets. The configuration of the
polarity of these magnets is similar to that of earth. The concentration of magnetic
fields is higher at the north pole as well as the south pole. Spherical magnets can
attach like beads when two or more spherical magnets are together. Spherical
or ball-shaped magnets are widely used in consumer products, magic hobbies,
electronics, etc.
(f) Other types of magnets are Needle Magnetic, ball ended magnet and Ring magnets.

Magnet also varies in size include (size of magnet)

 Tiny discs used in speaker
 Giant magnets used in power generating plant
 Largest magnets is perhaps the earth itself
Application of Magnets
Magnets are used in:-
 Magnetic recording media: VHS tapes, audio cassettes, floppy and hard disc
recording data on a thin magnetic coating
 Magnets are used in computer in its storing devices such as hard disks.
 Common television and computer monitors
 Transformers :Are used in power transmission and many electronic devices
 Some countries are using powerful electromagnets to develop high-speed
trains, called maglev (magnetic levitation) trains. These trains use the repulsive
force of magnets to float over a guide way, removing the friction of steel wheels
and train tracks. Reducing this friction allows the trains to travel at much higher

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 speeds. It is the fastest train in the world. The speed attained by this train is
around 500 km/hr.

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  Credit, Debit and ATM cards: it uses magnetic ink to store information to
contact and individual’s financial institution and connect with their account.
The strip on the back of a credit card/debit card is a magnetic strip, often called a
magstripe. The magstripe is made up of tiny iron-based magnetic particles in a thin
plastic film. Each particle is really a very tiny bar magnet about 20 millionth of an
inch long.
 Speaker and microphones: They use permanent magnets and current-carrying
coils to convert electric energy into sound energy
 Electric generator: It uses permanent magnets convert mechanical energy to
electrical energy
 They are used in electric bells and electric motors.
 At hospitals, MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) is used to scan the specified
internal organ. An extremely from electromagnet is used in it.
NB;
How does the Electromagnetic train work?
 Electromagnets are used in Electromagnetic train (suspension train or
flying train). Electromagnets are magnetised only when current flows through
them. When the direction of current is changed the poles of the
electromagnets are also changed. Like poles of the magnets which are
attached at the bottom of the train and rail track repel each other. So, the train is
lifted from the track up to a height of 10 cm.

 We know that we can move any magnetic object with the force of attraction or
repulsion properties of magnets. This train also moves with the help of the
magnets attached on the sides of track and the magnets fitted at the bottom
sideway of the train. By controlling the current we can control the magnets
and movement of the train.
 As there are no moving parts, there is no friction. So, the train can easily attain
a speed of 300 km per hour. These trains are capable of running up to 600 km/
hour. They do not make any noise. They require less energy and they are eco-
friendly.
 Even though, many countries have taken effort to use these trains, such trains
are used for public transport only in China, Japan and South Korea.
Difference between electromagnetic train and normal train
Electromagnetic train Normal train

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 Runs above the rails without touching Runs on iron rails.
them.
Uses the attractive and repulsive Uses fuels like coal, diesel and
forces of magnets. electricity.
Runs without noise as it has no moving Makes a lot of noise due to the
parts. presence of
moving parts.
Travels at high speed. Runs at moderate speed.
Eco-friendly in nature. Leaves out fumes that spoil the eco-
system.

