Module – 3

NUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF HEAT CONDUCTION

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Finite difference method (FDM) is a numerical scheme used for solving heat transfer problems.
In this approach, the partial differential equation of heat conduction is approximated by a set of
algebraic equations for temperature at a number of nodal points over the region. Therefore, the
firs step in the analysis is the finite - difference representation, or the transformation into a set of
algebraic equations, of the differential equation of heat conduction.
3.2 ONE DIMENSIONAL STEADY STATE HEAT CONDUCTION USING FDM
Consider the following one-dimensional, steady - state heat conduction equation with energy
generation.
d2T ( x )
=+ g(x) 0 in 0 < x ≤ L
dx 2
The region 0 ≤ x ≤ Lis divided into M equalsubregions,each in size
L
Dx =
M
and there
and there are
are M +1nodes for
M+1nodes formm==
=0 0toto
mm M,asillustrated in fig.Node
= M, as illustrated m corresponds
in fig. node to a to a location
m corresponds
whose
location whose coordinateis x= mDx.m Let Tm be the temperature at node m; then the contains M +
coordinate is x = mDx. Let T be the temperature at node m; then the region
1region
node temperatures
contains for m = 0,1,2......., M, nodes.
T0 TM1
+ 1node
T2 temperatures
Tm – 1 forTm m
=0,1, 2....., M, nodes. T
Tm+1 M–1
TM
x
0 1 2 m–1 m m+1 M–1 M
Dx Dx x=L
x=0
(m – ½) (m + ½)
The second derivative of temperature d 2 T(x) / dx 2 at a node m can be represented
 1  1
in finte differences. Consider the locations  m+  and  m −  asillustrated in Fig.
 2  2
The fist derivative of temperature dT ( x ) / dx at these two locations can be approximated
dT ( x ) Tm +1 − Tm
as =
dx m+ 1
Dx
2

dT ( x ) Tm − Tm −1
and ≅
dx m− 1
Dx
2

Then thesecond derivative of temperature d 2 T / dx 2 at node m can be approximated as

( Tm +1 − Tm ) − ( Tm − Tm −1 )
d2T ( x ) dT / dx m + 1 − dT / dx m − 1
≅ 2 2 Dx
= Dx
dx 2 m
Dx Dx
Tm −1 − 2Tm + Tm +1
=
Then thesecond derivative of temperature d 2 T / dx 2 at node m can be approximated as
( Tmm ++11 − Tmm ) ( Tmm − Tmm −−11 )
d 22
T ( x ) dT / dx m + 11 − dT / dx m − 11 −
300 ≅
m+ 2
2
m− 2
2 = Dx Dx Heat Transfer
dx 22 m Dx Dx
m

Tmm −−11 − 2Tmm + Tmm ++11

= 22
( Dx )
Therefore the conduction equation become
2
( Dx ) g mm
2

( Tmm −−11 − 2Tmm + Tmm ++11 ) + K=0

K
Where g mm = energy generation rate at node m
= m 1, 2,3,....., M − 1

Above equation is called as finite difference form of heat conduction equation.

3.3 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Three types of boundary conditions are applied in finite difference representations
1. Prescribed temperature boundary conditions
Suppose the temperatures are specified at the boundaries x = 0 and x = L as
T ( x ) x =0 = f o
T ( x ) x =L = fM
Where f0 and fM are two known temperatures. Then the temperatures T0 and TM at the nodes m
= 0 and m = M in Fig. are taken as
T0 = f0 TM = fM
2. Prescribed heat flux boundary conditions
Let q0 and qx are heat fluxes entering the medium through the boundaries at x = 0 ad x = L.
The energy balance for the differential volume at nodes m = 0 and m = M is
 Rate of heat 
   Rate of heat   Rate of 
 supply through  +  entering by  +  energy  =
 the boundary      0
   conduction   generation 
 surface 
x=0 x=L

q0 T1 T2 Tm–1 qM
x
Dx Dx
M–1
Dx/2 Dx/2
Applying this equation for the volume elements Dx/2 at the boundaries at x = 0 and x = L, we
obtain respectively.
T − T0 1 T − TM 1
q0 + K 1 + = Dx g 0 0 q M + K M −1 + =Dx g M 0
Dx 2 Dx 2
These equations are rearranged as
( Dx )
2
g0 2 x q0
2T1 − 2T0 + + = 0 for=
m 0
K K
( Dx )
2
gM 2Dx q
 T − T0 1 of Heat Conduction
Numerical T − TM 1 301
q 0 + K 1 Analysis
+ = Dx g 0 0 q M + K M −1 + =Dx g M 0
Dx 2 Dx 2
These equations are rearranged as
( Dx )
2
g0 2 x q0
2T1 − 2T0 + + = 0 for=
m 0
K K
( Dx )
2
gM
2Dx q M
2TM −1 − 2TM + = 0for m= M
+
K K
For insulated or symmetry boundary conditions,
we have q=0 q=
m 0, The above equations become
( Dx )
2
g0
2T1 − 2T0 + 0
=
K
( Dx )
2
gM
2TM −1 − 2TM + =0
K
3. Convection boundary conditions
Suppose the boundary surfaces at x = 0 and x = L are subjected to convection with the heat
transfer coefficient h into an ambient at temperature T∞ , as illustrated in Fig.
x=0 x=L

Fluid at T∞,h T1 T2 TM–1 Fluid at T∞,h

TM
Dx Dx

Dx/2 Dx/2
The energy balance equation for the differential volume elements at the boundaries may be
stated as
 Rate of heat 
   Rate of heat   Rate of 
 gain through  +  entering by  +  energy  =
 thesurface      0
   conduction   generation 
 
 by convection 
Applying this equation for the boundaries at x = 0 and x = L,we obtain , respectively,
T − T0 1
h ( T∞ − T0 ) + K 1 + Dx g 0 =
0
Dx 2
T − TM 1
h ( T∞ − TM ) + K M −1 + Dx g M = 0
Dx 2
These results are rearranged as
 2Dxh  ( Dx )2 g o 2Dxh
2T1 −  2 +  T0 + + T∞ 0 at=
= m 0
 K  K K
2
 2Dxh  ( Dx ) g m 2Dxh
2TM −1 −  2 +  TM + + T∞ 0 at=
= m M
 K  K K
 302 Heat Transfer

Problem on One - dimensional steady state heat conduction

1. Consider the steady - state heat conduction in slab of thickness L, in which energy is
generated at a constant rate of g W/m3. The boundary surface at x = 0 is maintained
at a constant temperature f0 , while the boundary surface at x = L dissipates heat by
convection with a heat transfer coefficient h into an ambient at temperature T∞. Dividing
the region into five equal subregions, write the finite-difference formulation of this heat
conduction problem.
Compute the temperature at the nodes by finite differences for h = 200 W/(m2.oC), K
= 18 W/(m . oC), L = 0.01m , T∞ = 100o C , f0 = 50o C, and g = 7.2 x 107 W/m3. Compare
the numerical solution with the exact result obtained from the analytic solution of the
problem.
T0 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
Ans. x
m=0 1 2 3 4 5
x=0 Dx x=L
The mathematical formulation of this heat conduction problem is given by
d2T ( x ) 1
= + g 0 in 0 < x < L
dx 2 K
= T ( x ) f=0 at x 0
dT ( x )
K = + hT hT∞ =
at x L
dx
( Dx )
2
gm
( Tm −1 − 2Tm + Tm +1 ) + 0 for node 1to 4
=
K
( Dx ) g +=
2
 2 Dxh  2 Dx h
2TM −1 −  2 +  TM + T∞ 0 =at m M for node 5
 K  K K
Node 5 equation is rewritten as
2
 2Dxh  ( Dx ) g 2Dxh
2T4 −  2 +  T5 + + T∞ = 0
 K  K K
The numerical values of various coefficients are
L 0.01
Dx = = = 2 × 10−3 m
5 5

=
( Dx ) g
2
(=
2 × 10 ) ( 7.2 × 10 )
−3 2

16
7

K 18
2 Dx h 2 ( 2 × 10 ) ( 200 )
−3

= = 0.0444
K 18
2 Dx h
= T∞ (= 0.0444 )(100 ) 4.44
K
T=
0 f=
0 50o C
Then these five equations take the form
−2T1 + T2 = −16 − 50
T1 − 2T2 + T3 =
−16
 K 18
2 Dx h
= T∞ (= 0.0444 )(100 ) 4.44
K
Numerical Analysis oof Heat Conduction 303
T=
0 f=
0 50 C
Then these five equations take the form
−2T1 + T2 = −16 − 50
T1 − 2T2 + T3 =
−16
T2 − 2T3 + T4 =
−16
T3 − 2T4 + T5 =
−16
2T4 − 2.044T5 =−16 − 4.44
Thissystemis written in matrix form as
 −2 1 0 0 0  T1   −66 
 1 −2 1 0    −16 
 0  T2   
 0 1 −2 1 0  T3  =  −16 
    
 0 0 1 −2 1  T4   −16 
 0 0 0 2 −2.044  T   −20.44 
 5
Applying Gauss elimination method, we get temperatures as
Node Temperature
1 119.045
2 172.090
3 209.135
4 230.180
5 235.225
The exact analytic solution of the heat conduction problem is straightforward and yields the
following expression for the temperature distribution.
x  x  x 
T ( x ) =50 + 5 + 200 1.9 −  
L  L  L 
We compare the finite - difference solution using five nodes and the exact solution of the
problem ; the results are very close as shown below.
x/L Tm Finite difference Exact
0.2 T1 119.05 119.00
0.4 T2 172.09 172.00
0.6 T3 209.14 209.00
0.8 T4 230.18 230.00
1.0 T5 235.22 235.00
2. An iron rod L = 5 cm long of diameter D = 2 cm with thermal conductivity K = 50 W/
(m . oC) protrudes from a wall and is exposed to an ambient at T∞ = 20o C and h = 100
W/(m2 . oC). The base of the rod is at T0 = 320oC, and its tip is insulated. Assuming one -
dimensional steady - state heat flow, calculate the temperature distribution along the rod
and the rate of heat loss into the ambient by using finite differences. Compare the finite
difference solution with the exact analytical solution of this problem.
304 Heat Transfer

Ans. The governing differential equation is

d2q ( x )
− N2 q= ( x ) 0 in 0 < x < L
dx 2
q( x ) = q0 at x = 0 temperature boundary
dq ( x )
= 0at = x L for insulated tip boundary
dx
where q ( x )= T ( x ) − T∞
q0 = T0 − T∞
2 Ph pDh 4h
N
= = =
Ak (p 4) D K DK
2

Dx/2 x=L
x=0
q0 q1 q2 q3 q4 q5
x
Dx Dx

Insulated
Temperature
prescribed
The finite difference equations become
qm −1 − 2qm + qm +1
− N 2 qm =0
( Dx ) 2

qm −1 −  2 ( N Dx )  qm +
2
= qm +1 0 =
for m 1to 4
 
2q4 −  2 + ( N Dx )=  q5 0 for
2
= m 5
 
The numerical values of various coefficients are
L 0.05
Dx = = = 0.01m
5 5
q=0
320 − 20 = 300o C
4h 4 × 100
=N2 = = 400
DK 0.02 × 50
2
( N Dx ) =
2
0.04
Then the equations become
m = 1: −2.04q1 + q2 = −300
m= 2 : q1 − 2.04q2 + q=
3 0
m 3: q2 − 2.04q3 + q=
= 4 0
m 4 : q3 − 2.04q4 + q=
= 5 0
m 5 : 2q4 − 2.04q=
= 5 0
Numerical Analysis of Heat Conduction 305

These equations are arranged in matrix form as

 −2.04 1 0 0 0  01   −300 
 
 1
 −2.04 1 0 0  02  0 

 0 1 −2.04 1 0   03  =  0 
    
 0 0 1 −2.04 1  04  0 
 0 0 0 2 −2.04  05  0 
Applying Gauss elimination method, we get
q1 =260.1
q2 =230.6
q3 =210.4
q4 =198.6
q5 =194.7
The exact solution is obtained from
cosh N ( L − x )
q( x ) =
q0
cosh NL

x/L qm Exact Finite difference

0.2 q1 260.0 260.1
0.4 q2 230.5 230.6
0.6 q3 210.2 210.4
0.8 q4 198.3 198.6
1.0 q5 194.4 194.7
Heat Flow Rate
 Heat entering   heat entering   heat entering 
     
 the element  +  the element  +  the element  = 0
 from the base   by conduction   by convection 
     
q − q0 Dx
Q + KA 1 + hp ( q∞ − q0 ) = 0
Dx 2
KA hP Dx
Q
= ( q0 − q1 ) + ( q0 − q∞ )
Dx 2
The numerical values of the various coefficients are
q0 = T0 − T∞ = 300o C
q∞ = T∞ − T∞ = 0o C
KA 50  p 2
=  × 0.02  = 1.571
Dx 0.01  4 
hP Dx 100
= ( p × 0.02 )( 0.01
= ) 0.0314
2 2
Q 1.571( 300 − 260.1) + 0.0314 ( 300 )
=
= 62.68 + 9.42 = 72.1W
306 Heat Transfer

3.4 TWO DIMENSIONAL STEADY STATE HEAT CONDUCTION

Consider the two-dimensional, steady -state heat conduction equation with the energy
generation term given in the form.
∂ 2 T ∂ 2 T g ( x, y )
+ + 0 in region R
=
∂x 2 ∂y 2 K
subject to a set boundary conditions. To replace the region by a set of discrete nodes, a
rectangular net mesh size Dx , Dy is constructed over the region, as shown in Fig. a.
y
y Curved boundary
with prescribed
Dx Dx Dx temperature
(m,n+1) TC
(n + 1) Dy l
n Dy
Dy (m–1,n) (m,n) (m+1,n) D TD
Dy (m,n–1) Tm-1,n Tm,n
(n – 1) Dy l

T
x 0
m,n-1
x
0 m Dx
(m – 1) Dx (m + 1) Dx
(a) (b)
The symbols m,n are used to denote the location of a nodal point whose coordinates are x = m
Dx, y = n Dy.
The finite difference forms of the second derivatives of temperatures at a node (m,n) are

2 ∂T / ∂x m + 1 − ∂T / ∂x m −1/ 2,n T + Tm +1,n − 2Tm,n

∂T 2,n m −1,n
2
=
( Dx )
2
∂x m,n
Dx
2
∂T Tm,n −1 + Tm,n +1 − 2Tm,n
=
( Dy )2
2
∂y 2 m,n

Therefore, the governing equation become

Tm −1,n + Tm +1,n − 2Tm,n Tm,n −1 + Tm,n +1 − 2Tm,n g m,n
+ + 0
=
( Dx )
2
( Dy )
2
K
In finte − difference analysis, usually a square mesh is used.For a square mesh
Dx =Dy =1
g m,n l2
( Tm−1,n + Tm+1,n + Tm,n −1 + Tm,n +1 − 4Tm,n ) +
K
0
= ... (1)

For the nodes with curved , boundary the equation become

 TD TC Tm −1,n Tm,n −1  1 1   g m,n l2
2 + + + −  +  Tm,n  + 0
= ... ( 2 )
 ξ (1 + ξ ) η (1 + η) 1 + ξ 1 + η  ξ η   K
We note that for ξ = η = 1this equation reduces to1
Numerical Analysis of Heat Conduction 307

3.5 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

1. Node (m,n) on a prescribed heat flux boundary.
Tm, n + 1
l l
l/2
q0 l Tm +1,n
W/m2 Tm, n

l
l/2
l
Tm, n – 1

Figure shows a node (m,n) on a boundary subjected to a prescribed heat flux q0 , W/m2. By writing
an energy balance equation for the volume element shown shaded, we obtain
1 Tm,n +1 − Tm,n T − Tm,n 1 Tm,n −1 − Tm,n 1 2
q0l + K + Kl m +1,n +K + l g m.n =
0
2 l l 2 l 2
After rearrangement,
l2 g m,n
2lq 0
Tm,n +1 + 2Tm +1,n + Tm,n −1 − 4Tm,n + +
= 0
K K
2. Node (m,n) at the intersection of two connection boundaries.
l Tm,n+1

l l l
Tm–1, n l l/2 Tm+1, n
Tm, n
l l/2 Convection
h, T∞
l Tm, n–1

Figure shows a node (m,n) at the intersection of two convection boundaries. Writing an energy
balance equation for the volume element shown shaded, we obtain.
l Tm,n −1 − Tm,n T − Tm,n T − Tm,n 1 Tm +1,n − Tm,n
K + Kl m −1,n + Kl m,n +1 +K + hl ( T∞ − Tm,n )
2 l l l 2 l
3
+ l2 g m,n = 0
4
After rearrangement,
 2hl  3 l2 2hl
Tm, n −1 + 2Tm −1,n + 2Tm,n +1 + Tm +1,n −  6 + T
 m,n + g m,n + T∞ = 0
 K  2K K
308 Heat Transfer

Problems on 2-D steady state heat conduction

1. Consider steady - state heat conduction in a square region of side 2b, in which energy is
generated at a constant rate of g W/m3. The bound ary conditions for the problem are
shown in Fig. Write the finite difference equations for nodes 1,3 and 5 in this figure.
y
Convection h, T∞
2b
5 6
Heat supply q0
W/m2 Prescribed
3 4 temperature TS

1 2
x
2b
Insulated
Ans. By writing energy balance equations for each of the volume elements shown shaded in this
figure, the finite-difference equations for these three nodes are determined :
Node 1 :
b ( T3 − T1 ) b ( T2 − T1 )  b 
2
b
q0 + K +K +  g = 0
2 2 b 2 b 2
b 2 g 2bq 0
or 2T2 + 2T3 − 4T1 + + 0
=
K K
Node 3 :
b ( T5 − T3 ) ( T − T3 ) + K b ( T1 − T3 ) + 1 b 2 g =
q0 b + K + Kb 4 0
2 b b 2 b 2
b 2 g 2bq 0
or T1 + 2T4 + T5 − 4T3 + + = 0
K K
Node5:
b ( T6 − T5 ) b ( T3 − T5 )  b 
2
b b
q0 + h ( T∞ − T5 ) + K +K +  g =
0
2 2 2 b 2 b 2
 2hb  b 2 g 2hb 2b
or 2T3 + 2T6 −  4 +  T5 + + T∞ + q 0 =
0
 K  K K K
2. Consider steady - state heat conduction in a rectangular region 0 ≤ x ≤ 3b, 0 ≤ y ≤ 2b,
subjected to the boundary conditions shown in fig. Calculate the temperatures Tm ,m = 1
to 6, at the six nodes in this figure, and compare the finite - difference solution with the
exact results.
Numerical Analysis of Heat Conduction 309

y p
T ( x ) = 100 cos x
6b
100 86.66 50 0
2b

T2 T4 T6 Maintained
at zero
Insulated temperature
T1 T3 T5
0 Insulated 3b
Ans. The finite - difference equations for each node are
Node1: 2T2 + 2T3 − 4T1 =0
Node 2 : T1 + 2T4 + 100 − 4T2 = 0
Node3: T1 + 2T4 + T5 − 4T3 =0
Node 4: T2 + T3 + T6 + 86.66 − 4T4 =
0
Node5 : T3 + 2T6 − 4T5 = 0
Node 6 : T4 + T5 + 50 − 4T6 = 0
These equations can be arranged in matrix form as follows:
 −4 2 2 0 0 0  T1  0 
   