Magnetization and Demagnetization

Magnetization
 Magnetic domain is a small region within a magnetic material where the magnetic
moments are aligned in the same direction. The alignment of these domains is what
gives ferromagnetic materials their magnetic properties. When a ferromagnetic
material is in its natural state, it contains many randomly oriented magnetic
domains, which results in a net magnetic field of zero. However, when an
external magnetic field is applied to the material, the magnetic domains
begin to align themselves with the external field. This alignment causes the
magnetic moments within each domain to add together, creating a net magnetic
field in the direction of the external field.
 The process of aligning the magnetic domains is reversible, which means that the
material will lose its magnetization once the external field is removed.
However, if the material is subjected to a sufficiently strong external magnetic field,
the alignment of the magnetic domains can become fixed, resulting in a permanent
magnet.
 Therefore; Magnetization – Is the process of aligning the domains of atoms in
material in one direction so as to produce a net effect of attraction or repulsion
NB:
 Magnetic dipoles: Are the two poles on a magnet which are equal and opposite to each
other
 Magnetic dipoles arrange themselves in groups called ‘’Magnetic Domains’’
 Magnetic domains are minute regions in ferromagnetic materials with millions of
atomic dipoles coupled together in a preferred direction.
 The strength of a magnet cannot be increased beyond a certain limit
because when all magnetic domains have oriented in the same direction, no
further magnetization is possible and material is said to be saturated
 Materials which are possible to cause this alignment or can be magnetized are
either
ferromagnetic or paramagnetic
 Ferromagnetic material is the material which can form permanent magnet. E.g. steel,
nickel and cobalt while Paramagnetic material is the material which can be
temporarily magnetized. E.g. Aluminium and chromium
Methods used to magnetize materials
 By heating and Hammering method
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 199
 By stroking method
 By electric (solenoid) method
 By induction
Hammering
 If a steel bar is placed so that it lies in the direction of the magnetic field
lines of a strong magnet and then hammered gently, the domains will begin to
line up in the direction of the field.
 As they do, the steel bar itself becomes magnetised. The effect can be
increased by slightly heating the steel bar first.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 200
 This method makes the use of the earth’s magnetic field. A steel bar to be
magnetized is placed in the north-south position and the upper end is hammered.
The end pointing northward becomes a north pole and the one pointing southward
the south Pole

Induction
 A magnetic material becomes a magnet by being in contact with a magnet.
The end of the material in contact with the magnet attains a polarity opposite to
the pole of the magnet in contact with it.

 The material now being a magnet attracts other magnetic materials

‘Stroke’ method
 A piece of magnetic material can be turned into a magnet if it is stroked by a
magnet. As the magnet moves along the magnetic material, it causes the
magnetic dipoles in the magnetic material to become aligned in one direction
and give rise to a magnetic field.

NB:
 The steel bar is stroked with the same pole of the permanent magnet from
one end to the other end in one direction.
 When using two magnets, the stroking pole used in each magnet has to be
opposite, and they stroke the steel bar in opposite direction.
Electrical method using a direct current
 When a large direct current is passed through the solenoid, the unmagnetised
steel bar will become magnetized after a while. This is because when an
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 201
 electric current flows through the solenoid, it produces a strong magnetic field
which magnetizes the steel bar.

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  The poles of the magnet can be determined by a simple method known as Right-
hand grip rule.

Demagnetization
 Demagnetization is the process of destroying the magnetic property of
a material OR
 Is the process of disturbing the domains of an atom in a magnetized material
Methods used to Demagnetize a Magnet
Heating Method
 If a magnet is placed in the East – West direction and heated to a temperature
above its curie temperature, then the magnet loses it magnetism
 This is because, the increase in temperature results in greater atomic
vibration which consequently prevent the domain from being aligned in the same
direction
Hammering
 Hammering a magnet repeatedly while placed in the east- west direction or
dropping it violently several times on the hard surface makes it lose most of the
magnetism.
Electrical Method
 Placing a magnet in a solenoid placed in east west direction and passing an
alternating current demagnetizes it. This is because alternating current reverses
many times per second, disorienting the magnetic dipoles.

Storage of Magnets
 It is a common observation that science teachers get annoyed when students
drop magnets on the floor. This is because dropping magnets from a height on
the floor can destroy the magnetism of the magnets totally or partially and
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 203
 make them useless.
 All of us should take the following precautions while handling magnets so that they
do not get damaged and retain their magnetism for a much longer period.

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 (i) Store away from ferrous materials such as steel shelves and tools
(ii)Store magnets in pairs and using magnetic keeper to store them
(iii) Store away from heat. Do not overheat magnets. This may cause
harmful structural changes in the magnet.
(iv) Store away from strong electric and magnetic field
(v)Store away from strong vibration or mechanical impacts which may brittle it

How to store Magnets Properly

The magnets tend to lose their magnetism gradually and become weak over a period of
time if they are not stored properly. To prevent the loss of magnetism, the magnets
should be stored properly when not in use. This is done as follows.
 The bar magnets are stored in pairs (separated by a piece of wood) with their unlike
poles on the same side and bars of soft iron kept across their ends (as shown in
figure below). Please note that the first bar magnet has its N-pole on left side
whereas the second bar magnet has its S-pole (unlike pole) on the left side. The
soft iron bars kept across the ends of two bar magnets are called keepers
(because they keep the magnetism of bar magnets safe). Thus, the proper
storing of bar magnets in pairs by separating them with a piece of wood
and keeping soft iron bars across their opposite ends prevents the loss of their
magnetism.

 The horseshoe magnets (or U-shaped magnets) are stored properly just by keeping
a bar of soft iron across their ends (as shown in figure below). Since a horseshoe
magnet has both its poles (N-pole and S-pole) on the same side, so one horseshoe
magnet requires only one soft iron bar for its proper storage. Thus, horseshoe
magnets are stored singly and not in pairs.

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Magnetic force and Magnetic field of a Magnet
 The concept of a magnetic field and magnetic force is fundamental to
understanding the behavior of magnets and their interaction with other magnetic
materials.
 The force that a magnet exerts on certain materials, including other
magnets, is called magnetic force. The force is exerted over a distance and
includes forces of attraction and repulsion. North and South poles of two magnets
attract each other, while two north poles or two south poles repel each other.
 A magnet can exert force over a distance because the magnet is surrounded by a
magnetic field. The magnetic field is represented by field lines that start at a
magnet’s North Pole and end at the South Pole. When we draw magnetic field
lines, it is essential that we include arrows on our lines to show where the field
lines go. The magnetic field produced by a bar magnet is shown in the figure
below.

 Magnets produce magnetic field, which is a region where another magnet or a

magnetic material will experience a non-contact Force.
 If you put the north pole of one magnet next to the south pole of the other, then the
field lines go straight from the north pole of the first magnet to the south pole
of the second, and you feel an attractive force between the two magnets.

 If you have two magnets next to each other and their north poles are facing
each other or their south poles are facing each other, you can see that the field
lines move away from each other, so you feel a repelling force between the two
magnets.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 206
  This is why opposite Poles Attract and like Poles Repel.
 Magnetic field lines – Are the imaginary lines that cojoin the poles of a magnet
indicating its magnetic field.
 Magnetic field – Is the region around a magnet in which magnetic force can be
experienced by magnetic materials
Several ways of showing the presence of invisible magnetic flux
(i) Iron filings methods
 Place a sheet of paper on top of a bar magnet and sprinkle iron filings onto
the paper. The paper should then be gently tapped. When this is done,
the iron filings which are magnetized by induction arrange themselves in
such a way as to show the magnetic field lines as shown below.

 Therefore; when iron filings are spread on a piece of paper, they arrange
themselves in a pattern. The pattern is in accordance with the magnetic field
lines around the bar magnet, as shown above.
(ii) Plotting compass method
 Magnetic field lines can be plotted, and their direction determined, using a plotting

compass.

Procedures;
 Place the plotting compass near the magnet on a piece of paper. Mark the
direction the compass needle points. Move the plotting compass to many
different positions in the magnetic field, marking the needle direction each
time until the compass returns to the other pole.
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 207
  Join the points to show the field lines and then add arrows to show that the end
points from the N pole to the S pole. Repeat the procedure for another starting
point.
Properties of Magnetic Lines of force
 Lines of force are continuous and will always form closed loops
 Lines of force from the bar magnet leave the North Pole and end and enter the South
Pole and back to the North Pole forming a closed loop.
 Magnetic force is stronger where the lines are closer together and weaker where
they are far apart
 Lines of force will Never cross one another
 Magnetic lines of force pass through all materials (magnetic and non-magnetic)
 Parallel magnetic lines of force travelling in the same directions repel each other
while lines of force travelling in opposite directions attract each other
 Magnetic lines of force always enter or leave a magnetic material at right angles
(900) to the surface

Neutral points in a magnetic field

 Neutral points are the points at which two magnetic fields are equal in magnitude,
but opposite in direction. The net magnetic field at a neutral point is zero.
 The two magnetic fields mentioned above, can be either due to two separate
magnets or they can be one due to a magnet and the other due to the earth's
magnetic field
 A compass needle if placed at the neutral points will rest in any direction. Hence,
we can find the position of neutral points with the help of compass needle.