−4 0 2 0 0  2  −100 
T 
1   
 1 0 −4 2 1 0  T3  0 
   =  
 0 1 1 −4 0 1  T4   −86.66 
 0 0 1 0 −4 2  T  0 
  5  
 0 0 0 1 1 −4  T6   −50 
T1 = 63.6
T2 = 72.2
T3 = 55.1
T4 = 62.5
T5 = 31.8
T6 = 36.1
The exact analytic solution of this heat conduction problem for the temperature distribution
within the region is

T ( x, y ) = 100  y / ( 6b )  cosh  p x 
cosh p
 
 / ( 3b ) 
cosh p  6b 
We now compare the finite - difference solution with the exact results :
310 Heat Transfer

Tm Finite difference Exact

T1 63.6 62.4
T2 72.2 71.1
T3 55.1 54.0
T4 62.5 61.7
T5 31.8 31.2
T6 36.1 35.6
3. Consider an example as shown in Fig. Calculate the temperature at four descrete points
and heat flow from 500oC and 100oC faces. Take k = 1W/m.K.
Ans. Four equations for the nodes 1, 2, 3, 4 can be written as
100 + 500 + T2 + T3 – 4T1 = 0
T1 + 500 + 100 + T4 – 4T1 = 0
100 + T1 + T4 + 100 – 4T3 = 0
T3 + T2 + 100 + 100 – 4T4 = 0
These are four algebraix equations and can be solved
T1 = T2 = 250oC
and T3 = T4 = 150oC
The heat flow may be calculated as
DT
Q =ΣkDx
Dy
where DT is taken from boundary.
From 500o C face
DT
Q = −K = 1 × ( 250 − 500 ) + ( 250 − 500 )  = 500W
Dx
and for 100o C face
DT ( 250 − 100 ) + (150 − 100 ) + (150 − 100 ) + (150 − 100 ) 
Q=
−K 1× 
= = −500W.
Dx  + (150 − 100 ) + ( 250 − 100 ) 
500oC
Dx

Dy
1 2

3 4 100oC
100oC

100oC
Numerical Analysis of Heat Conduction 311

4. The inside and outside surface temperature of a hollow rectangular duct 75cm × 75cm
in size are maintained as 500oC and 100oC, respectively. It is 30cm thick. Find the rate of
heat loss per unit length of the duct. Take constant thermal conductivity of the material
as 20W/m K.
Ans. A hollow rectangular duct
size = 75cm × 75cm (inside)
L = 30cm, T1 = 500oC, T2 = 100oC, K = 20 W/m K.
30cm

75 cm

75 cm
500oC 100oC
Dy = 15cm

F A B CD

Dx = 15cm
Analysis : Due to symmetry, only one corner of the duct is considered and it is divided into
a number squares 15cm × 15cm. A, B, C, D and E are 5 nodes considered.
Using relaxation method, the nodal equations on interior nodes A, B, C, and D.
At node A
q1* = 100 + TE + TB + 100 – 4TA
Using TE = TB. due to symmetry, then
q1* = 200 + 2TB – 4TA
At node B
TA + 500 +TC + 100 – 4TB = q2*
TA + TC +600 – 4TB = q2*
At node C, TB + TD +600 – 4TC = q3*
At node D 2TC +600 – 4TC = q4*
500 + 100
Starting with T= A T=
B T=
C T=D = 300o C
2
Then residual at nodes
q1* =200 + 600 − 4 × 300 =−400
q*2= 300 + 300 + 600 − 4 × 300= 0
q*3= 300 + 300 + 600 − 4 × 300= 0
q*4 = 2 × 300 + 600 − 4 × 300 = 0
The largest residual should be relaxed first, the solution is presented in tabular form below:
312 Heat Transfer

Table
A B C D
Steps
q* T(oC) q* T(oC) q* T(oC) q* T(oC)
1 –400 300 0 300 0 300 0 300
2 0 →200 –100 300 0 300 0 300
3 –50 200 0 →275 –25 300 0 300
4 30 →180 –20 275 –25 300 0 300
5 30 180 –28 275 7 →292 –8 300
6 16 180 0 →268 0 292 –8 300
7 0 →184 4 268 0 292 –8 300
8 0 184 4 268 –2 292 0 →298
9 2 184 0 →269 –1 292 0 298
The duct includes total 8QB, 8QC, 8QD and 4 QA nodes. Heat loss from the duct
Q = 8(QB + QC + QD) = 4QA
 0.15 
= 8 K × × 1 × ( 269 − 100 ) + k ( 292 − 100 ) + K ( 298 − 100 )  + 4 × K (184 − 100 )
 0.15 
= 8k (169 + 192 + 198 ) + 4K × 84
= 4808 K= 4808 × 20= 96160 W / m= 96.16 kW / m
5. A large industrial furnace is supported on a long column of fire clay brick
(K = 1 W/m.K), 1m × 1m on a side. During steady state operations, the installation is such that
the three surface of column are maintained at 500 K. While the remaining, surface is exposed
to air stream at 300K with h = 10 W/m2K. Using the Gauss siedal iterative technique with
a grid of size Dx = Dy = 0.25 m. Calculate two dimensional temperature distribution in the
column and the heat transfer rate to air stream per unit length of the column.
Ans. Dimensions and surface conditions of a supported column as shown in Fig.
To find : (i) Temperature distribution in the column, and
(ii) Heat flow rate to air stream.
Dx = 0.25m 500 K
Fire clay
bricks
Dy = 0.25m
1 2 1

3 4 3 TS = 500K
500 K

5 6 5

7 8 7
h = 10 W/m2K
Air
TS = 300K
Numerical Analysis of Heat Conduction 313

Assumptions :
(i) Steady state conditions. (ii) Two dimensional conductions.
(iii) Constant properties (iv) No internal heat generation.
Analysis : There are 12 nodes at which temperature is unknown. However, the number
of unknown can be reduced to 8, because T1 = T3, T4 = T6, T7 = T9 and T10 = T12 due to
symmetry.
The node 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 are interior nodes and their equations :
node 1 T2 + T3 + 500=
+ 500 − 4T1 0 or T2 + T3 +=
1000 − 4T1 0
node 2 T1 + 500 +=
T1 + T4 − 4T2 0 or 2T1 + T=
4 + 500 − 4T2 0
node 3 T1 + T4 + T5 + 500 − 4T3 =
0
node 4 T2 + 2T3 + T6 − 4T4 =
0
node 5 T3 + T6 + T7 + 500 − 4T5 =
0
node 6 T4 + 2T5 + T8 − 4T6 =
0
hDx
From table for convection boundary node, = 2.5
k
node 7 2T5 + T8 + 2000 − 9T7 =
0
node 8 2T6 + 2T7 + 1500 − 9T8 =
0
The finite different equations are arranged for Gauss siedal iterative technique as :
T1 0.25[ T2 + T3 + 1000] ,
= T2 0.25[ 2T1 + T4 + 500]
=
T3 0.25[ T1 + T4 + T5 + 500] ,
= T4 0.25[ T2 + 2T3 + T6 ]
=
T5 0.25 [ T3 + T6 + T7 + 500] , =
= T6 0.25 [ T4 + 2T5 + T5 ]
T7 1/ 9 [ 2T5 + T8 + 2000] ,
= T8 1/ 9 [ 2T6 + 2T7 + 1500]
=
Assuming initial values for temperature as :
=k 0,=T1 480,T= 2 470,T
= 3 440,=
T4 430,= T5 400,=
T6 390,=
T7 370,=
T8 350
The new value of T1 is calculated from the previous values and current values, which are
determined. The solution is tabulated below.
TABLE
k T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8
0 480 470 440 430 400 390 370 350
1 477. 471.3 451.9 441.3 428.0 411.8 356.2 337.3
2 480.8 475.7 462.5 453.1 436.6 413.9 355.8 337.7
3 484.6 480.6 467.6 457.4 434.3 415.9 356.2 338.2
4 487.1 482.9 469.74 459.6 435.5 417.2 356.6 338.6
5 488.1 484.0 470.8 460.7 436.1 417.9 356.7 338.8
6 488.7 484.5 471.4 461.3 436.5 418.3 356.9 338.9
7 489.0 484.8 471.7 461.6 436.7 418.5 356.9 339.0
8 489.1 485.0 471.9 461.8 436.8 418.6 356.9 339.0
The results shown in row are good approximation with minimum error. The error can be
further reduced by taking some more iterations or considering a finer grid size.
314 Heat Transfer

3.6 UNSTEADY CONDUCTION HEAT TRANSFER

Unsteady heat conduction problems can be solved numerically by transforming the partial
differential equation of heat conduction to finite - difference equations in both space and time
domains.
3.6.1 One dimensional heat conduction - explicit method
Consider a one - dimensional, time - dependent heat conduction equation confined to the
domain 0 < x < L :
∂T ( x, t ) ∂ 2T
= a 2
∂t ∂x
To obtain the finite - difference form of this differential equation, the x and t domains are
divided into small steps Dx and Dt, as illustrated in Fig. so that
x= m Dx m=0,1, 2,...., M
t= i Dt i=
0,1, 2,.....
L
where M =
Dx
Then the temperature T(x,t) at a location x and time t is denoted by the symbol
Tim ; that is, T(x,t) = T(m Dx, i Dt) = Tim
t

Tmi+1
i+1
Dt Tmi– 1 Tmi Tmi+ 1
i

1
Dt Dx Dx
i=0
0 m–1 m m+1 M–1 M
x=0 x=L
The second derivative of temperature with respect to x, at a position m Dx and at a time i Dt,
∂ 2T Tmi −1 + Tmi +1 − 2Tmi
≅
( Dx )
2
∂x 2 m,i
where Tim-1 and Tim+1 are the two neighbouring points of the node Tim , and all of which are
evaluated at the time i Dt.
The first derivative of temperature
Numerical Analysis of Heat Conduction 315

∂∂TT Tmmii ++11 −

T −T Tmmii
≅
≅
∂∂tt m,i
m,i
Dtt
D
ii +
+11
where
where T
T is
m
m is the
the temperature
temperature at
at the
the location
location m
mDDxx at
at the time ( ii +
the time + 11) D
Dt.
t.
The differentialequation
The differentialequation become
become
i +1 i i i i
T −T
Tmmi +1 − Tmmi = a T +T
Tmmi −−11 + Tmmi ++11 −− 2T
2Tmmi
= a 22
Dtt
D ( DDxx )
This equation
This equation is
is rearranged
rearranged in
in the
the form
form
rr ( T Tmmii ++11 ) +
ii +
+11
T=
T=
m
m
Tmmii −−11 +
+T + (11 −
− 2r Tmmii
2r ) T
where i = 0,1,.....
wher
= m 1, 2,...., M − 1
r= a Dt
=
( Dx )2
2

The above equation is called the explicit finite - difference form of the one-dimensional time-
dependent heat conduction equation. The method is called explicit because the temperature Ti+1 m at
node m at a time step i +1 is immediately determined from the above equation if the temperatures
of node m and its neighbouring points at the previous time step i are available and the value of the
parameter r is specified.
Restriction on r The value of the parameter r in teh explicit finite - difference is restricted to
1 a Dt
0<r< r= 2
2 ( Dx )
T(x,t)
Finite difference
solution with r = 5/9

Exact solution

Dots show finite difference

solution with r = 5/11

This restriction implies that for given values of a and Dx, the time Dt cannot exceed the limit
imposed on it. This is called the stability criterion.
Figure illustrates what happens to the numerical results if the above stability criterion is
violated. This figure shows that the numerical results obtained with the time step satisfying the
5 1
condition = r < are in good agreement with the exact solution. However, the numerical
11 2
solution of the same problem with a slightly larger time step, which violates the above stability
criterion of r = 5/9 > 1/2 results in an unstable solution.
316 Heat Transfer

Suppose at any time step i the temperatures Tim-1 and Tim+1 at nodes m – 1 and m + 1 are equal
but less than Tim at node m between them. Then if the value of r exceeds 1/2, the co-efficient 1
– 2r becomes negative. Then, according to the finite difference equation for 1 – 2r negative, the
temperature Tmi+1 at node m at the next time step should be less than that at the neighboring two
nodes. Thus is not possible thermodynamically, snce we assumed that Tim was higher than that at
the neighboring nodes. Therefore, to obtain meaningful solutions from eq. the coefficient 1 – 2r
of Tim should not be negative; that is,
1 – 2r ≥0 or r ≤ 1/2
3.6.2 Unsteady heat conduction - implicit method
The implicit methods of finite - difference schemes, which involve the use of backward -
difference formulation in time increments, eliminate the restrictions imposed on the size of the
time step Dt.
Different types of implicit schemes are
1. Fully implicit scheme
The finite - difference formulation of the one - dimensional, time - dependent heat conduction
equation with the fully implicit scheme is given by
Tmi +1 − Tmi T i +1 − 2Tmi +1 + Tmi ++11
= a m −1
( Dx )
2
Dt
The implicit schemes are advantageous in that there is no restriction on the size of the time
step Dt by the stability considerations. However, to determine the node temperatures Tmi , a
simultaneous solution of all the equations for the nodes at each time step is required.
2. Crank - Nicolson Method :
We consider the following one - dimensional, time - dependent heat conduction problem for
a slab subjected to convection boundary conditions :
∂T ∂ 2T
= a 2 in 0 ≤ x ≤ L,for t > 0
∂t ∂x
subject to the boundary conditions
∂T
−K + h1T = f1 at x= 0,fort > 0
∂x
∂T
K + h 2 T= f 2 at x= L,for t > 0
∂x
T F( x )
= for=t 0in 0 ≤ x < L

T–1 T0 T1 T2 Tm–1 TM+1

Dx Dx Dx Dx
The finite difference form of the differential equation
Numerical Analysis of Heat Conduction 317

Tmi +1 − Tmi a  Tmi +−11 − 2Tmi +1 + Tmi ++11 Tmi −1 − 2Tmi + Tmi +1 
 + 
( Dx ) ( Dx )
2 2
Dt 2  
which is rearranged as
− r Tmi +−11 + ( 2 + 2r ) Tmi +1 − rTmi +−1=
1 rTmi −1 + ( 2 − 2r ) Tmi + rTmi +1
for m = 0,1, 2,..., M where
a Dt
r=
( Dx )
2

The finite difference representations of boundary conditions

T1i − T−i 1
−K + h1T0i =
f1
2 Dx
TMi +1 − TMi −1
K + h 2 TMi =
f2
2 Dx
theinitialcondition Tm0 =F ( m Dx ) , m =0,1, 2,..., M

3.7 TWO-DIMENSIONAL UNSTEADY STATE HEAT CONDUCTION

Two-dimensional, time - dependent heat conduction equation :
∂T  ∂ 2T ∂ 2T 
= a 2 + 2 
∂t  ∂x ∂y 
First, the region is divided into square subregions by a network of mesh size Dx = Dy, and the
time domain is divided into small times steps Dt. Then the temperature T(x,y,t) at any location
(x,y) and at any time t can be denoted by
T ( x, y, t=
) T ( m Dx, n Dy,i Dt=) Tm,n
i

 ∂ 2T ∂ 2T  Tmi −1,n + Tmi +1,n + Tm,n

i i i
−1 + Tm,n +1 − 4Tm,n
 2 +  ≅
( Dx )
2
 ∂x ∂y 2  m,n,i
The partialderivative with respect to the time variable can be written as
i +1 i
 ∂T  Tm,n − Tm,n
 ∂t  ≅
  m,n,i Dt
Finite − difference form of the two − dimensiona, time − dependent heat conduction
equation is
Tmi +1 r Tmi −1,n + Tmi +1,n + Tm,n −1 + Tm,n +1  + (1 − 4r ) Tm,n ... (1)
= i i
 i

aDt
r= , Dx =Dy
( Dx )
2

Restriction on r
to obtain physically meaningful results, the coefficient 1–4r of Tm,ni in above equation 1 should
not be negative. This requirement leads to the following stability criterion :
 318 Heat Transfer

1
0<r< ... ( 2 )
4
a Dt
where r =
( Dx )
2

This condition implies that for given values of a and Dx, the time step Dt cannot exceed
the upper limit imposed by the stability criterion given by equations. Otherwise, the numerical
calculations become unstable.
3.8 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Two different approaches used for developing finite difference equations for the boundary nodes.
1. Negligible heat capacity
If the step size Dx is sufficiently small, the heat capacity associated with the volume element
at the boundary node can be neglected. Then the finite difference equation for the boundary node
is developed by considering a steady - state energy balance for the node, which can be stated as
 Rate of heat entering   Rate of energy 
   
 the volume element  +  generated in = 0
 DV from allits   the volume element 
   
 surfaces   DV 
consider a slab of thickness L, subjected to convection at both its boundary surfaces, as shown in
Fig.
Convection Convection
T∞, h0 T∞, hM

T1 T2 Tm–1 TM
T0
M
Dx Dx

Dx/2 Dx/2
The steady - state energy balance for node m = 0 at the boundary surface x = 0, at any time step
i + 1, gives
T i +1 − T0i +1
h 0 ( T∞ − T0i +1 ) + K 1 0
=
Dx
1  i +1 Dx h 0 
= T0i +1  T1 + K T∞ 
h
1 + Dx 0  
K
Similaly,an energy= balance for node m M,at = the boundary x L,gives
TMi +−11 − TMi +1
K + h M ( T∞ − TMi +1 )
Dx
1  i +1 Dx h M 
TMi +1
=  TM −1 + T∞  0
=
1 + Dx h M / k  K 
Numerical Analysis of Heat Conduction 319

2. Effects of heat capacity

If the step size Dx is not sufficiently small, it may be necessary to include the effects of the heat
capacitance by considering a time dependent energy balance for the volume element associated
with the node at the boundary. The transient energy balance for a volume element DV can be
stated as
 Rate of heat 
   Rate of energy   Rate of increase 
 enetring DV   geenration   
 from allits  +  =  of internal 
   in DV at   energy of 
 surfaces at   timestepi   
 timestepi     DV 
 
This energy balance is applied to a volume element of thickness Dx/2, associated with the
boundary node m = 0, shown in Fig.
( Ti − T0i ) =
h 0 ( T∞ − T0i ) + K i ρC p
Dx ( T0 − T0 )
i +1 i

Dx 2 Dt
i +1
Solving for T0 , we get
i +1  2 Dx h 0    Dx h M   i
T0= r  2T1i + T∞  + 1 − 2r 1 +  T0
 K    K  
Similarly, the application of this transient energy balance equation to the boundary node
m = M associated wihth the volume element of thickness Dx / 2gives
TMi −1 − TMi Dx TMi +1 − TMi
h M ( T∞ − TMi ) + K ρCp
=
Dx 2 Dt
i +1
Solving for TM , we obtain
 2Dx h M    Dx h M   i
TMi +1 r  2TMi −1 +
= T∞  + 1 − 2r 1 +  TM
 K    K  
To obtain physically meaningful meaningful results, the coefficients of T0i and TMi in
these equationsshould be positive that is,
 Dx h 0 
1 − 2r 1 + ≥ 0 for m =0
 K 
 Dx h M 
1 − 2r 1 +  ≥ 0 for m =
M
 K 
320 Heat Transfer

Finite - difference equation for a corner node

Dx
T1

Convection Dx/2 Dx
h1, T∞
Dx/2
T0 T2
Convection h2, T∞
Consider the node 0 at the intersection of two boundaries in a two dimensional, transient
heat conduction problem, as illustrated in Fig, transient energy balance equation for this node
associated with the shaded volume element is written as
Dx Dx Dx T2i − T0i Dx T1i − T0i i +1 i
 Dx  T0 − T0
h1
2
( ∞ 0 ) 2 2 ( ∞ 0 ) 2 Dx
T + T i
+ h T − T i
+ K + K
2 Dx
=
ρC p 
 2  Dt
Solving this equation for T0i +1 , we obtain
i +1  h Dx h Dx    h Dx h Dx  
T0= 2r  T1i + T2i + 1 T∞ + 2 T∞  + 1 − 2r  2 + 1 + 2   T0i
 K K    K K 
An examination of this equation reveals that the co-efficient of T0i should not be negative in
order to obtain meaningful solutions. Hence we require
 h Dx h 2 Dx 
1 − 2r  2 + 1 + ≥0
 K K 
or the parameter r should satisfy the following stability criterion:
1
0<r≤
2 ( 2 + h1 Dx / K + h 2 Dx / K )
Numerical Analysis of Heat Conduction 321

Problems on Unsteady state heat conduction

1. Develop the finite - difference equations for the solution of transient heat conduction
in a slab of thickness L, initially with temperature distribution F(x), when for t > 0 the
boundary surfaces at x = 0 and x = L are subjected to convection. The mathematical
formulation of this problem can be taken as
Ans.
∂T ∂ 2T
=a 2 in 0 < x < L, t > 0
∂t ∂x
Subject to the boundary conditions
∂T
−K + h 0 T =h 0 T∞ 0 at x =0, t > 0
∂x
∂T
K + h M T =h M T∞ M at x =L, t > 0
∂x
and theintialcondition = T F ( x ) , for= t 0, in 0 ≤ x ≤ L
The region 0 ≤ x ≤ L is divided into M equal intervals with the mesh size equal to Dx=L/M,
as illustrated in Fig.
Convection Convection
T∞, h0 T∞, hM

T1 T2 Tm–1 TM
T0
M
Dx Dx

Dx/2 Dx/2
The finite difference equations for the interior nodes m = 1,2,....,M – 1
i +1
T=
m r ( Tmi −1 + Tmi +1 ) + (1 − 2r ) Tmi m 1, 2,....., M − 1
=
Assume that the heat capacitance of the volume element associated with the boundary
nodesis negligible, the finite difference equations for nodes
= m 0and
= m M are
obtained, respectively,
1  i +1 Dx h 0 
=T0i +1  T1 + T∞ 0 
1 + Dx h 0 / K  K 
1  i +1 Dx h M 
=TMi +1  TM −1 + T∞M 
1 + Dx h M / K  K 
2. A marble slab [K = 2W/moC, a = 1×10–6 m2/s) that is L = 2 cm thick is initially at a uniform
temperature Ti=200oC. Suddenly one of its surfaces is lowered to 0oC and is maintained
at that temperature, while the other surface is kept insulated. Develop an explicit finite -
difference scheme for the determination of the temperature distribution in the slab as a
function of position and time as well as the heat flux at the boundary surface.
Ans. The mathematical formulation of this heat conduction problem is given by
 322 Heat Transfer

∂T ∂ 2T
= a 2 in 0 < x < L, t > 0
∂t ∂x
∂T
= 0 at=x 0, t > 0
∂x
T 0
= at=x L, t > 0
Finite − difference formulation isimmediately obtained bysetting h 0 =
0, h M =
∞,and
T∞M = 0 :
Tmi +=
1
rTmi −1 + (1 − 2r ) Tmi + rTmi +1 m
= 1, 2,..., M − 1
T0i +1 T=
1
i +1
for node m 0
TMi +1 = 0 for node m = M
0
T 200
= m for
=i 0,=
m 0,1,..., M
Tosolve this problem, we divide the region into M = 5equal parts.
Hence,
L 2
Dx = = = 0.4cm
M 5
1
The value
= of the parameter r is taken as r ; then the corresponding timestep Dt
2
becomes

1 ( 0.4 × 10 )
−2 2
r ( Dx )
2

= Dt = = 8s
a 2 10−6
1
Bysetting r
= , the aboveset of finite − differenceequations becomes
2
1
Tmi +1 =( Tmi −1 + Tmi +1 ) m= 1, 2,3, 4
2
= T0i +1 T= 1
i +1
m 0
=T5i +1 0=m 5
=Tm0 200 =m 0,1,
= 2,3, 4,5,i 0
The heat flux at the boundarysurface
= ( that is, M 5)
x L=
T4i − T5i
q iM = K W / m2
Dx
the heat flux q iM at the end of timestepi
= 10= ( i.e., t 80s )
48.5 − 0
= q iM 2= 24, 250 W / m 2
0.4 × 10−2
Finite difference calculation
Numerical Analysis of Heat Conduction 323

i t,s m=0 1 2 3 4 5
x=0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0
0 0 200 200 200 200 200 200
1 8 200 200 200 200 200 0
2 16 200 200 200 200 100 0
3 24 200 200 200 150 100 0
4 32 200 200 175 150 75 0
5 40 187.5 187.5 175 125 75 0
6 48 181.2 181.2 156.2 125 62.5 0
7 56 168.7 168.7 153.1 109.4 62.5 0
8 64 160.9 160.9 139.1 107.8 54.7 0
9 72 150.0 150.0 134.4 96.9 53.9 0
10 80 142.2 142.2 123.5 94.2 48.5 0
324 Heat Transfer

RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER

3.9 INTRODUCTION
Radiation heat transfer is one in which, heat is transferred from the heat source to receiver
without affecting the material medium between them.
Heat is transferred in the form of thermal radiation without any physical contact between the
bodies involved.
Radiation heat transfer can also occur in vacuum. Energy released by a radiating surface is
not continuous but is in the form of successive and separate packets or quanta of energy called
photons. These photon travel with unchanged frequency in straight paths and with speed equal
to that of light. When the photons approach the receiving surface, there occurs reconversion of
wave motion into thermal energy which is partly reflected, absorbed or transmitted thorough the
receiving surface.
3.10 CHARACTERISTICS OF RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER
1) The emission of thermal radiation is associated with thermally excited conditions which
depend upon the nature of surface and its absolute temperature.
2) The distinction between one form of radiation and another lies in its frequency and wave
length.
It is related by, c = λf
c = speed of light, λ = wavelength, f = frequency
3) Thermal radiations exhibit characteristics similar to those of visible light and follow optical
laws.
4) The general phenomenon of radiation covers the propagation of electromagnetic waves of all
the wave lengths.
5) Bodies at high temperature emit radiant energy at a greater rate than bodies at low temperature.
6) Heat transfer by radiation gets enhanced at elevated temperature of the source and surroundings,
3.11 ABSORPTIVITY, REFLECTIVITY AND TRANSMISSIVITY
Qo

Qr

Qa

Qt

The total radiant energy Qo impinging upon a body would be partially or totally absorbed, reflected
from its surface or transmitted through it
i.e., The total radial energy
= Energy absorbed + Energy reflected + Energy transmitted
Q o = Qa + Qr + Qt
Radiation Heat Transfer 325

Dividing through by Qo
 o Qa Q r Q t
= + +
Qo Qo Qo Qo
1= a + ρ + τ
Where,
α (Absorptivity) : It is the fraction of total radiant energy absorbed by the body.
Q
i.e., a = a
Qo
ρ (Reflectivity): It is the fraction of total radiant energy reflected from the body.
Q
i.e., ρ = r
Qo
τ(Transmissivity): It is the fraction of total radiant energy transmitted through the body.
Q
i.e., τ = t
Qo
The values of α, ρ & τ varies from 0 to 1. The value depends upon (i) nature of the surface of the
body, (ii) Temperature of the body, (iii) wavelength of incident rays.
Black body: It is assigned to a perfect absorber of radiation. Therefore for black body α = 1,
ρ = τ = 0. The absorptivity of surface can be increased to 90 to 95% by coating their surfaces with
lamp black or a dark rough paint. The absorptivity of a surface depends upon (i) the direction of
incident radiation, (ii) temperature of the surface, (iii) composition and structure of the irradiated
surface, (iv) spectral distribution of incident radiation.
Figure shows a hollow enclosure with a very small hole for the passage of incident radiation.
The incident energy passes through the opening and part of its is absorbed when it is incident on
the inside surface. After a number of such incidence and reflections, most of the energy will be
absorbed. With very little of the original incident energy being reflected back out of the opening.
Thus the small hole leading to a cavity acts very nearly as a black body.

Ray of radiant energy

Gray Body: When a surface absorbs a certain fixed percentage of impinging radiation, then the
surface is called gray body. For gray body, the absorptivity is below unity.
White Body: A body that reflects all the incident thermal radiations is called a specular body or
an absolutely white body.
For white body ρ = 1, α = τ = 0
326 Heat Transfer

Eg: highly polished surface, smooth surfaces, mirrors.

Transparent or diathermaneous body: A body that allows all the incident radiations to pass
through it is called transparent or diatermaneous body.
For such bodies τ = 1, α = ρ = 0
Ex ; Thin glass plate.
3.12 STEFAN BOLTZMAN LAW
It states that the heat radiated is proportional to fourth power of the absolute temperature of the
surface and the surface area
i.e., Q a AT 4
Q = sAT 4
Where, s =Stefan Boltzman 's constant
= 5.67 × 10−8 W / m 2 K 4
The radiation emitted by the real body is less than that of black body. Then the heat radiated
become
Q = esT 4
Where, e =Emissivity of real body
The radiation energy absorbed by the surface is given by
Q= Aes ( T14 − T24 )
Where, A = Area of emitted surface, m 2
e =Emissivity of the emitted surface
T1 = Temperature of emitted surface in K
T2 = Temperature of absorbed body in K

Absorber T2

Radiation A, T ,
1
ε
Emitter
3.13 TOTAL EMISSIVE POWER
It is defined as the total radiant energy emitted by the surface in all directions over the entire
wavelength range per unit surface area per unit time.
Stefan Boltzman law can also be written as
Eb = σbT4
Where, Eb = Radiant energy emitted by black body
σb = Radiant coefficient of black body
From Planck's Law, monochromatic emissive power of the black body is
C
E b = 5 c / λ1T
λ e 2 − 1
 Radiation Heat Transfer 327

Radiation energy emitted by the black body or emissive power over the entire bandwidth of wave
length λ = 0 to λ = ∞
∞
C C1
∞
=
= E b E b∫ 5∫ 5c / λ1Tc2 / λT dλ dλ
0 λ 0{e {
λ 2 e − 1}− 1}
C= C2 C C2 ,= −C −C2 dy
Let
=Let 2
y y= or= λor λ 2 ,= dλ dλ 2 2 dy2
λT λT yT yT y Ty T
TheThenewnew integration
integration limits
limits are,are,
at λat=λ0,= y0,=y∞=&∞at&λat=λ∞=, ∞
y,=y0 = 0
∞ 5 5
y5 Ty5 CT2 C2
∞
\ E\b
E
= C
b =
1∫
C 1 ∫ dy dy
5 C5y  e y − 12 y 2 T
0 C 20  e2 − 1 y T

4 ∞
C4 ∞T
=C1T 1 4 y3∫(ye3y (−e1y )− 1dy ) dy
−1 −1
4 C∫
=
C2 2 0 0

) abyseries
( e y (−e1y )− 1by
−1 −1
Expanding
Expanding a series
∞ 4 ∞
C TC4 1T
E b E b 1 4 ∫4 y3∫ye − ye+ e −+2 ye+ e −+3ye+ ---+---
dy dy
3 −y −2 y −3y
= =
C2 C02 0
TheThe integral
integral is inisthe
in the
formformof of
∞
∞
n!
dy n!
∫ y∫
n − ay
n
×ye −×aye dy = =
n +1a n +1
0 0 a
4
\
= E C1TC4 1T3! 3!3!+ 3!3!+ 3! + - - -- - 
\
= E b b 4 4 4 + 4 4 + 4 4 + 4- - - - -  
C2 C21 1 2 2 3 3  
4
E C1TC4 1T × 6.48
E=
= b ×4 6.48
C42 C2
b

But,But,
C1 = C12=
phc2p2hc 2 h=hPlanks
= Planks constant
constant
34 8 34 −34 Js
= 2=p ×2p6.6256
× 6.6256
× 10×−10 3 ×810 = 6.6256
× 10×−10
−
34
× 3××10 = 6.6256 Js
0.874 15 −15 2Jm 2 / s
= =
0.874 × 10×−10Jm / s Cspeed
C= = speed of light
of light
hc hc 8
C2 =C2 = 3 ×810
= 3= × 10 m /ms /s
K K
K =KBoltzman
= Boltzman constant
constant
1.38054 23 −23 JK
=
= 1.38054 × 10×−10 JK
−34
6.6256
6.6256 × 10× 10× 3 ×
−34 3 ×8108
×10
C
C2 = 2 =
1.3805 23 −23
1.3805 × 10×−10
1.4388 2 −2 mK
== 1.4388 × 10×−10mK
0.374 15 −15
E 0.374 × 10×−10 × 6.48 4
=
=\ E\ × 46.48 × T×4 T
(1.4388 ) )
b
(1.4388
b 4 2
× 10×−10
2 −

8 −48 T 4 = 4
Eb E
= = 5.67
b5.67 × 10×−10
T = sT 4sT
Stefan − Boltzman constant , 5.67 8 −8 W /2 m42 K 4
s=
= sStefan − Boltzman =, =
constant 5.67 × 10×−10
W/m K
328 Heat Transfer

3.14 PLANCK'S LAW

The energy emitted by a black surface varies in accordance with wave length, temperature
and surface characteristic of the body. The amount of radiation is strongly influenced by the
wavelength even if temperature of the body remains at the constant fixed value.
The laws governing the distribution of radiant energy over wave length for a black body at a
fixed temperature were formulated by Planck.
Planck suggested the following law for the spectral distribution of emissive power
2phC2
( E λ )b =
 hC 
λ 5 e K BλT − 1
Where, h Planck constant, 6.6235 × 10−34 Js
C= velocity of light in vacuum= 3 × 108 m / s
KB Boltzman constant = 13.8054 × 10−23 JK
λ =Wavelength of radiation waves, m
T = Absolute temperature of the black body, Kelvin
The above expression is written as
C
( E λ )b = 5 C2 /1λT
λ e − 1
2pC2 h =
Where, C1 = 0.3748 × 10−15 Jm 2 / s
hC
C2 =1.4388 × 10−2 mK =
KB
(Eλ)b = monochromatic (single wave length). Emission power
It is defined as energy emitted by the black surface at a given wavelength λ per unit wavelength
interval, around λ i.e., the rate of energy emission in the interval dλ is equal to (Eλ)b dλ.
3.14.1 Rayleigh Jeans law
It is an approximation to the spectral radiance of electromagnetic radiation as a function of
wave length from a black body at a given.
2CsT
It is given by BX ( T ) =
λ4
Where = BX Spectrial radiance,= C Speed of light,= s Stefan − Boltzman constant,
T Temperature
= in K, X Wavelength
Rayleigh's Jeans law agrees with experimental results at alrge wave length.
3.15 SPECTRAL ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
The variation of distribution of the monochromatic emissive power with wavelength is called
the spectral energy distribution.
The following fig shows (Eλ)b for a selected number of temperatures.
Radiation Heat Transfer 329

100 1500K

λmaxT = 0.0029mK
80 1300K

(Eλ)b
60
1100K
40

20 900K
700K

0 2 4 6 8
Wavelength, μ
i) The monochromatic emissive power varies across the wavelength spectrum, distribution is
continuous but non-uniform.
ii) At any wavelength the magnitude of the emitted radiation increases with increasing temperature.
iii) The wavelength at which the monochromatic emissive power is maximum shifts in the
direction of shorter wavelengths as the temperature increases.
iv) At any temperature, the area under the monochromatic emissive power versus wavelength
gives the rate of radiant energy emitted with in the wavelength interval dλ.
3.16 WEIN'S DISPLACEMENT LAW
It states that the product of maximum wavelength and absolute temperature is a constant and
is equal to 0.0029 mK.
The maximum value of emissive power Eb can be obtained by differentiating Planck's equation
with respect to λ and equating it to zero.
d ( Eλ )b
i.e., =0
dλ
d 
( )
C1λ −5 eC2/ λT − 1  =
−1

 0
dλ  
−2  − C 
( ) ( )
−1
C1λ −5 ( −1) eC2 / λT − 1  2 2  eC2 / λT + eC2 / λT − 1 C1 ( −5) λ −6 =0
 λ T
eC2 / λT 5λT
or C2 / λT
=
e − 1 C2
Putting C2=
/ λT x, and re − arranging
ex 5
x
=
e −1 x
x ex 5 ex − 5
x ex =
5e x − 5 or =
5 ex 5 ex
x 1
= 1− x
5 e
= 1 − e− x
x
or e − x + − 1 = 0
5
 x 1
= 1− x
5 e
330 Heat Transfer
= 1 − e− x
x
or e − x + − 1 = 0
5
Solution of this equation gives
x = 4.965
C2
or = 4.965
λ max T
C
λ max T =2
4.965
1.388 × 10−2
λ max T = =2.9 × 10−3 mK =0.0029mK
4.965
This is known as Wein's displacement law.
The law suggests that λmax is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature and accordingly
the maximum spectral intensity of radiation shifts towards the shorter wavelength with rising
temperature (Refer fig spectral energy distribution).
3.17 KIRCHOFF'S LAW
It states that the emissivity of the surface of a body is equal to its absorptivity when the body
is in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings. i,e., ε = α
Explanation:
Consider two surfaces one absolutely black at Tb, the other non-black at temperature T. The
surfaces are arranged parallel to each other as shown in figure.