 In the diagram above the magnets are placed so that the poles repel. There will
be a point between the magnets where the magnetic fields cancel each
other out; this is called the neutral point.
 Therefore; A neutral point of Magnet is a point at which the resultant magnetic field is
zero
 The Neutral point due to magnet and earth’s magnetic field is obtained when
the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field is balanced by the
magnetic field produced by the magnet

Magnetic Shielding
 Magnetic shielding – Is the process of limiting the flow of magnetic fields
between two locations by separating them with a barrier made of conductive
ferromagnetic material.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 208
 OR
 Is the process of limiting the penetration of magnetic fields into a region by
redirecting the magnetic field lines through a material with a higher ability to be
magnetized.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 209
  Shielding does not eliminate or destroy magnetic fields, nothing does. It
does, however, provide an easy path for the magnetic field to complete its
path. You may think of it as a magnetic field conductor. This leads to what
type of material can provide the best path for magnetic fields and thus
create shielding. Since the field is attracted to the shielding material it
stands to reason that if a magnet is attracted to the material
(ferromagnetic material), that material can provide some amount of magnetic
shielding.

Class Activity – 3:2

1. Sketch two bar magnets that are arranged so their magnetic fields attract each
other. Label the magnetic poles, and add arrows to represent lines of force
between the two magnets.
2. Why are magnetic keepers used to store magnets?
ANS; A magnetic keeper is a piece of wood or soft iron which is used in storing
magnets because bar magnets get demagnetised when the poles are left free for
a long time. In order to preserve the magnetism of the magnets, a keeper is kept
across a pair of bar magnets with unlike poles beside each other. Through this
way a continuous path is provided for the magnetic field lines to form a loop
around it.
3. A student is given two pieces of iron and told to determine if one or both of the
pieces are magnets. First, the student touches an end of one piece to one end
of the other. The two pieces of iron attract. Next, the student reverses one of
the pieces and again touches the ends together. The two pieces attract again.
What does the student definitely know about the initial magnetic properties of the
two pieces of iron?
Answer: At least one of the pieces of iron is a magnet, but we cannot state with
certainty that both are magnets.
4. Draw a minimum of four field lines to show the magnitude and direction of the
magnetic field in the region surrounding a bar magnet.
ANS;

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 210
 5. Match the following
Column A Column B
(i) Steel and its alloys A. Magnetic strip
(ii) Magnetite B. Artificial magnet
(iii) Magnetic pole C. Natural magnet
(iv) Bar magnet D. Permanent magnets
(v) ATM card E. Maximum magnetic
force
6. Explain why hammering and heating tend to destroy magnetism.
7. Explain why it is not possible to magnetize an iron rod beyond a certain limit?
ANS; It is not possible to magnetize an iron rod beyond a certain limit because:
 When an iron piece is magnetized, the closed molecular chains break
down and all molecules begin to align themselves in the direction of the
external magnetic field.
 As the magnetizing field is increased, more molecular magnets align in
the given orientation. Thus, the magnetic strength of the iron piece increases
with the increase in the strength of the external magnetic field.
 When all molecules of the iron piece have aligned themselves there is no
further increase in its magnetic strength even if the strength of the external
magnetic field is increased and hence it is not possible to magnetize an iron
rod beyond a this limit..
8. The diagram below shows the lines of magnetic force between two north magnetic
poles. At which point is the magnetic field strength greatest?