Eb
α Eb
(1 – α)Eb
Black Non - Black
surface surface
Let E = Radiant energy emitted by non black surface
Eb = Radiant energy emitted by black surface.
Radiant energy emitted by non-black surface being fully absorbed by black surface. But non-
black surface absorbs only α Eb of radiant energy of black surface and reflects (1– α) Eb of radiant
energy. Radiant interchange for the non black surface equal to E – α Eb
If both the surfaces are at the same temperature
i.e., T = Tb , Then
E − aE b = 0
E E
or =
a or Eb
=
Eb a
For different surfaces, it can be written as
E1 E 2 E 3 Eb
= =
a1 a 2 a 3
− − − − −=
− = Eb
ab
( a=b 1)
 b
i.e., T = Tb , Then
E E
or E= −aaE b or
=0 = Eb
Eb a
Radiation
E Heat Transfer E 331
For different
or = a surfaces,
or it can= be
E bwritten as
Eb a
E1 E 2 E 3 Eb
= surfaces,
For different =
a1 a 2 a 3
it− can
−−− be−written
=−
ab
=as E b ( a=b 1)
E1 E 2 E 3 Eb
E= of =
i.e., the ratio
Or =a
− −power
emissive
a2 a 3
− − −=− absorptivity
to ( a=b for
= E b is same 1) all bodies and is equal to the emissive
a a
power ofEabblack body. This relationship is known as Kirchoff's Law.
1 b

E
Or E = = aa
Eb
E= a

3.18 CONCEPT OF GRAY BODY

When the emissivity of a non black surface is constant at all temperature and through out the
entire range of wave length, then the surface is called a gray body. The radiation spectrum for a
gray body is continuous and identical to the corresponding curve for a perfectly black surface.
There is no shift in the peak of the curves. However for many materials the emissivity is different
for the various wavelength of the emitted energy. The radiating bodies exhibiting this behavior
are called selective emitters. The radiation spectrum for a selective emitter does not follow any
definite pattern and it varies entirely from that of a black body.
3.19 EMISSIVITY
Emissivity of a surface indicates its ability to emit radiation energy in comparison with a black
surface of the same temperature level.
OR
Emissivity is the rate of emissive power of the surface to the emissive power of black surface at
the same temperature.
Different forms of emissivity based on direction and totality of emissive power are
i) Monochromatic emissivity (ελ): It is the ratio of monochromatic emissive power to the
monochromatic emissive power of black surface at the same wave length and temperature.
ii) Total emissivity (ε): It is the ratio of the total emissive power of surface to the total emissive
power of a black surface at the same temperature.
iii) Normal total Emissivity (εn/i): It is the ratio of the normal component of the total emissive
power of a black body at the same temperature.
iv) Mean and Equilibrium emissivity: For a particular temperature the average of monochromatic
emissivity at various wavelength is called the wavelength mean emissivity.
For a prescribed wave average value of all monochromatic emissivity at various temperature
is called temperature mean emissivity.
The emissivity which remains constant when the material is in equilibrium with the surrounding
is called equilibrium emissivity.
3.19.1 Parameters affecting on Emissivity
Emissivity of a material depends on
i) Nature i.e., colour, texture and roughness
ii) Temperature
iii) Wavelength of radiation
iv) Angle of emission
v) Nature of surface which is influenced by the method of fabrication.
332 Heat Transfer

3.20 SUBTENDED PLANE ANGLE AND SOLID ANGLE

The subtended plane angle is defined by a region by the rays of a circle. It is measured as a
ratio of the element of arc of length on the circle to the radius of the circle
i.e., substended plane angle
l
a=
r
r

α l

The solid angle is defined by the rays of sphere. It is measured as

A n A cos q
=
ω =
r2 r2
An = Projection of the incident surface normal to the line of propagation
A = Area of incident surface
θ = Angle between the normal to the incident surface and the line of propagation
r = Length of the line of propagation between the radiating and the incident surfaces.
r
ω

The unit of solid angle is steradian (sx)

3.21 INTENSITY OF RADIATION
It is defined as the energy emitted in a particular direction per unit surface area and through a
unit solid angle.
The area is the projected area of the surface on a plane perpendicular to the direction of radiation.
3.21.1 Lambert's Cosine Law
It states that the intensity of radiation in a direction θ from the normal to the black emitter is
proportional to cosine of the angle θ.
Emitted radiation

θ Radiation collector In
Iθ = Incos θ

dω
dA
Black surface
emitter φ
Radiation Heat Transfer 333

Mathematically Lambert's cosine law can be written as

Iθ = Incos θ
In = Normal intensity
Iθ = Intensity at an angle θ
3.21.2 Relation between Normal Intensity and Emissive Power
n
r sin θ dA = r2 sin θ dθ dφ

K
r sin θ dφ
θ
dθ

dA1 φ
dφ

Let us consider the radiation is emitting from an elemental black surface of area dA1 at temperature
T1.
Energy will be radiated in all directions in the entire hemisphere
Let us consider a spherical strip of area dA
Area of collector dA= ( r dq ) × ( r sin q . dφ )
= r 2 sin q dq dφ
dA
Solid angle dω = 2
r
2
r sin q dq dφ
=
r2
= sin q dq dφ
The radiations leaving the emitter and striking the collector is
= dE b I n dA cos q dω
= I n cos q sin q dq dφ dA
Total energy E b radiated by the emitter and passin g through the spherical region
 p 
=q 0 to=
q &=
φ 0 to=
φ 2p 
 2 
p/2 2p

∫ dE b = In dA ∫ sin q cos q dq ∫ dφ
0 0

1
E=b I n dA ×   × ( 2p )
2
E b = I n p dA − − − (1)
But total emissive power with area dA is given by
E b = s b T 4 dA − − − ( 2)
Comparing (1) & ( 2 ) we get
s b T 4 dA
I n p dA =
In p = sb T 4
 E b = I n p dA − − − (1)
But total emissive power with area dA is given by
334 Heat Transfer
E b = s b T 4 dA − − − ( 2)
Comparing (1) & ( 2 ) we get
s b T 4 dA
I n p dA =
In p = sb T 4
I n p =E b
Wheren E b = Emissive power of black body per m 2 surface area
= sb T 4
Eb
or In =
p
1
i.e., for a unit sufrace, the intensity of normal radiation I n is the times the emissive power E b .
p
OR
Emission of power of a black body is π times the intensity of normal radiation.
3.23 SOLAR RADIATIONS AND GREEN HOUSE EFFECT
The sun is the source of heat radiations. It emits radiations in all directions. The distribution of
the flow of sun's energy to the earth's surface is
i) 9% is scattered by air, clouds, dust particles present in the atmosphere.
ii) 15% is absorbed in the atmosphere and out of it 4% reaches earth's surface by convection
iii) 43% is transmitted to the earth directly
iv) 33% is reflected back to space
3.23.1 Green House effect
It is a manifestation of transmission of low wave length energy from the sun and absorption or
reflection of higher wavelength emission at low temperature.
Much of the solar radiation is transmitted through the glass or plastic covering and absorbed
by the objects with in the encloser. As their temperature rises, they too radiate energy, But it
is mostly in the higher wavelength band to which the glass or plastic is opaque. Most of the
thermal radiation emitted at low temperature is reflected back and remains inside. Because of
this one way action of heat exchange of glass or plastic, the temperature with in the enclosure
becomes considerably higher than the ambient temperature outside. This phenomenon is called
Green House effect. The sky creates a partial green house effect if it is heavily loaded with CO2,
H2O and to a lesser extent ozone.
Radiation Heat Transfer 335

3.24 HEAT EXCHANGE BETWEEN BLACK BODIES

Black body
(2)

N2 dA2
θ2
A2
N1
r

θ1

Black body
(1) dA1
A1
Let is assume two black bodies are separated by the distance r. as shown in figure
Let dA1 = Area of element in body one
dA2 = Area of element in body two
θ1 & θ2 = Angle made by the normal to the element (1) and (2) with the line joining them.
The projected area of dA1 in the direction of radiation = dA1 cos θ1
Energy leaving dA1 and absorbed by dA 2
dQ1− 2= Io1dω1dA1= I n1 cos q1dω1dA1 | dA1 cos q1= Projected area
But solid angle dω1 =Angle subtended by the element dA 2 at the center of dA1
dA 2 cos q 2
=
r2
dA 2 cos q 2
\ dQ1− 2 = I n1 cos q1 dA1
r2
cos q1 cos q 2 dA1dA 2
= I n1
r2
From Lambert 's Cosin e Law
sT14
I n1 =
p
4
sT1 cos q1 cos q 2 dA1dA 2
\ dQ1− 2 =
p r2
The total radiations leaving A1 and being absorbed by A 2
sT14 cos q1 cos q 2
Q1− 2 =
p ∫∫
A1 A 2
r2
dA1dA 2

Q1− 2 = sA1F12 T14

1 cos q1 cos q 2
Where A1F12 = ∫ ∫ dA1dA 2 − − − (1)
p A1 A 2 r2
Similarly Energy leaving dA 2 and absorbed by dA1
dQ=
2 −1 I n 2 cos q 2 dω 2 dA 2
sT24 dA1 cos q1
= cos q dA
 A1 A 2

Q1− 2 = sA1F12 T14

1 cos q1 cos q2
336
Where A1F12 = ∫ ∫
dA1dA 2 − − − (1) Heat Transfer
p A1 A 2 r2
Similarly Energy leaving dA 2 and absorbed by dA1
dQ=
2 −1 I n 2 cos q2 dω2 dA 2
sT24 dA1 cos q1
= cos q2 dA 2
p r2
s 2 T24 cos q1 cos q2 dA1 dA 2
=
p r2
s 2 T24 cos q1 cos q2
Q 2 −1 = ∫
p A1 A 2∫ r2
dA1dA 2

Q 2 −1 = sA 2 F21T24
1 cos q1 cos q2
Where, A 2 F21 = ∫ ∫ dA1dA 2 − − − ( 2)
p A1 A 2 r2
From (1) & ( 2 )
sA1F12 =
sA 2 F12 or A1F12 =
A 2 F12 called Re ciprocity theorem.
Net energy exchange from A1 to A 2
( Q1− 2=
)net Q1− 2 − Q 2 −1
= sA1F12 T14 − sA 2 F21T24
sA1F12 ( T14 − T24 )
( Q1− 2 )net =
3.25 SHAPE FACTOR OR VIEW FACTOR OR CONFIGURATION FACTOR
OR GEOMETRICAL FACTOR
It is defined as the fraction of radiation energy that is diffused from one surface element and
strikes the other surface directly with no interviewing reflection
It is indicated by Fij it means the shape factor of surface Ai to anther surface Aj
i.e., shape factor F12 of A1 to surface A2
Direct radiation from surface 1 incident upon surface 2
F12 =
Total radiation from emitting surface 1

3.25.1 View factor Algebra or Shape factor algebra

The shape factor for complex geometries can be derived in terms of known shape factors for
other geometries. For that the complex shape is divided into sections for which the shape factor
either known or can be readily evaluated.
The unknown factor is worked out by adding and subtracting known factor of related geometry.
The method is based on the definition of shape factor, the reciprocity principle and the energy
conservation law.
The interrelation between various shape factors is called shape factor algebra.
3.25.2 Properties of View Factor
i) The value of view factor depends only on the geometry and orientation of surface with respect
to each other
Radiation Heat Transfer 337

ii) When two bodies are maintained at same temperature we get

A1 F12 = A2 F21
This reciprocal relation is particularly useful when one of the shape factor is unity.
iii) All the radiation streaming out from a convex surface 1 is intercepted by the endorsing
surface 2, as the shape factor of convex surface with respect to the enclosure F12 is unity. Thus
in conformity with reciprocating theorem the other shape factor F21 is merely the ratio of areas.
iv) The radiation energy emitted by one part of concave surface is interpreted by another part of
the same surface
For a flat or convex surface the shape factor with respect to itself is zero.
v) If one of the two surfaces is divided into sub areas A11, A12,..... Ain then
Ai Fij = ∑Ain Finj
If the radiating surface A1 has been split up into areas A3 and A4, then
A1F12 = A3F32 + A4 F42
But F12 ≠ (F32 + F42)
Thus if the radiating surface is subdivided, the shape factor for that surface with respect to the
receiving surface is not equal to the sum of the individual shape factor
If the receiving surface is divided into sub areas A3 and A4, then
A1F12 = A1 F13 + A1 F14
or F12 = F13 + F14
i.e., the shape factor from the radiating surface to a subdivided receiving surface is sum of the
individual shape factor.
Receiving surface
A3
A2 A4
Receiving surface
A3 A2 = A3 + A4
A1 = A3 + A4 A1

A4 Radiating surface
Radiating surface
vi) The summation of the view factors from the surface say Ai of the enclosure including itself is
equal to unity
n
i.e., ∑=
Fij 1=i 1, 2,...........n
j=1

The interior surface of a complete enclosed space has been subdivided in n parts each part having
a finite area A1, A2, .......An thus
F11 + F12 + F13 + − − − − − −F1n =1
F21 + F22 + F23 + − − − − − −F2n =1
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
Fn1 + Fn 2 + Fn3 + − − − − − −Fnn =1
338 Heat Transfer

3.26 HEAT EXCHANGE BETWEEN GRAY BODIES (INFINITE PARALLEL

PLANES)
Assumptions
1) The surfaces are arranged at small distance from each other and are of equal area (because all
radiations emitted by one surface falls on the other)
2) The surfaces are diffused and uniform in temperature and that the reflective and emissive
properties are constant over all the surface.
3) The surfaces are separated by a non-absorbing medium such as air.
Derivation
Plane (1) Plane (2)

E1

)E 1
(1 – α 2 α2 E1
(1 – α
1 ) (1 –
α1(1 – α2)E1 α2 ) E
1
α ) E1
2
) (1 – 2
(1 – α 2 (1 – α1 ) (1 – α2)2 E1 α2
(1 – α
) (1 –
α1(1 – α1) 1
α2 ) 2 E
1
(1 – α2) E1

α1,ε1,T1 α2,ε2,T2
Let two infinite parallel gray surfaces are placed at a small distance, as shown is figure.
Let α1,ε1,T1 are absorptivity, emissivity and temperature of plane (1)
α2,ε2,T2 are corresponding values of plane (2)
The surface (1) emits radiant energy E1 which strikes the surface (2). From it a part α2,E1, is
absorbed by surface (2) and remainder (1 – α2) E1 is reflected back to surface (1).
Surface (1) absorbs a part α1(1– α2)E1 and the remainder (1– α2)(1– α2)E1 is reflected and so on.
The amount of radiant energy which left surface (1) per unit time.
E1 − a1 (1 − a 2 ) E1 + a1 (1 − a1 )(1 − a 2 ) E1 + a1 (1 − a1 ) (1 − a 2 ) E1 + .......
2 2 2
Q=1  
= E1 − a1 (1 − a 2 ) E1 1 + (1 − a1 )(1 − a 2 ) + (1 − a1 ) (1 − a 2 ) + .........
2 2
 
Let P= (1 − a1 )(1 − a 2 )
\ Q=
1 E1 − a1 (1 − a 2 ) E1 (1 + P + P 2 + .........)
Since P is less than unity, the series 1 + P + P 2 ............ when extended to infinity gives
1
1− P
 1 
\ Q=
1 E1 − a1 (1 − a 2 ) E1  
1− P 
 a (1 − a ) 
= E1 1 − 1 
 1− P 
 a1 (1 − a 2 ) 
= E 1−
 1
1− P
1 
Radiation
\ Q= E Heat
1 1 (1 − a ) E 
− a Transfer
1 2 1   339
1− P
 a (1 − a ) 
= E1 1 − 1 
 1− P 
 a1 (1 − a 2 ) 
= E1 1 − 
 1 − (1 − a1 )(1 − a 2 ) 
From Kirchoff 's law, emissivity and absorptivity of a surface are equal, i.e., a1 =
∈1
 ∈1 (1− ∈2 ) 
\ Q1= E1 1 − 
 1 − (1− ∈1 )(1− ∈2 ) 
 1 + ∈2 + ∈1 − ∈1 ∈2 − 1 − ∈1 + ∈1 ∈2 
= E1  
 1 + ∈2 + ∈1 − ∈1 ∈2 − 1 
 ∈2 
Q1 = E1  
 ∈1 + ∈2 − ∈1 ∈2 
Similarly, Amount of heat leaves the surface ( 2) per unit time
 ∈1 
Q2 = E 2  
 ∈1 + ∈2 − ∈1 ∈2 
The net heat flow from surface 1 to surface 2 per unit time
Q12
= Q1 − Q 2
E1 ∈2 E 2 ∈1
= −
∈1 + ∈2 − ∈1∈2 ∈1 + ∈2 − ∈1∈2
E1×∈2 − E 2 ∈1
Q12 =
∈1 + ∈2 − ∈1∈2
From Stefan Boltzman law for gray bodies E1 =∈1 sT14 & E 2 =∈2 sT24
∈1 sT14 ∈2 − ∈2 sT24 ∈1
\ Q12 =
∈1 + ∈2 − ∈1∈2
∈1∈2
= s T14 − T24 
∈1 + ∈2 − ∈1∈2 
Q12 =F12 s T14 − T24 
∈1∈2 1
Whre, F12
= =
∈1 + ∈2 − ∈1∈2 1 1
+ −1
∈1 ∈2
It is called interchange factor for the radiation from surface 1 to surface 2
NOTE :
(1) For infinite long concentric cylinders
1
F12 =
1 A1  1 
+  − 1
∈1 A 2  ∈2 
A1 = Area of inner cylinder
 1 2

It is called interchange factor for the radiation from surface 1 to surface 2

NOTE :
340 Heat Transfer
(1) For infinite long concentric cylinders
1
F12 =
1 A1  1 
+  − 1
∈1 A 2  ∈2 
A1 = Area of inner cylinder
A 2 = Area of outer clinder
( ii ) Two rectangules with common side at right angle to each other
F12 =∈1∈2

3.27 RADIATION SHIELD

The radiation shields are thin opaque partitions arranged in the direction perpendicular to the
propagation of radiated heat. It is made of materials of very low absorptivity and high reflectivity
(thin sheets of aluminium copper etc.)
Radiation shields mainly used to reduce the overall heat transfer coefficient between two
radiating surface. The shields introduce a sort of additional resistance in the heat flow path and
accordingly the net heat flux is reduced.
(1) (3) (2)

(Q13)net (Q32)net

Radiation shield
T1, ε1 ε3,T3 T2, ε2
Eb1 J1 J3 Eb3 J3 J2 Eb2

1− ∈1 1 1−1−∈∈3 1 ∈311−−1∈
1 −1 11−∈∈
∈311− 2131
−−∈1∈3 11−1∈1132−−∈1∈1311− 12−13 −∈1∈
1−∈∈ 3 111
−−1∈∈312−1∈311−−∈∈2 3 1 1− ∈2
∈1 F13 ∈∈ 3 1 ∈ F133 F∈
∈3231 ∈ F13∈
23 ∈ F3321 F∈1332 ∈
∈ ∈F132
3 F∈ ∈23 ∈∈
13 3F132 ∈ F∈32 ∈
13 F323 ∈∈2 3 F32 ∈2
(i) With no radiation shield: The net heat exchange between the infinite parallel planes
= ( Fg ) A1s b ( T14 − T24 )
Q12
12

For the given configuration of parallel planes

F=
12 1, A
= 1 A=2 A
1
\ ( Fg ) =
12
( 1 ) + 1 + 1− ∈2 × A1
1− ∈
∈1 F12 ∈2 A2
1 1
= =
1   1  1 1
 − 1 + 1 +  − 1 ∈ + ∈ − 1
 ∈1   ∈2  1 2

A s b ( T14 − T24 )
\ Q12 =
1 1
+ −1
∈1 ∈2
 ∈1 F12 ∈2 A2
1 1
= =
1   1  1 1
 − 1 + 1 +  − 1 ∈ + ∈ − 1
Radiation Heat Transfer 341
 ∈1   ∈2  1 2

A s b ( T14 − T24 )
\ Q12 =
1 1
+ −1
∈1 ∈2
(ii) With radiation shield: Under steady sate conditions, the shield attain temperature T3. The
heat transfer between plane 1 and the shield.
( Q13 )net = Heat transfer between shield and plane 2 ( Q32 )net
As b ( T14 − T34 ) As b ( T34 − T24 )
= − − − (1)
1 1 1 1
+ −1 + −1
∈1 ∈3 ∈3 ∈2
Simplifing we get
 1 1  1 1 
T14  + − 1 + T24  + − 1
∈ ∈2  ∈1 ∈3
T34 =  3  
 1 1   1 1 
 + − 1 +  + − 1
∈
 3 ∈ 2   1 ∈3
∈ 
Substuting the value of T3 in the left hand side of equation (1) , we get
As b ( T14 − T24 )
( Q12 )net =
 1 1  1 1 
 + − 1 +  + − 1
 ∈3 ∈2   ∈1 ∈3 
1 1
+ −1
Radiaton energy transfer without shield ∈1 ∈2
=
Radiation energy transfer with shield 1 1   1 1 
 + − 1 +  + − 1
 ∈1 ∈3   ∈3 ∈2 
When ∈1 =∈2 =∈3 , the above ratio become 1/ 2
By inserting on shield, the heat transfer rate is reduced to 1/ 2 of the original value
1 4
\ The T3 value become, T3 =
2
( T1 + T24 )
Heat exchange without any shield
A ( E b1 − E b2 ) As b ( T14 − T24 )
=
(1− ∈1 ) + 1 + (1− ∈2 ) 1− ∈1 + 1 + 1− ∈2
∈1 F12 ∈2 ∈1 F12 ∈2
When ∈1 =∈2 =∈ & F12 =1, we get
As b ( T14 − T24 )
( Q12 )net − − − ( 2)
2 
 − 1
∈ 
Heat exchange with one shield
As b ( T14 − T24 )
( Q12 )net =
1− ∈1 1 1− ∈3  1− ∈3 1 1− ∈2 
 1 2 12

As b ( T14 − T24 )
( Q12 )net − − − ( 2)
342 2  Heat Transfer
 − 1
∈ 
Heat exchange with one shield
As b ( T14 − T24 )
( Q12 )net =
1− ∈1 1 1− ∈3  1− ∈3 1 1− ∈2 
 + + + + + 
 ∈1 F13 ∈3   ∈3 F32 ∈2 

1 As b ( T1 − T2 )
4 4

− − − − ( 3)
2 2
−1
∈
Comparision of ( 2 ) & ( 3) shows that heat flow with a radiation shield is 1/ 2 of the heat flow
without shield.

3.28 HOTTEL'S CROSSED STRING METHOD FOR ESTIMATING SHAPE

FACTOR
The shape factor between the surfaces of long channels, ducts to which can be considered as two
dimensional is determined by crossed string method developed by H.C.Hottel in 1950. The surfaces
of the geometry do not need to be flat. They can be convex, concave or any irregular shape.
A2
d c
A5
A3
A6 A4

a A1
b
Consider two surface A1 & A2 whose shape factor is to be determined as shown in figure.
Let two imaginary cross strings ac and bd be stretched between the two surface such that any
radiation leaving surface A1 and reaching surface A2 will be crossing both the strings.
Let A3, A4, A5, A6 are the surfaces formed by these strings.
For the triangle abd
F13 + F15 =
1

1 (1)
F31 + F35 =
1
F51 + F53 =
By reciprocity theorem
A1F13 = A 3 F31 

A1F15 = A 5 F51  ( 2 )
A 3 F35 = A 5 F53 
Equations (1) can be written as
A1F13 + A1F15 = A1 

A 3  ( 3)
A 3 F31 + A 3 F35 =
A 5 
A 3 F51 + A 5 F53 =
From eqn ( 2 ) , equations ( 3) can be written as
 A1F13 + A1F15 = A1 

A 3  ( 3)
A 3 F31 + A 3 F35 =
Radiation Heat Transfer 343
A 5 
A 3 F51 + A 5 F53 =
From eqn ( 2 ) , equations ( 3) can be written as
( A3 F31 = A1F13 )
A1F13 + A 3 F35 =
A3 
 ( 4)  A 5 F51 = A1F15 
A1F15 + A 3 F35 =
A5   
 A 5 F53 = A 3 F35 
From first relation of eqn ( 4 ) , we get
A 3 F=
35 A 3 − A1F13
From first relation of ( 3) and first relation of ( 4 )
A1F13 + A1F15 − A1F13 − A 3 F35= A1 − A 3
A1F15 − A 3 F35 =
A1 − A 3
A1F15 = A1 − A 3 + A 3 F35
But A 3 F=
35 A 5 − A1F15 (Second relation of eqn ( 4 ) )
\ A1F15 = A1 − A 3 + A 5 − A1F15
A1F15 + A1F15 = A1 − A 3 + A 5
2A1F15 = A1 − A 3 + A 5
A1 − A 3 + A 5
A1F15 =
2
From eqn ( 3)

A1F13 =
A1 − A1F15 =
A1 −
( A1 − A3 + A5 )
2
A1 + A 3 − A 5
=
2
A + A3 − A5
F13 = 1
2A1
A1 + A 4 − A 6
Similarly F14 =
2A1
Now F12 + F13 + F14 =
1
F12 =−
1 F13 − F14
( A + A3 − A5 ) − ( A1 + A 4 − A5 )
1− 1
=
2A1 2A1
2A1 − A1 − A 3 + A 5 − A1 − A 4 + A 6
=
2A1

F12 =
( A5 + A6 ) − ( A3 + A 4 )
2A1
In terms of lengths of string

F12 =
( L5 + L 6 ) − ( L3 + L 4 )
2 × L1
 1

F12 =
( A5 + A6 ) − ( A3 + A 4 )
2A
344 1 Heat Transfer
In terms of lengths of string

F12 =
( L5 + L 6 ) − ( L3 + L 4 )
2 × L1
Hottel's cross − s tring method can be expressed as

Fij =
∑ ( corssed strings ) − ∑ ( uncrossed strings )
2 × string on surface i

3.29 ELECTRICAL NETWORK APPROACH FOR RADIATION HEAT EXCHANGE

Radiation heat exchange problems can be easily solved by reducing the actual system into an
equivalent electrical network.
Radiosity(J): It is the total radiant energy leaving a surface per unit time per unit surface area.
It comprises the original emittance from the surface plus the reflected portion of any radiation
incident upon it.
Irradiation(G): It is the total radiant energy incident upon a surface per unit time per unit area
Some of it may be reflected to become a part of the radiosity of the surface.
G of
+ρ
E

tion
ce

Irradiation E r
o
an

J = dp G
G cte tion ρ
itt

e
Em

fl
Re rradia
}

i ρ = Reflectivity

Opaque non-black surface

Consider an opaque non − black surface of constant radiation characteristics as shown in figure
Let G = Irradiation impinging on the surface
E = Radiation emitted
ρ =Re flectivity
From the figure
Radiosity J= E + ρG
=∈ E b + ρG
E b = Emissive power of black body
But for an opaque body transmittivity τ =0
\a + ρ + 0 = 1 or a + ρ = 1 or ρ = 1− a
\ J =∈ E b + (1 − a ) G
According to Kirchoff 's law
a =∈
\ J =∈ E b + (1− ∈) G
J− ∈ Eb
G=
1− ∈
Net rate of radiation leaves the surface
 Consider an opaque non −bblack surface of constant radiation characteristics
Accordingimpining
Let G = Irradiation to Kirchoff on 'sthe
lawsurface
a =∈
Radiation Heat Transfer E = Radiation emitted 345
ρ =Re flectivity \ J =∈ E b + (1 − ∈ ) G
Q net From the sketch J − ∈ Eb
= J−G G=
A Radiosity J= E +1ρ−G ∈

= J−
( J − ∈ E b ) Net rate of =∈ radiation
E b + ρG leaves the surface
1− ∈ E = emissive Q net power of black body
b = J−G
J − JBut
∈ − Jfor ∈ ( EA
+ ∈anE bopaque b − J)
= = body transmittivity τ =0
1− ∈ 1− ∈
\a + ρ + 0 = =1 J or
( J− ∈ E )
− a + ρ =b 1 or ρ = 1 − a
A∈
= Q net ( E b − J )\ J =∈ E b + (1 − a ) G 1− ∈
1− ∈ J − J ∈ −J + ∈ E b ∈ ( E b − J )
E b −According
J = Q net E b's−=
to Kirchoff law
J 1− ∈
= Q net = or 1− ∈
 1− ∈  A a = ∈ 1− ∈
A∈

 A∈
 Q =
\ J =∈ E b +net(1−∈1∈−)∈ G b
(E − J)
 1− ∈  J − ∈ Eto Eb − J
 G = tanQce
 is the surface resis net = radiation heat transfer
b
 A∈ 1− ∈  1− ∈ 
 
The above eqn. can Net rate of radiation
be represented by an leaves A∈ thenetwork
electrical surface as shown below.
Q net  1− ∈ 
= J − G  is the surface resis tanIce to radiation heat transfer
A  A∈
Eb
The above( Jeqn.−J∈ E b ) be represented by an electrical network as shown below.
can
= J−
1− ∈ 1− ∈ V1 R V2
∈ J − J ∈ −J + ∈ E b ∈ ( E b − J )
=
Radiation heat transfer = circuit Electrical circuit
1− ∈ 1− ∈
Comparison A∈
Q net = ( Eb − J )
Q net 1− ∈1− ∈
E b − J = V1 − V2 , = I, = R
A E −J
Q net∈= b
 1− ∈ 
Electrical analogy for heat exchange   between the Non-black surface
 A∈
Let J11 = Radiation leaving surface 1
 1− ∈ 
J11A11F12 12 = Radiation recieved  is bythethe
surface resis
surface 2 tan ce to radiation heat transfer
 A∈
J 22 = Radiation leaving surface 2
The above eqn. can be represented by an electrical network as shown below.
J 22 A 22 F21
21 = R1−aditation
∈ recieved by the surface 1
Net interchange ∈ of heat between two surfaces
= Q12
12 J11A11F12
12 − J 22 A 22 F21
21

From reciprocity theorem

A11F12
12 = A 22 F21
21

12 = ( J11 − J 22 ) A11F12
\ Q12 12
J11 − J 22
Q12
12 =
 1 
 
 A11F1212 

 1 
 is the space resistance due to the distance between geometry of the radiating bodies 
 A11F12
12 
 \ Q12 = ( J1 − J 2 ) A1F12
J1 − J 2
Q12 =
 1 
346   Heat Transfer
A F
 1 12 
 1 
 is the space resistance due to the distance between geometry of the radiating bodies 
 A1F12 
It is represented as follows
(Q12)
J1 J2

1
A1F12
The electrical network become
(Q12)net
Eb1 J1 J2 Eb2

1− ∈1 1 1− ∈2 1− ∈1 1 1− ∈2 1− ∈1 1 1− ∈2
A1 ∈1 A1F12 A 2 ∈2 A1 ∈1 A1F12 A 2 ∈2A1 ∈1 A1F12 A 2 ∈2
E b1 − E b2
( Q12 )net =
1− ∈1 1 1− ∈2
+ +
A1 ∈1 A1F12 A 2 ∈2
A1s b ( T14 − T24 )
=
1− ∈1 1 1− ∈2 A1
+ + ×
∈1 F12 ∈2 A2
= (F )
g 12 A1s b ( T14 − T24 )
1
Where, ( Fg ) =
12 1− ∈1 1 1− ∈2 A1
+ + ×
∈1 F12 ∈2 A2
It is called gray body factor
NOTE :
( i ) For infinite parallel radiating surfaces
F=
12 F=
21 1 & A1 = A 2
1
\ ( Fg ) =
12 1 1
+ −1
∈1 ∈2
( ii ) For radiating concentric cylinder or shperes
1
(F )g 12 =
1− ∈1 1− ∈2 A1
+1+ ×
∈1 ∈2 A2
A1 pd1L d1 r1
= = = → cylinders
A 2 pd 2 L d 2 r2
2
A1 4pr12  r1 
= =  
A 2 4pr22  r2 
( iiii ) For
For radiating
radiating concentric
concentric cylinder
cylinder or
or shperes
shperes
11
( FF )
=
= 1− ∈
gg 12
121− ∈11 + 1 + 11−
−∈∈22 AA1
Radiation Heat Transfer +1+ ×
× 1 347
∈11
∈ ∈22
∈ A
A 22
A11 p
A pd L L d11 rr11
= d11=
= = d= = cylinders
→ cylinders
→
A 22 p
A pdd 22 L
L dd 22 rr22
2 2
prr112  rr11 
2
A
A11 44= p
=
= = 2 
  
A 22 44p
A prr222  rr22 
iii ) For
( iii For aa small
small body
body inin aa large
large enclosure
enclosure
A
A11 0
F12
=
F
= 11 A
A11 <<<< A 22
<<<< A \=
\= 0
12
A 22
A
11
\( F
\ Fgg ) = =
12
12 (11−− ∈
∈11 )
+ 11
+
∈11
∈

3.30 ADIABATIC OR RERADIATING SURFACES

Adiabatic walls which are thermally insulated have no net gain or loss of thermal energy. Such
surfaces interact radiately with other surfaces of an enclosure. They absorb and reflect incident
radiations and re-emit all the absorbed energy. Later adiabatic surface attains thermal equilibrium.
Adiabatic surface is also referred as reradiating surface.
Ex: Radiation shields refractory walls in a furnace.
3.30.1 Heat exchange between two Black surface enclosed by an insulated surface

Heat sink T2

Reradiating wall
(frunace wall

Heat Surface T1
Consider an enclosure made of three black surface comprising (i) Furnace-heat source, (ii)
Boiler tubes-heat sink, (iii) refractory wall-adiabatic surface, as shown in figure
The heat source exchange heat with heat sink and the refractory wall. The net radiative heat
transfer from furnace surface is
Q
= 1 Q12 + Q13
= A1F12 s b ( T14 − T24 ) + A1F13s b ( T14 − T34 )
Similarly,Q
= 2 Q 21 + Q 23
= A 2 F21s b ( T24 − T14 ) + A 2 F23s b ( T24 − T34 )
Q
= 3 Q31 + Q32
= A 3 F31s b ( T34 − T14 ) + A 3 F32 s b ( T34 − T24 )
Since there is no heat loss through the refractory wall, Q3= 0 \ 0= Q31 + Q 23
ie., 0 = A 3 F31s b ( T − T
4
3 1
4
)+A F3 32 sb ( T − T
4
3
4
2 )
y4
 F T 4 + F31T14 
T3 =  32 2 
 Q
= Q31 + Q32 Q= 3 Q31 + Q32Similarly,Q = 2 QSimilarly,Q
21 + Q 23 = Q
2 21 + Q 23