ANS: (B) has the greatest magnetic field strength because it is located at the
highest density of magnetic field lines.
9. Why is repulsion a surest test of magnetism than attraction? Describe one
application of the attractive property of magnets.
 This is because, Repulsion takes place only between two likes poles of
a magnet whereas attraction takes place between two unlike poles of a
magnet and also between a magnet and a magnetic material. So by
attraction it cannot be surely identified the substance is a magnet or not.
Therefore, repulsion is the surest test of magnetism.
 Magnet is used to separate the useful magnetic substances like steel and iron
from waste by the method known as magnetic separation.
10. What is meant by magnetic induction? Describe one experiment to
illustrate magnetic induction.
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 211
 11. A piece of watch spring is magnetised and then immersed in iron filings.
Draw a diagram showing the appearance when it is withdrawn. It is then broken in
half and again immersed in iron filings. Draw another diagram showing the
appearance of each half.
12. A weak magnet is placed on a horizontal table with its N-pole pointing North.
Explain how you would plot the lines of force around the magnet and sketch the
pattern you would expect to find.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 212
Earth's Magnetism
 Earth's Magnetism is the behavior of the earth to act as a magnet
Causes of Earth's Magnetism
There is no concrete reason for the cause of the earth’s magnetism. However, there
are a few theories that revolve around it. Some of the theories are mentioned below:
 The Dynamo Effect: The outer core of the earth has molten Iron and other heavy
elements in liquid form. The inner core solidifies under the influence of gravity.
Therefore, the motion of metallic fluids in the outer core of the earth causes an
electric current. Thus, the earth gets its own magnetic field lines.
 Ionization of the Outer Layers: This theory tells us that the rotation of the earth in its
own axis produces strong electric current due to the ionization of the outer layers of
earth. This produces magnetism due to the movement of the ions. However, the
magnetic field will be very weak. The Dynamo Effect is the more acceptable theory.

Earth’s Magnetic Field

 The Earth acts as if it contains a magnet due to the circular current inside the
Earth’s core. The Earth also produces a magnetic field, with the field lines
being most concentrated at the poles.
 A freely suspended magnet always points in the North-South direction
even in the absence of any other magnet. This suggests that the earth itself
behaves as a magnet which causes a freely suspended magnet (or
magnetic needle) to point always in a particular direction: north and south.
The shape of earth’s magnetic field resembles that of a bar magnet of length
one-fifth of earth’s diameter buried at its centre.

 The south pole of earth’s magnet is towards Earth’s North Pole (Geographical
North Pole), while the North Pole of earth’s magnet is towards earth’s South Pole
(Geographical South Pole). Thus, there is a Magnetic South Pole near the
Geographical North Pole, and a Magnetic North Pole near the
Geographical South Pole. The positions of the earth’s magnetic poles are
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 213
 not well defined on the globe, they are spread over an area.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 214
Angle of declination
 At a given place, the acute angle between the magnetic meridian (magnetic
axis) and the geographical meridian (axis of rotation) is called the angle of
declination (or magnetic declination) (α) at that place. See the figure below

 Thus; Magnetic declination – is the angle which the magnetic meridian makes
with the true meridian
 It is positive when the angle derived is east of the true north, and it is
considered negative when the angle measured is west of the true north.
 Importance: Ships and other long-distance means of transport that rely on the
compass for navigation should do necessary corrections to account for magnetic
declination at different latitudes and longitudes to stay in the right course.
Whereby:
MNP = Magnetic North Pole
MSP = Magnetic South Pole
GNP = Geographic North Pole
GSP = Geographic South Pole

Geographical Equator
 Is the imaginary line which divides the earth into Northern and Southern Hemisphere
Magnetic Equator
 The magnetic equator is the irregular imaginary line, passing round the earth near
the equator, on which a magnetic needle has no dip (because magnetic field lines
are parallel to the horizontal at the equator).
Magnetic Meridian
 Is the imaginary line joining the earth magnetic North Pole and South Pole

Geographic Meridian
 Is the imaginary line joining the earth North Pole and South Pole

Magnetic South Pole (MSP)

 Is the pole near the geographic south pole of magnet
Magnetic North Pole (MNP)
 Is the pole near the geographic north pole of magnet

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Angle of dip or angle of inclination (𝜽)
 Magnetic dip, dip angle, or magnetic inclination is the angle made with the
horizontal by the Earth’s magnetic field lines. OR;
 Dip angle – Is the angle between the earth surface and the earth’s magnetic field.
 OR; Dip angle – the angle between the axis of a free suspended magnetic
needle and the horizontal plane at a place. See the figure below

Alternatively

 Magnetic dip at the magnetic equator is 00, and at the magnetic poles, it is 900.
 The phenomenon of magnetic dip is important in aviation, as it causes the
aeroplane’s compass to give erroneous readings during banked turns and
airspeed changes. Necessary corrections need to be made to the compass
reading to stay in the right course.
 The angle of inclination is measured by using Dip

needle How to locate the position of the north pole of a bar

magnet

 If a bar magnet is suspended freely on a string, it will align itself in a North – South
direction. When this experiment is repeated, it is found that the same pole of the
magnet will always swing toward the north magnetic pole of the earth. Therefore,
it is called the north-seeking pole or simply the North Pole. The other pole of the
magnet is the south-seeking pole or the South Pole.
Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 216
  A practical use of the directional characteristic of the magnet is the compass, a
device in which a freely rotating magnetized needle indicator points toward
the North Pole.