=AAF2 Fs21s bT( 4T2− − ) s4b (−TT24 4−) + T34A) F s (

3
4
4T
4
+FAs2 F23( T
Q
= = A F
Q123 +31Q13 s b( 3T 4Q =
− 1 1 ) 12Q
T 4Q +Q
+ A
= F
13 32 13s
Q12 b (+ 3Q13 2 )
= T A4 F s
3− T31
4
b ( T 3
4
− T 1
4
) + 3 32 b ( 3
Q=
T 2
= )
1A
2
Q12 + Heat
21 b
Q13 Transfer
2 1 2 23 b
348 Q= Q + Q
(AT11isF12−4no ()Twall, b (0 )0= 4 Q313234+)Q=
1 1
Q31Q+=Q32
2 )+ b3 ( T1 − T
4=Since there sTb2 heat 4 loss
=through 3 the31refractory
Q3wall, 0 4 \40= Q31 + Q 23
4 4 4 4
Since there is noFheat loss 4 through A1Fthe 12 s= brefractory 4+ A FQ43s AT11F13−sT \
1 12 s b ( T1 − T2 ) + A1F13 s b ( T1 − T3 ) 4 1 12 b ( T1 − T42 ) + A 4 1F13 s b ( T
=A 1 −1T13 23= A F3 s
b4 (− ) +FAs3 F32( T s4b (−TT3 4−) T ) 3F32sb ( T
4
=FAs3 F31s TT 3 4− T
ie., 0
Similarly,Q =
= A F
3 Q31 b+( Q3
sSimilarly,Q
T 4
− T 1 )2
4=
Similarly,Q ie.,
+ A Q F
3 2132 = +
s2 b (23
0
Q =T A 4 F s
−
Q3213 +31Q T 4
2 23
(
)b 3 1 3 32 Similarly,Q
T 4
− T 4
) + A b ( T 3 2
=
) = 1A
3 31
Q 21 + Q 23
b 3 1 + 2A

y 4= A F s ( T − T )4 +4 A F44 s y 4( T − T Since
Since there4is no4 heat loss through the loss refractory wall,
the Q 3= 0
23) +b A 22F23 s b3 ()T2 − T3 )
2 21 23 2
4
4s 1T( T4+ −
4 there is no heat through refrac
T2124 s+b F(31TT 1 ) 2 23 b ( 2 3 )
4 4
b 4( T 1 ) 2 23 s b 4(
2 21 =b A 22F  F F 2T T
= A F322 F 44
−  T 4
+ A F s T − T = A F s T 4
− T 4
+ A F
s b ( T34 −0 T ) b (− T )
21 b 2 1
 Q + QT3 =  F +ie.,
32 2 31 1
( 3 ) +2A s b ( T3
4 2 4 4− T 4
T3 =  21
Q=  0 = A 3 F31 ie., = 1A +FA2s3 F 21 s
T F
Q31F+32Q+32F31 3 31Q
= Q31 +  Q3232 31  F 3 31 b
32
3 1 3 32
Q= 3 32 Q= Q + Q32
= A 3 F31s=b (AT3F−4sT1 ()T4+4FA )+14+bF−31A(TTTT33312F44=32−)s+TFb2A32()T1TF23134 +−sbFT3124TT)1314 =− =FF32A32T3T2F2314+s+FbF31(31TTT134414− T414 ) + A3F32sb (
3
4 4 4 4 4 43 y 4 31 4 y
TF21432
4 s
b (T ) 3( T 3) 32− 3T
\Q = = AA3 FF 31ss × 3( T
4
−4T−14 T +4 )A+3 F A \
32 s
F Q=
bs
13 b  1
1
31 A
3 T −b14T
F −2s
12 b × ( T wall, F32Q+ =F31 0  \FF0= ++Q
 3232 FF
1 1 12 b 1 2
Since there is no heat 1loss through the F32refractory
+F  31 + Q23Q31 + Q 23
Since there is no heat loss Since there theisrefractory
no heat  loss through
Q3= 031the refractory \ 0=Since 3 wall,
+ Q 23Q is3=no0heat loss \ 0=through
31
through wall, Q31 there 31
the refrac
04 4= A43 F310s=b (AT34F−4s TF1432()T ( )  4 F32 T24 + F
T2131F)21s b132()T12 − 3T ( A1F3ie., 12bs2b)×\ 0( TQ − TA2 )s
4 F T 4 − F 4T 
4 4
ie., 4 ie., 44 A 4 s4  T 4 − T 4
 4+
2 )+
T − F T F13(s
1Fb12(s b3 ( T1 1−)T2 ) + b (sT 2 )3+
4
ie., 0 = A=3 FA 31s T − T + A 3 FA 321s F13 3 31 = −
b3 
bA − 3T 32 + 4
b A \32Q
3 F 4 = s1b A
2 T −
113Fs
T 32

F
=
1
=1 A
1 3F
+ F
32
F+bs
2
311 12 (
AT1× 4
b3 − TT1b1 −)T+T
44

1 A
4− F As F( Ts4
32F1b 13
32 + F
3
44 F y
32 + 4F31y 4   32 31 
 F T 4
F T 
4
+
 = 32 2  F3132 T12 + F31T1  
y y
 F T 4 + F TT 4
 T4 −= T F T 4 + F31T14F32 T14 − F32 T24  
4 4

T3 =  32 2 4 31 41 3  TF332A=+1F F13 F32  4  4 AA1FF 13 Fs 32 ( T )

( T − T ) A F + 1 21 b 1 =2 A1FF3221s+1 bF13(31T1b − T2F4 32) ++AF131F13sb 
4 32 2
= + A F s
 s bF(32T1+ −F31T2 )  A1F12 + F + F 32 b 311  2  1 12 F32 + F31
= 31 F = + F
s 3  4

 32 31  4 4 F32T24 + FF31TT144+ F T 4  
\ Q= From A
F12 s b × ( T1 − T2 ) + A1 1F13s1b 12
F s
reciprocity × ( T  4
− T
theorem
4
(F) + T
4 A 4
F
+
2 )
4F s T T − 4 32  2 31 1A F F 

F(1+FT1214s−b T×24()T1A−1FT122 + ) +AA1F113F13F32s

\ Q= A F s × T − T +  A F s T − 
From reciprocity A1theorem s b b( T F 1 −+TF\)Q 1 13 32
4 4 4
\Q = 1 1 12 b
T1b − 1
1 2 32 2 1 13 31 b 1
 =
1
1 13 4 4
= A FA
4 4
1
= A F  A = F and F A + FF  A F  132 231 F 321= 1+s 12
b 31 F + F
= A 3 F31 A= F and A F A F
2 23 3 31 1 13 32 31
3 32 2 23  32 31
  F32 + F31
1 13 3 32
 F32 T14 −FF32 TT244− F T 4 
= A F s ( T F− T )−+4From
= A1F21s b ( T14 − T24 ) + 1A211F13= bsAb 11F2132s b12 ( T1 32 2 )+
4 44
FA −1TTF213
4 4 reciprocity
s b A F s From theorem  32 2 theorem 4
reciprocity
F32 b+F31 F + F = A1F21s b ( T1 − T2 ) + A1F13s b
32 1
4
    1 13  31 F  A F
1 F +
 s ( T − T ) A F + == F A F A = F 1and A
A 3 F31 A= 1F13 and A 3 F32 A 2 F23
32
s b ( T14 − T24 )  A1F12 + \ Q1 =
32 4 31 4 3 31 1 13 3 32 2 23
\ Q1 = 1 A2F F 1 12
4 4 1 1 13 32 A1F13 F321 1 
b
  = s (T A11=41
F−13sTF32 ()TA1A−F1FT122+) FA321F+12F+31 F + FA1F13 + A 2 F21 =
  
 AF F
s b ( T14 − T24 ) A1F12 b+ A
4
= F
b2+ s b ( T14 − T24 )1 A1F12 + 1 13 3
 F321+13F31  2 21   \ Q1 =
32
s b (T14 − \
31
T24Q)  A F12 (+T 4 − T 4 )  A F + F32 + F31
1 =
1s
From reciprocity theorem
From reciprocity theorem4  1   b 1 1 2 11 12
 1
From reciprocity theorem 4  1  s b ( T1 − T24 )   From reciprocity theorem +
Q1 = s b= ( T14 − T= 2A ) 3FR31  AA= 13F F
Q1 =
andA= AF3 F32 and A
A FF
3 32 
RA t2 23F

 A1F13 A 2 F21  A F +

= A 3 F31 A= 1F13 and A 3 F32t  A 2 F23
1331 1 13 2 23
= A 3 F31 A= 1F13 and A 3 F32 A 2 F231 13
E − E    1 
E − E b2 sb ( T14 − T24Q)  = 4  1 
1 R s b ( T1 − T2 ) 
= b1  =  b1  b2 Q1 =  4
1 R t 
b (Q −sT21()T4A−1FT12t 4 +)  A F +
Rt4  4 4 R  1  t
4 Q1 =
\ s\ T1 = 
\Q = s ( T1 − T2 )  AWhere 1F12 + R = Total
2 11 12 1  1 \ Q1 =  s b ( T1 − T2 )  A1F12 +
4 4
1 1 thermal + 1 E b1
1 b
Where R t = 1Totalb thermal resistance
 1t
+   Aresistance = +

− E b2  E b1 − E b2  1
   1F13 A A21F F21  A F  =
R  
The radiative network for two The
 black surfacesradiative
A F
1 13 network
A
conneted F
2 21  for two black
by a reradiating surface surfaces
13
t
2 21 conneted is shownRbelow b y a reradiating  surface A is s
1F13
t
 1 
1s ( T 41−sT24()1T4 − T 4Where 1  R t = Total thermal resistance
1R  2 ) 
1 1 1 Where
 1=
Q
s b ( T14 − T24 )  1 AFb QA11 = 3 R t =QTotal thermal
s b ( Tsurfaces
resistance
4  1 
1 − T2 ) conneted
Q1 = b  1 =
4

A1F12 A1F13 A 2EF23 F A F t  The  R radiative
 network for two black by a r
 R t 1 12 1 13 2 23Eb2 t The radiative network for two Rblack t  surfaces
1
b1
1 = b1 = E − E 1b2E − E 1 11 1 1
= =A1E1Fb112−+E b2 = b1 A1F12b2 +2 1 1E − E b2
1 1 R t Rt R A 1 F A F 1 A F = b1
Rt Rt + t 1 12 + 1 13 2 A
23 F
1 12 A F
1 13 A 2 F23 R t
Where A1FR13Where = Total
A F thermal resistance A F A 1 F
2R
E23b3t = Total thermal resistance R1t =1Total 1
1 13 2 23
Where R t = Total thermal resistance = A1FWhere F12thermal resistance
t
12 + = A11heat +surface
Since only two surfaces The radiativeareThe Since
involved, network only
the fortwo
net two surfaces
radiative black are
surfaces
heat involved,
transferR conneted the netb y radiative
a 1 reradiating transfer is shown below
The radiative network for two radiative black 3 surfacesnetwork conneted for twobyblack a reradiating surfaces
t
The conneted
surface radiativeRis t +
bshown
ynetwork
a reradiating
below for1 two
+
surface 1 issurface
black shown
Q12 = Q1 = −1Q 2 1 1 1 1 Q112 = Q1 = −Q 2 1 A 1 F 13 A 22 F 23 A F A F
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 13 2 23

Similar to Q , Q Acan F be A F
wirtten
A F A A F
Similar
as F to
A QF , Q can Since
be wirtten only two
as surfaces
Since only are involved,
two surfaces the net
are radiative
involved, heatnet
the tr
A1F12 A1F13 1A 2 F1223 1 12 1 13
1 12 2 23
1 13 2 23 1 12
A1F12 A1F13 A 2 F23
Q112 = A1 F12 s b ( T= 41
)= 1 Q12 = A11 F12 s b (1T1 − TQ2 12) = Q1 = −Q 2 Q112 = Q1 = −Q 2
4 4 4
1 − 1T2 A 1F12 + A1F12 + 1
= A1F12 + Rt R 1 11 Similar 1 to Q , Q can be = wirtten A1as F12 + be wirtten as
1 1 t 12 = modifi + Similar to Q , Q can 1 1
FR12t = modified shape + factor FA ed shape factor R t 1 12
1 12

1F13 A F23 + A F + 4
A21F 2 23Q12 = A1 F12 s b ( T1 − T2 )
Q12 = A1 F12 s b (1T113 − T2 )2 F23
4 4
A1F13 A 2 F23 13
1 A F 4 A
Since only two 1 surfaces A = are
F involved,
A F + the net radiative heat transfer
A = F
Since only1 two A
surfaces F + Since
are1involved, only two surfaces
12 are involved, the net radiative heat transfer are involved, the ne
1 the net radiative heat1 transfer F+12 =1modifi Since edonly two surfaces
12 1 1 12
1 12
shape
F = factor
modifi ed shape factor
Q =+ Q = −=QQ 12
Q12 = Q1 = −Q 2 A1F1213 A1Q 2 F23
12 2 1 = −Q 2
A1F13 A 2 F23 Q12 = 1Q1 = −Q 2
Similar to Q1 , Q12tocan be wirtten as A= F12 A1F12 + A= 1
Similar to Q1 , Q12 can be wirtten Similar as Q1 , Q12 can be wirtten as 1 Similar to11Q F12, Q A11can F12 +be wirtten as
1 1
F12 =s bA( TF1412−sT24()T 4 − T 4 ) +
1 12
Q
4 12 = 4 A1Q
+4
Q12 = A1 F12 s b ( T1 − T2 ) 12 1 b 1 2 AQ11213= A1 F21223s b (A
F A F T11F− 4
13 T2 A ) 2 F23
F12 = modifi ed shape factor
F12 = modified shape factorF12 = modified shape factor F12 = modified shape factor
1 1
A= 1 F12 1 A A= F12 + A F + 1
A= 11 F12 11 12 11
1 F12 A1F12 + 1 A= 1 F12 A1F12 +
 Q12 = Q1 = −Q 2
Similar to Q1 , Q12 can be wirtten as
Radiation Heat Transfer 4 349
(
Q12 = A1 F12 s b T1 − T24 )
F12 = modified shape factor
1
A=
1 F12 A1F12 +
1 1
+
A1F13 A 2 F23
Since
Since surfaces
surfaces 11 && 22 are
are concave
concave
=
= F
F12
12 0,
=
0,= F
F22
22 0
0
Then by shape factor Algebra
Then by shape factor Algebra
F
F12 +=F
F13 11 &
& F F21 +=F
F23 11
12 += 13 21 + = 23
or
or F F13 =
=11 −
−FF12 F
F13 =
= 11 −
−FF21
13 12 13 21

11
\A
\ A11 F
F12 =A F +
12 = A11F12
12 + 11 11
+
+
A11 ((11 −
A −A A11F ) A
12 )
F12 A 22 ((11 −
−AA11F )
12 )
F12
From
From reciprocity
reciprocity theorem
theorem A
A1F
F12 = =A A2FF21
1 12 2 21
11
\A
\ A11 F
F12 =A F +
12 = A11F12
12 + 11 11
+
+
A
A11 − −AA11F
F12
12 A
A 22 −−A A11F
F1122
11
= A
= A11F
F12 +
12 + A − A F + A − A F
A 22 − A11F12
12 + A1 − A1F12
1 1 12

(( A1 − A1F12 )(
A − A F
1
)( A 2 − A1FF12 ))
A
1 12
− A
2 1 12
2
A
A11A −A
A 22 − A112 F
F12 − A1A 2 F12 + A122 F1222
= A F + 12 − A1A 2 F12 + A1 F12
= A11F1212 + A
A11 ++A − 2A
A 22 − 2A11F
F12
12
2 2 2 2 2
A 2F
A11 F12 + A A F − 2A 2 F2 + A A − A 2 F
1 12 − A1A 2 F12 + A1 F12
2
12 + A1A 2 F12 − 2A1 F12 + A1A 2 − A1 F12 − A1A 2 22 F12 + A1 F12
1 2 12 1 12 1 2
=
= A1 +
A +AA2 − 2A1F
− 2A F12
1 2 1 12

A11 [[ A
A −A
A 22 − A11F ]
2
12 ]
A
A11A −A
A 22 − A112 F
F12 F12
=
=A F =
A11 F12 A=
12 12

+A
A11 + − 2A
A 22 − 2A11F F12
12
A +A
A11 + − 2A
A 22 − 2A11FF12
12

 A A2 −−A A1FF12 
 s b T T224 
4 4
=
=\Q
\ Q12
12
A
A1
1  A + A − 2A F  s b 
2 1 12
−T
T114 −
 A11 + A 22 − 2A11F12
12 


3.30.2 Heat exchange between two gray surfaces enclosed by an insulated surface
The radiation network for heat exchange between two gray surfaces enclosed by an insulated
surface is shown in figure.
350 Heat Transfer

Eb3

1 1 1− ∈3
A1F13 A 2 F23 A 3 ∈3

1 1 1−J∈ 33
1 1 1− ∈3
A1F13 A 2 F23 A 3 ∈
A31F13 A 2 F23 A 3 ∈3

1− ∈1 1 1−J∈ Eb2
Eb1 12 1− ∈1 1 1− ∈2 1J−2∈1 1 1− ∈2
A1 ∈1 A1F12 A 2 ∈2 A1 ∈1 A1F12 A 2 ∈2A1 ∈1 A1F12 A 2 ∈2
Total resistance
 
 
1− ∈1  1  + 1− ∈2
Rt = +
A1 ∈1  1  1 1   A 2 ∈2
 + + 
 A1F12  A1F12 A 2 F23  
For surfaces 1 & 2, ( convex or flat )
F11 0,=
= F22 0
& by shape factor algebra
F12 + F13 =1 or F13 =−
1 F12
F21 + F23 =
1 or F23 =−
1 F21
By reciprocity theorem
A1F12 = A 2 F21
Substituting the above relation in R t , we get
1− ∈1 1  A1 + A 2 − 2A1F12  1− ∈2
Rt = +  +
A1 ∈1 A1  A 2 − A1F122  A 2 ∈2
1− ∈1 1 1− ∈2
= + +
A1 ∈1 A1 F12 A 2 ∈2
E b1 − E b2
Q12 =
Rt
s b ( T14 − T24 )
=
1− ∈1  1  A1 + A 2 − 2A1F12  1− ∈2
+   +
A1 ∈1  A1  A 2 − A1F122  A 2 ∈2
A1sb ( T14 − T24 )
=
1− ∈1  ( A1 + A 2 − 2A1F12 )  1− ∈2 A1
+ + ×
∈1  A 2 − A1F122  A 2 ∈2 A 2
A1sb ( T14 − T24 )
=
1− ∈1 1 1− ∈2 A1
+ + ×
  
A1s b ( T − T ) 1
4 4
2
=
1− ∈1  ( A1 + A 2 − 2A1F12 )  1− ∈2 A1
Radiation Heat Transfer
+ + × 351
∈1  A 2 − A1F122  A 2 ∈2 A 2
A1s b ( T14 − T24 )
=
1− ∈1 1 1− ∈2 A1
+ + ×
∈1 F12 ∈2 A2
If A
=1 A=
2 A
A − AF122
F12 =
2A − 2AF12
A (1 − F122 )
=
2A (1 − F12 )

=
(1 − F12 )(1 + F12 )
2 (1 − F12 )
1 + F12
F12 =
2
As b ( T14 − T24 )
\ Q12 =
1 1 2
+ −2+
∈1 ∈2 1 + F12
352 Heat Transfer

Solved Problems
NOTE: Heat and Mass transfer data book by C. P. Kothandaraman is used for solving problems.
1. Assuming the sun to be a black body having surface temperature of 5800K. Calculate,
(i) the total emissive power, (ii) the wave length at which the maximum spectral intensity
occur, (iii) the maximum value of Ebλ, (iv) the percentage of total emitted energy that lies
in the visible range of 0.38μ to 0.76μ, (v) the total amount of radiant energy emitted by
the sun per unit time if its diameter can be assumed to be 1.391 × 109m.
Data: T= 5800K, λ1 = 0.38 × 10−6 m, λ 2 = 0.76 × 10−6 m, d= 1.391 × 109 m, E b = ?, λ max = ?
( E bλ =
)max ?,=Q ?
( i) Total emissive power
sT 4 =
Eb = 5.67 × 10−8 × 58004 =
64200kW / m 2
( ii) Maximum wavelength
2.9 × 10−3
T 2.9 × 10−3 ⇒ λ max
λ max × = = ( Wein 's displacement law )
T
2.9 × 10−3
λ max = 5 × 10−7 m =
= 0.5µm
5800
C = C1 0.374 × 10−15 Jm 2 / s
( iii) ( E bλ ) max = 5 C2 /1λT
(λ e −1) = C2 1.438 × 10−2 m / s
0.374 × 10−15
=
 2.9 × 10−3   2.9 ×10−3 
1.438 ×10−2

   e − 1
T  
= 1.2187 × 10−5 T 5
= 1.287 × 10−5 × ( 5800) = 8.45 × 1013 W / m3
5

( E bλ )=
max
8.45 × 1010 kW / m3
( iv) λ1T= 0.38 × 10−6 × 5800= 2.205 × 10−3 mK
λ 2 T= 0.76 × 10−6 × 5800= 4.407 × 10−8 mK
From Table ( HMT data book, radiation heat transfer )
Eb ( 0 → λ 2T)
= 0.550
sT 4
E b ( 0 → λ1T )
= 0.102
sT 4
% of total emitted energy in the visible range
= 0.550 − 0.102 = 0.448 or 44.8%
( v) Q = sAT 4 = 5.67 × 10−8 × p × (1.391 × 109 ) ( surface area of sun = 4pr )
2
× 58004 2
= pd 2
= 4.39 × 1026 W
Radiation Heat Transfer 353

2. A domestic hot water tank 0.5m dia and 1m height is insulated in a large space. The ambient
temperature is 25oC. If the tank surface is oxidised copper with air emissivity of 0.8, find the
heat loss from the tank by radiation. What would be the reduction in heat loss if a coating of
aluminium paint having an emissivity of 0.3 is given to the tank? What would be the increase
in heat loss if a white paint having an emissivity of 0.97 is given to the tank?
Data: d =0.5m, l =1m, T2 =25 + 273 =298K, T1 =100 + 273 =353K
p
Surface area of the tank =pdl + 2 × d 2
4
p 5p 2
= p × 0.5 × 1 + 2 × × 0.52 = m
4 8
Heat loss from the tank by radiation when ∈= 0.8
Q12 =sA1∈1 × ( T14 − T24 )
5p
= 5.67 × 10−8 × × 0.8 ( 3534 − 2984 )
8
= 690W
Heat loss from the tank when ∈= 0.3
5p
Q12 = 5.67 × 10−8 × × 0.3 ( 3534 − 2984 )
8
= 260W
Reduction in heat loss
= 690 − 260 = 430
Heat loss from the tank when ∈= 0.97
5p
Q12 = 5.67 × 10−8 × × 0.97 ( 3534 − 2984 )
8
= 835.62W
Increase in heat loss
= 835.62 − 690= 143.62W
3. The distance of the sun from the earth is 150 × 106km. If the radius of the sun is 0.7 ×
106km and its temperature is 6200K, estimate approximately the mean temperature of
the earth. Assume that the rate of radiative transfer from the sun to the earth is equal to
the rate of radiant transfer from the earth to the outer space which is at 0K. Consider the
earth and sun as black.
Data: x =150 × 106 km = 150 × 109 m, r1 =
0.7 × 106 km =0.70 × 109 m, T1 =
6200K, A1F12 = A 2 F22 ,
F21 = 1,
A2 pr22 T1
\ F12 = = ( r2 = radius of earth )
Sun r2 T2
A1 4px 2
x Earth
The net rate of radiative energy transfer from sun to the earth r1
(
Q12 = sA1F12 T14 − T24 )
pr22
= s × 4pr12 ×
4px 2 (
T14 − T24 )
2 2
 \ F12 = = ( r2 = radius of earth )
A1 4px 2
The net rate of radiative energy transfer from sun to the earth
354 4 Heat Transfer
Q12 = sA1F12 T1 − T24 ( )
pr22
= s × 4pr12 ×
4px 2
(
T14 − T24 )
pr12 r22
Q1=
2
x2
s T14 − T24 ( )
The rate of radiant transfer from the earth to outer surface which is at 0K.
(
Q 20 = s × 4pr22 × 1 T24 − 0 = s 4pr22 T24 )
At equlibrium Q12 = Q 20
pr12 r22
4pr22 sT24 =
x2
(
s T14 − T24 =s 4pr22 T24 )
4
4x 2  T1 
=
r12  T  − 1
2

( )
2 2
4 × 150 × 109  6200 
=  T  − 1
(0.7 × 10 9 2
)
2

T2 = 300K
4. A long steel rod 20mm in dia is to be heated from 427oC to 538oC. It is placed concentrically
in a long cylindrical furnace which has a inside diameter of 160mm. The inner surface of
the furnace is at a temperature of 1093oC and has a emissivity of 0.85. If the surface of
the rod has a emissivity of 0.6, estimate the time required for the heating operation. Take
the density of steel of 7800kg/m3 and its specific heat 0.67kJ/kgK.
1 1
Data: ∈1 = 0.6, ∈2 = 0.85, T1 = 427 + 273 = 700K, T1 = 538 + 273 = 811K, T2 = 1093 + 273 = 1366K,
A1 = pd1L = p × 0.02 × L, A 2 = p × 0.160 × L
φ = 160mm
1
F12 =
1  1 A1  1 
 ∈ − 1 + F + A  ∈ − 1
1 12 2 2
rod φ = 20mm
1
=
 1  p × 0.02 × L  1  Furnace
 − 1 + 1 +  − 1
0.6  p × 0.16 × L  0.85 
F12 = 0.592
( Q12 )beginning = Rate of heat absorption at the beginning / unit length of rod
sA1 F12 T14 − T24
= ( )
= 5.67 × 10−8 × p × 0.02 × 1 × 0.592 7004 − 13664 
= −11543.47W / m
( Q12 )end = Rate of heat absorption at the end
= 5.67 × 10−8 × p × 0.16 × 0.592 8114 − 13664 ( )
= −866864.3W / m

Qave =
(Q
12beginning + Q12end )
2
 = −11543.47W / m
( Q12 )end = Rate of heat absorption at the end
Radiation Heat Transfer 355
= 5.67 × 10−8 × p × 0.16 × 0.592 ( 8114 − 13664 )
= −866864.3W / m

Qave =
(Q 12beginning + Q12end )
2
= −49203.9W / m
Qave × t =ρVC ( Tf − Ti )
p
49203.9 ×=t 7800 × × 0.022 × 1 × 0.67 × 103 ( 538 − 427 )
4
t = 3.7s
5. Liquid air boiling at –153oC is stored in a spherical container of diameter 320mm. The
container is surrounded by concentric spherical shell of diameter 360mm in a room at
27oC. The space between the two spheres is evacuated. The surface of the spheres are
flashed with aluminum (ε = 0.3). Taking the latent heat of vaporization of liquid air as
210kJ/kg, find the rate of evaporation of liquid air.
Data: T1 = −153 + 273 = 120K, T2 = 27 + 273 = 300K, A1 = 4pr12 =
4 × p × 0.162 =
0.3215m 2
1
F12
= (=
F)
g 12
1− ∈1 1  1− ∈2  A1
+ +  r1
∈1 F12  ∈2  A 2 Air
F12 = 1
(1)
1 r2
\ ( Fg ) = (2)
12
1  1 A
+  − 1 1
∈1  ∈2  A2
1
= 2
1  1  4p × 0.16
+ − 1
0.3  0.3  4p × 0.182
= 0.017
sA1Fg12 ( T14 − T24 )
( Q12 )net =
= 5.67 × 10−8 × 0.3215 × 0.017 (1204 − 3004 )
( Q12 )net = −2.446W
( Q12 )net 2.446
Rate of evaporation
= m=
a = × 3600
h fg 210 × 103
= 0.042kg / h
6. An enclosure measures 1.5m × 1.7m with a height of 2m. The walls and ceiling is
maintained at 250oC and the floor at 130oC. The walls and ceiling have emissivity of 0.82
and the floor 0.7. Determine the net radiation to the floor. VTU Jan - 2008
356 Heat Transfer

Data: T1 = 250 + 273 = 523K, T2 =130 + 273 = 403K, ∈1 = 0.82, ∈2 = 0.7, ( Q12 )net = ?
Total area of walls and ceiling
A1 = 1.5 × 2 + 1.75 × 2 + 1.5 × 1.75 = 15.625m 2
Floor area =A 2 =1.5 × 1.75 =2.625m 2
The floor is completely encolosed by the area A1
F21 + F22 1
= but
= F22 0
\ F21 =
1
A1F12 = A 2 F21
A2 A 2 2.625
F=
12 F=
21 = = 0.168
A1 A1 15.625
1
( FFgg )12 =
1  1 A1  1 
 − 1 + +  − 1
 ∈1  F12 A 2  ∈2 
1
=
 1  1 15.625  1 
 − 1 + +  − 1
 0.82  0.168 2.625  0.7 
= 0.114
( Q12 )net sA1Fg12 ( T14 − T24 )
=
= 5.67 × 10−8 × 15.625 × 0.114 ( 5234 − 4034 )
= 4920W = 4.92kW
7. Determine the shape factor F12 between a small area A1 and a parallel circular disc A2. A1
is located on the axis of the disc and the semi-vertex angle of the cone formed with the
disc as base and A1 as the vertex is θ.
1 cos q1 cos q2
Data: W.K.T A1F12 = ∫ ∫ dA1dA 2
4 A1 A2 r2
Shape or configuraion factor
1 cos q1 cos q2
F12 = ∫ ∫
A1 A1 A2 pP 2
dA1dA 2

Recognising that q1 , q2 and P are approximately independent of position on A1 as the disk

is small, the expression reduces to
cos q1 cos q2
F12 = ∫ dA 2
A2
pP 2
But q1 =q2 =q
cos 2 q
F12 = ∫ pP 2 dA 2
A2

From the geometry

2
P= L2 + x 2
 But q1 =q2 =q
cos 2 q
F12 =
Radiation Heat Transfer ∫ pP 2 dA 2
A2
357

From the geometry dr

2 2 2
P= L + x D A2
L L r
cos q= =
P L +r2 2

dA 2 = 2p r dr
2
 L  2 p rdr θ1
∫A  L2 + r 2  , p P 2
\ F12 =
2

 L2  2r dr P L
= ∫  L2 + r 2  L2 + r 2
A2 
θ1
R
L2
=∫ 2r dr
( L2 + r 2 )
2
0

Let
= L2 + r 2 t 2r dr dt
= A1
R R
L2  − L2 
F12
= ∫=
0
t
dt 2 
 t 0


 − L2 
=  =
R
 − L2
 2 −
( −L2 ) 
2 2  2
 L + r 0  L + R L2 

2
− L2 + L2 + R 2 R2  R  2
= 2 2
= 2
=2  = sin q
L +R L +R 2 2
 R +L 
2
D D2
 
= = L 4
2
D 2 D2
2
L +  L +
L 4
D2
F12 =
4L + D 2 2

NOTE : Shape factor of a small surface relative to a circular ring of inner radius R1 and
outer radius R 2 is given by A2
R R1
R2 2
L2
F12 = ∫ 2r dr
R1 ( L + r )
2 2 2

R
 1 
2
2
= −L  2 2 
 L + r  R1
 1 1 
= − L2  2 2
− 2 2  A1
 L + R 2 L + R1 
 R 22 − R12 
F12 = L2  
 = − L2  2 2 
 L + r  R1
 1 1 
358 = − L2  2 − 2 Heat Transfer
2 2 
 L + R 2 L + R 1 

 R 22 − R12 
F12 = L2  2 
 ( R1 + L )( R 2 + L ) 
2 2 2

9. Determine the geometrical factor of a bead shaped thermocouple to the inside wall of a
circular duct.
Data:
dx dA2

s
Thermo x

duct couple

L L
1 cos q1 cos q2
A1 A∫1
F12 = dA1dA 2
pS2
OR
Recognising the area of the thermocouple bead is very small and will be constant for any
area of duct, cos q1 =1, the expression
dA1 cos q2
A1 A∫1 pS2
F12 = dA 2

From the geometry

R R 2
cos q2 = = dA 2 = R dφ dx, S= R2 + x2
S R +S2 2

L 2p
dA1 R Rdφ dx
A1 −∫L ∫0
=F12 ×
R +S2 2
p(R2 + x2 )
L 2p
dA1 R 2 dφ dx
A1 −∫L ∫0 p ( R 2 + x 2 )3/ 2
=

2p L
dA dx
= R2 ∫ dφ ∫
A1 0 − L p ( R 2 + x 2 )3/ 2
L
dA 2 p dx
= R2 [φ]0 ∫
−L p ( R + x )
A1 2 2 3/ 2

L
dA1 dx
= 2pR 2 ∫
A1 − L p ( R 2 + x 2 )3/ 2
L
dA1 dx
= 2R 2 ∫
A1 − L ( R 2 + x 2 )3/ 2

But= dx R sec 2 q dq
x R tan q, =
 A1 0 −L p(R2 + x2 )
L
dA 2 p dx
[ φ]
A1 0 −∫L p ( R 2 + x 2 )3/ 2
=
Radiation Heat R2
Transfer 359

L
dA1 dx
= 2pR 2 ∫
A1 − L p ( R 2 + x 2 )3/ 2
L
dA1 dx
= 2R 2 ∫
A1 − L ( R 2 + x 2 )3/ 2

But= dx R sec 2 q dq
x R tan q, =
dx
The integral terms becomes
(R + x2 )
2 3/ 2

dx R sec 2 q dq
∫ (R + x2 )
=∫
(R + R 2 tan 2 q )
( 2 3/ 2 2 3/ 2

R sec 2 dq R sec 2 q dq
= ∫ R 2 1 + tan 2 q3/ 2 ∫ R 2 sec2 q
=
 
dq cos q dq
= ∫= 2 ∫
R sec q R2
1 1 x x
= sin q
= sin q
=
R 2
R2 R +x
2 2 2
R +x
2

L
dA1 1  x 
\ F12 =
2 
2R 2 
A1 R  R 2 + x 2  − L

2 dA1  L L 
= 2R 2 
+ 
A1R  R + L2 2
R +L 
2 2

dA1  2L 
= 2 R2  
A1 R 2  R 2 + L2 
pr 2 , A1 =
But dA1 = 4pr 2
p r2  2 L 
\ F12 =
2×  
4 p r 2  R 2 + L2 
L
F12 =
R 2 + L2
10. Two very large parallel planes with emissivities 0.3 and 0.8 exchange radiative energy.
Determine the percentage reduction in radiative energy transfer when a polished
aluminium radiative shield of ε = 0.04 is placed between them. VTU June - 2008
Data: Heat transfer without shield:
Eb1 J1 J2 Eb2

1− ∈1 1 1− ∈2 1− ∈1 1 1− ∈2 1− ∈1 1 1− ∈2
A1 ∈1 A1F12 A 2 ∈2 A1 ∈1 A1F12 A 2 ∈2A1 ∈1 A1F12 A 2 ∈2
360 Heat Transfer

A1s b ( T14 − T24 )

( Q12 )net = (i) Hot Cold
1− ∈1 1  1− ∈2  A1
+ + 
A1 ∈1 F12 4 ∈24  A 2
A1s b ( T1 − T2 )
( Q12parallel
For infinite )net = radiating surfaces
1− ∈ 1  1− ∈2  A1
F=12 F=21 1 1 A += A+ 
A1 ∈1 F12 2 ∈2  A 2
1
ε2
ε1
A1s b ( T1 − T2 ) A1s b ( T12 − T24 )
4 4
For infinite
= ( Q12parallel
)net 1= radiating surfaces
1− ∈ 1 1
F=12 F=21 1 − 1 +A= 11 + A 2 2 + −1
∈1 ∈42 ∈1 ∈22 4
A1s b 4( T1 −4 T2 ) A1s b ( T1 − T2 )
4

= ( Q1212 )netnet s1= b ( T1 − T2 )

= − 1 + 1 + 1− ∈2 1 1
+ −1
A1 1 1
∈1 + − 1 ∈2 ∈1 ∈2 1 2
∈1 4∈2 4
( Q12 )net sb ( T41 − T42 )
= s b ( T1 − T2 )
A1 = 1 + 1 − 1
1 1
∈1 + ∈2 − 1
0.3 40.8 4
( Q12 )net = b ( T1 − T2 4) 4
s
A1 1 s1b ( T1 − T2 )
= 0.279
+ −1
0.3 0.8
Heat 1 1
1− ∈1 transfer
− ∈ 3 1 with 1
− ∈2 radiation shield
Eb1 ∈ F ( Q∈12 )Jnet J3 4 Eb3 J3 J2 Eb2
F 32 s b ( T1 − T2 )
1 ∈ =2 0.279 4
1 13 3
A1
( sb ( T14 − T22 )
Q
1− ∈11−1∈11−12 1∈)31net = 211 −11∈311−−1∈
1−1−−∈∈ ∈
3 ∈311−11−∈∈2131
−−∈1∈3 11−1∈1132−−∈1∈1311− 12−13 −∈1∈
1−∈∈ 3 111
−−1∈∈312−1∈311−−∈∈2 3 1 1− ∈2
A
F3 ∈∈∈ F32133 FR F13 F3321 F∈1332 ∈ F132
∈1 F∈ 131 ∈13 3 21 F ∈ ∈
∈3231 ∈ ∈
23 ∈ ∈ ∈ 3 F∈ ∈23 ∈∈ 3F132 ∈ F∈ 32 ∈F323 ∈∈2 3 F32 ∈2
1
13 13
 