Application of the Earth’s Magnetic Field

 Used by map – readers for finding locations of different places
 Gives useful information in the search for minerals
 Satellites transmit information through earth’s magnetic field to the earth surface
 The earth’s external magnetic field (magnetosphere) protects the earth
from harmful emissions from the sun.
 The earth’s magnetic field enables the compass needle to operate.

Class Activity – 3:3

1. Lucy says 'N-poles attract because the N-pole of a magnet points towards the
North Pole of the Earth'. Explain why she is wrong.
2. The north pole of a magnet is attracted to the geographic North Pole of Earth,
yet like poles repel. Can you explain this?
ANS; The Geographic North Pole of Earth is actually a magnetic South Pole. That's
why the north pole of a magnet is attracted to the Geographic North Pole.
Likewise, the Earth's South Pole is a magnetic North Pole. This is based on
the principles of magnetism where unlike poles attract and similar poles
repel.
3. Explain the terms 'magnetic meridian', 'angle of declination', and 'angle of dip'.
4. State two evidences of the existence of earth's magnetic field.
The evidences of the existence of earth's magnetic field are;-
(a) A freely suspended magnetic needle always rests in geographic north-south
direction.
(b) An iron rod buried inside the earth along north-south direction becomes a
magnet.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 217
Self Assessment – 3
1. Define the term magnet.
2. State three applications of a magnet
3. Differentiate forces due to magnetic force and the forces due to gravity on the earth
4. State the law of polarity and illustrate this law using large diagrams
5. What is:
(a) A magnetic field (b) A magnetic line of force
6. Draw a magnetic field around a bar magnet using magnetic lines of force.
7. Why do some watches have a case of iron?
8. State the applications of the earth’s magnetic field
9. Match the items in list A with the corresponding ones from list B

List A List B
(a) Magnetic materials (i) Like poles attract, unlike poles
(b) Law of polarity repel
(c) Magnetic shielding (ii)Magnetic field is zero
(d) Neutral point (iii) Redirects magnetic lines of
(e) Aluminium force
(iv) Strong magnet
(v)Iron nail
(vi) Paramagnetic
(vii) Direct neutral point

10. Draw the following diagrams:

(a) Arrangement of domains of atoms
11. Mention any three features of magnetic field lines
12. What is magnetic shielding?
13. Explain how magnetic shielding is done.
14. Why is magnetic shielding necessary?
15. Explain how a ferromagnetic materials get magnetized
16. Briefly explain how a bar magnet can be demagnetized using the electrical
method.
17. Explain with illustration how one can locate the position of a north pole of a bar
magnet.

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 218
REFERENCES
 Cambridge IGCSE, Physics Second Edition
 Cambridge IGCSE, Physics Third Edition
 Edexcel International GCSE (9-1), Physics Student Book
 Mastering Physics 1st Edition, H.J.P.Keighley, F.R McKIM, A.Clarck, M.J.Harrison
 National Examinations Council of Tanzania (NECTA),Past papers:1992 - 2022
 Physics for CSEE Volume – 2, Questions with answers, Geofrey M Idebe (2022)
 Physics for Cambridge IGCSE Revision Guide
 Physics form 2 Students’ Book (Tanzania Institute of Education)
 Principles of Physics
 Physics for Zanzibar Secondary Schools Book 2 (Oxford, University Press)
 Ordinary Level Physics: (A.F Abbott)
 Selina Concise Physics, I.C.S.E Part I for Class IX
 Selina Concise Physics, I.C.S.E Part II for Class X
 Work out Physics O level and GCSE
 https://www.britannica.com (Encyclopedia Britannica)
 https://www.wikipedia.org
 https://www. applustopper.com
 https://www.bbc.co.uk
 https.//starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov
 https.//www.passmyexams.co.uk

Emmanuel m.sospeter VETA DSM RVTSC acomplete of engineering science level 1 & II Page 219