( Q= 121)−net∈1 +sb1( T+1 −1T−2∈)3  + 1 + 1− ∈2
R
4 2

∈ = F13  ∈3  F32 ∈2
A1 1 R
F= F= 1 (ii) Hot Radiation Shield Cold
13 32
1− ∈1 1  1− ∈3  1 1− ∈2
R= 1 − 0.3+ +  1 − 0.04  + + 1 − 0.08
= ∈1 +F113+ 2  ∈3   F+321 + ∈2
0.3  0.04  0.08
F= F= 1
= 52.283 13 32

1 − 0.3  1 − 0.04  1 − 0.08

= ( Q12 )0.3 + b1(+T124 − T24 )  + 1 +
s ε1 ε3h ε3c ε2
net
=  0.04= 0.017  sb (0.08
T14 − T24 )
=A52.283
1 52.283
Percentage reduction in heat transfer
( Q12 )net sb (4T14 − 4T24 )
= 0.017s b ( T414 − T424 )
A1 s b ( T52.283 1 − T2 ) − 0.017 s b ( T1 − T2 )
0.279 =
=
b ( T1 − T2 )
Percentage reduction 0.279 in heatstransfer 4 4
1 3 2

==
0.279 s
− b0.017 2 ) − 0.017 s b ( T1 − T2 )
( T14 −×T100
4 4 4

× 100
0.279 0.279 s T 4 − T 4
= 93.6%
b ( 1 2 )
0.279 − 0.017
= × 100
0.279
 Percentage reduction in heat transfer
0.279 s b ( T14 − T24 ) − 0.017 s b ( T14 − T24 )
=
Radiation Heat Transfer 361
0.279 s b ( T14 − T24 )
0.279 − 0.017
= × 100
0.279
= 93.6%
11. Two large parallel plates with emissivity of 0.4 are maintained at different temperature
and exchange heat only by radiation. What percentage change in net radiative heat
transfer would occur if two equally large radiation shields with surface emissivity 0.04
are introduced in parallel to the plates.
Data: Without radiation shield
A1s b ( T14 − T24 )
( Q12 )net =
1  1  1 A
 − 1 + +  − 1 1
 ∈1  F12  ∈2  A2
=A1 A=2 , F12 1
A1s b ( T14 − T24 )
( Q12 )net = 1 1
+ −1
∈1 ∈2
A1s b ( T14 − T24 )
=
1 1
+ −1
0.4 0.4
( Q12 )net = 0.2A1s b ( T14 − T24 )
With radiation shields
A1s b ( T14 − T24 )
( Q12 )net =
 1  1  1  A   1  1  1 A 
 − 1  + +  − 1  1  +  − 1  + +  − 1 3 
 ∈1  F13  ∈2  A 2   ∈3  F34  ∈4  A4 
 1  1  1 A 
+  − 1  + +  − 1 3 
 ∈4  F42  ∈2  A4 
A=
1 A=
2 A=
3 A4
F=
13 F=
34 F=
42 1
A1s b ( T14 − T24 )
( Q12 )net =
1 1 2 2
+ + + −3
∈1 ∈2 ∈3 ∈4
A1s b ( T14 − T24 )
=
1 1 2 2
+ + + −3
0.4 0.4 0.04 0.04
= 0.0098A1s b ( T14 − T24 )
Percentage change in heat exchange
0.2 A l s b ( T14 − T24 ) − 0.0098 A l s b ( T14 − T24 )
=
0.2A s ( T 4 − T 4 )
 + + + −3
0.4 0.4 0.04 0.04
= 0.0098A1s b ( T14 − T24 )
362 Heat Transfer
Percentage change in heat exchange
0.2 A l s b ( T14 − T24 ) − 0.0098 A l s b ( T14 − T24 )
= × 100
0.2A1s b ( T14 − T24 )
= 95.1%
12. Two parallel square plates, each 4m2 area are large compared to a gap of 5mm separating
them. One plate has a temperature of 800K and surface emissivity of 0.6 while the other
has a temperature of 300K and a surface emissivity of 0.9. Find the net energy exchange by
radiation between the plates. If a thin metal sheet of surface emissivity 0.1 on both sides is
now located centrally between the two plates, what will be its steady state temperature?
How the heat transfer would be altered?
Data: A= 1 A 2= 4m 2 , T=
1 800K, T2= 300K, ∈=1 0.6, ∈=2 0.9, ( Q12 ) net= ?, ∈=3 0.1, T3= ?
Without intermediate sheet

( Q12 ) net =
(
A1s b T14 − T24 )
1− ∈1 1 1− ∈2 A1
+ + ×
∈1 F12 ∈2 A2
4 × 5.67 × 10−8 8004 − 3004
=
( )
1 − 0.6 1 − 0.9 4
+1+ ×
0.6 0.9 4
= 51175.8W = 51.17kW
With intermediate sheet
Heat flow from plate 1 to sheet

Q13 =
(
A1s b T14 − T34 )
1− ∈1 1 1− ∈2 A1
+ + ×
∈1 F13 ∈2 A3

=
(
A1s b 8004 + T34
=
)
A1s b 8004 − T34 ( )
1 1 1 1
+ −1 + −1
∈1 ∈3 0.06 0.1
Q=
13 0.09374A l s b 8004 − T34 ( )
Heat flow from sheet to plate 2

=Q32
(
A 3s b T34 − T24
=
)
A 3s b T34 − 3004 ( )
1 1 1 1
+ −1 + −1
∈3 ∈2 0.1 0.9
= 0.0989A 3s b T34 − 3004 ( )
Under steady state conditions
=Q13 Q=
32 Assume A1 A 3
(
0.09374 8004 −= )
T34 0.0989 T34 − 3004 ( )
T3 = 671.65K
Heat flow through the system with sheet
 (
= 0.0989A 3s b T34 − 3004 )
Under steady state conditions
Radiation Heat Transfer 363
= Q13 Q= 32 Assume A1 A 3
(
0.09374 8004 −= )
T34 0.0989 T34 − 3004 ( )
T3 = 671.65K
Heat flow through the system with sheet
Q13= Q32= 0.09374 × 4 × 5.67 × 10−8 8004 − 671.654 ( )
= 4381.66W
= 4.381kW
13. Determine the net radiant heat exchange per m2 area for two infinite parallel plates
held at temperature of 800K and 500K respectively. Take emissivity as 0.6 for the hot
plate and 0.4 for the cold plate. What would be the emissivity of a polished aluminium
shield placed between them if heat flow is to be reduced to 40% of its original value. Also
calculate the equilibrium temperature of the shield.
Data: =T1 800K, = T2 500K,= ∈1 0.6, =∈2 0.4, =∈3 ?
( i ) Heat flow without radiation shield
A1s b ( T14 − T24 )
Q12 =
1  1  1 A
 − 1 + +  − 1 1
 ∈1  F12  ∈2  A2
= F12 1,=
A1 A 2
1 × 5.67 × 10−8 ( 8004 − 5004 )
Q12 =
 1   1 1
 − 1 + 1 +  − 1
 0.6   0.4  1
2
Q12 = 6200W / m
( ii ) With radiation shield
= Q13 40% ( Q12 = )without (=
Q12 ) with Q32
=0.4 × 6200 =2480W
A1s b ( T14 − T24 )
( Q12 )with =
1− ∈1 1 1− ∈3 A1  1− ∈3 1 1− ∈2 A 3 
 + + × + + + × 
 ∈1 F13 ∈3 A 3   ∈3 F32 ∈2 A2 
1 × 5.67 × 10−8 ( 8004 − 5004 ) A
=1 A=2 F3
2480 =
1 1 2 F= F= 1
+ + −2 12 32
∈1 ∈2 ∈3
1 × 5.67 × 10−8 ( 8004 − 5004 )
2480 =
1 1 2
+ + −2
0.6 0.4 ∈3
∈3 =0.347
Equilibrium Temperature
Q=
13 Q=
32 ( Q12 )with
A1s b ( T14 − T34 )
2480 =
 1 1 2
+ + −2
0.6 0.4 ∈3

364 ∈3 =0.347 Heat Transfer

Equilibrium Temperature
Q=
13 Q=
32 ( Q12 )with
A1s b ( T14 − T34 )
2480 =
1 1
+ −1
∈1 ∈2
1 × 5.67 × 10−8 ( 8004 − T34 )
2480 =
1 1
+ −1
0.6 0.347
T3 = 710K
14. Determine the net heat exchange between areas A1, A2 which are perpendicular but do
not share the common edges shown in figure. The relevant data is
Surface A1 : T1 = 650K, ε1 = 0.8
Surface A2 : T2 = 650K, ε2 = 0.85
A2 2m

A5
A4 4m

A3 4m
A6 A1 2m

4m
Data: The sequence of solution is
A=
5 F36 A1F16 + A 3 F36
= A1F14 + A1F12 + A 3 F36
= A 5 F54 − A 3 × F34 + A1F12 + A 3 F36
A1F12 = ( A 5 F56 + A 3 F34 ) − ( A 5 F54 − A 3 F36 )
From the chart of radiation shape factor for perpendicular rectangles with a common edge,
( HMT data book )
we get
Z Y
Surfaces ( A ij ) Fij
X X
6 4
A 56 = 1.5 = 1.6 0.22
4 4
4 2
A 34 = 1.0 = 0.5 0.35
4 4
4 4
A 54 = 1.0 = 1.0 0.20
4 4
6 2
A 36 = 1.5 = 0.5 0.37
4 4
Now, A1F12 = ( 4 × 4 × 0.22 ) + ( 4 × 2 × 0.35 ) − ( 4 × 4 × 0.20 ) − ( 4 × 2 × 0.37 )
 4 2
A 34 = 1.0 = 0.5 0.35
4 4
Radiation Heat Transfer 4 4 365
A 54 = 1.0 = 1.0 0.20
4 4
6 2
A 36 = 1.5 = 0.5 0.37
4 4
Now, A1F12 = ( 4 × 4 × 0.22) + ( 4 × 2 × 0.35) − ( 4 × 4 × 0.20) − ( 4 × 2 × 0.37)
= 0.16
0.16 0.16
F12
= = = 0.2
Al 4×2
The rate of radiant heat interchange between the surfaces A1 and A 2 is given by
Q=
12 ( Fg)12 A1s b ( T14 − T24 )
Where, ( Fg )12 is equal to
1
( Fg)12 =
(1− ∈1 ) + 1 +  1− ∈2  × A1
∈1 F12  ∈2  A 2
1
= = 1.08
1 − 0.8 1 1 − 0.85 8
+ + ×
0.8 0.2 0.85 8
(
\ Q12= 1.08 × 8 × 5.67 × 10 6504 − 4504
−8
)
= 67360W
15. For a hemispherical furnace, the flat floor is at 700K and has a emissivity of 0.5. The
hemispherical roof is at 1000K and has emissivity of 0.25. Find the net radiative heat
transfer from roof to floor. VTU June - 2011(02)
Data: T1 = 700K, ε1 = 0.5, T2 = 1000K, ε2 = 0.25, Q1–2=?
Hemispherical
roof
2

r
Flat floor
Net radiative heat transfer from roof to floor
A1s ( T14 − T24 )
Q12 =
1− ∈1 1  1− ∈2  A1
+ + 
∈1 F12  ∈2  A 2
Area of floor =pr 2 =A1
4pr 2
Area of hemisphere
= = A2
2
A1 pr 2
= = = 0.5
A 2 2pr 2
and F12 = 1
1 × 5.67 × 10−8 ( 7004 − 10004 )
 4pr
Area of hemisphere
= = A2
2
A1 pr 2
366
= = = 0.5 Heat Transfer
A 2 2pr 2
and F12 = 1

\ Q12 =
(
1 × 5.67 × 10−8 7004 − 10004 )
 1 − 0.5   1 − 0.25 
  + 1 +   × 0.5
0.5 0.25 
= −12310.4W / m 2
− ve sign indicates the floor gains the heat or Roof looses the heat.
16. The temperature of black surface of 0.2m2 area is 540oC. Calculate, i) the total rate of
energy emission, ii) the intensity of normal radiation, iii) the wavelength of maximum
monochromatic emission power. VTU Dec - 2011 (02)
Data: A = 0.2m 2 , T = 540 + 273 = 813K, E b = ?, I bn = ?, λ max = ?
( i ) The total rate of energy emission
sAT 4 =
Eb = 5.67 × 10−8 × 0.2 × 8134
E b = 4954.22W
( ii ) The intensity of normal radiation
Eb
I bn = where E b is in W / m 2 K 4
p
sT 4
=
p
5.67 × 10−8 × 8134
=
p
I bn = 7884.89W / m 2
( iii ) The wavelength of maximum manochromatic emission power
From Wein 's Displacement law
λ max T =
2898
λ max × 813 =
2898
λ max = 3.56µm
17. Two concentric spheres of 20m and 30m are used to store liquid nitrogen at 120K in a
room at 300K. The space between the spheres is made perfect vacuum. The surfaces are
highly polished to attain an emissivity of 0.04. Calculate the rate of evaporation of liquid
nitrogen per hour if the latent heat of nitrogen is 1255kJ/kg. VTU Jan - 2010 (02)
3
Data: r1 =20m, r2 =30m, T1 =120K, T2 =300K, ∈1 =∈2 =0.04, h fg =1255 × 10 J / kg, m =?
Rate of Evaporation of Nitrogen
The heat flow from the inner sphere surface to outer sphere surface is
A1s ( T14 − T24 )
Q12 =
 1− ∈1  1  1− ∈2  A1
 + + 
 ∈1  F12  ∈2  A 2
4pr12 s ( T14 − T24 )
 r1 =20m, r2 =30m, T1 =120K, T2 =300K, ∈1 =∈2 =0.04, h fg =1255 × 103 J / kg, m =?
Rate of Evaporation of Nitrogen
Radiation Heat Transfer 367
The heat flow from the inner sphere surface to outer sphere surface is
A1s ( T14 − T24 )
Q12 =
 1− ∈1  1  1− ∈2  A1
 + + 
 ∈1  F12  ∈2  A 2
4pr12 s ( T14 − T24 )
=
 1− ∈1   1− ∈2  r12
  + 1 +   2
 ∈1   ∈2  r2
4p × 202 × 5.67 × 10−8 1204 − 3004 
= 2
 1 − 0.04   1 − 0.04  20
  +1+  × 2
 0.04   0.04  30
= −63062.63W
− ve sign indicates that heat is gained by the surface 1, means heat is flowing from ouside
surface to inside surface
\ The rate of evaporation
Q12 63062.63
=m = = 0.0502kg / s
h fg 1255 × 103
18. Two large parallel plates with ε = 0.5 each are maintained at different temperature
and exchanging heat only by radiation. Two equally large radiation shields with surface
emissivity 0.05 are introduced in parallel to the plates. Find the percentage reduction in
net radiative heat transfer. VTU June - 2009 (02)
Data: εP = 0.5, εS = 0.05
(i) When shields are not used
Plates

T1 T2

εP εS

1 2
s ( T14 − T24 )
Q without shields =
 1− ∈P   1− ∈P 
  +1+  
 ∈P   ∈P 
s ( T14 − T24 )
=
1 1
+ −1
∈P ∈P
s ( T14 − T24 )
= = 0.33s ( T14 − T24 )
1 1
+ −1
0.5 0.5
  P   P 
s ( T1 − T
4 4
2 )
=
368 1 + 1 − 1 Heat Transfer
∈P ∈P
s ( T14 − T24 )
= = 0.33s ( T14 − T24 )
1 1
+ −1
0.5 0.5
( ii ) When shields are used
s (s 4T ) 4
T14( T−Radiation
1 − T2 )
4
2
shields
Q
Q without =
with shields =
shields
1 1− ∈ 1 P  1 +1  1−1∈P 
+∈ + + 2  +  − (2 = 1)
∈P ∈PP  ∈S ∈ ∈PS  
s((T T224 ))
4 4

=
s T114 −− T
= 1
2 + 14 − 1
∈P + ∈
∈ ∈P − 4 εS εS
P P
s ( T144 − T
== s ( T1 − εPT22 )) = 0.33s ( T14 − T 44) εP4
4
4

12 14 = 0.012345s ( T21 − T2 )
+
+ 0.5 − 4 − 1
0.5
0.5 0.5
( ii ) When shields are used
s ( T14 − T24 )
Q with shields =
1 1 1 1
+ + 2  +  − ( 2 + 1)
∈P ∈P ∈S ∈S 
s ( T14 − T24 )
=
2 4
+ −3
∈P ∈P
s ( T14 − T24 )
= = 0.012345s ( T14 − T24 )
2 4
+ −3
0.5 0.5
Percentage reduction in heat flow
Q without shields − Q with shields
= × 100
Q without shields
Q with shields
1−
= × 100
Q without shields

0.33 s ( T14 − T24 )

= 1− × 100
0.012345 s ( T14 − T24 )
= 90.26%
19. Two large parallel plates are at 1000K and 800K. Determine the heat exchange per unit
area, when (i) the surfaces are black, (ii) the hot surface has an emissivity of 0.9 and the
cold surface has emissivity of 0.6, (iii) A large plate of emissivity 0.1 is inserted between
Radiation Heat Transfer 369

them. Also find the percentage reduction in heat transfer because of introduction of the
large plate. VTU Jan - 2009 (02)
T1 1000K, =
Data: = T2 800K,= ∈1 0.9, =
∈2 0.6,= ∈3 0.1
( i) Heat exchange when both surfaces are black
(
Q12 = A1F12 s T 4 − T24 )
A1 1m 2
F12 1,=
=
Q12 = 1 × 1 × 5.67 × 10−8 10004 − 8004 
= 33475.68W
( ii) When
= hot surface has ∈1 0.9 and
= cold surface has ∈2 0.6

( Q12 ) net =
(
A1s T14 − T24 ) F12 =
1
 1− ∈1  1  1− ∈2  A1 1 1
+ −1
 ∈  + F +  ∈  A ∈1 ∈2
1 12 2 2

=
(
1 × 5.67 × 10−8 10004 − 8004 ) 1
 1 − 0.9  0.5625  1 − 0.6  1 1 1
  + +  + −1
0.9 1  0.6  1 0.9 0.6
24976.67W
= 0.5625
( iii) When radiation shield is inserted with ∈S =0.1 =∈3
( Q12 )net =
(
As T14 − T24 )
1 1   1 1 
 ∈ + ∈ − 1 +  ∈ + ∈ − 1
1 2 3 2

=
(
1 × 5.67 × 10−8 10004 − 8004 )
 1 1   1 1 
 + − 1 +  + − 1
0.9 0.6   0.1 0.6 
Q without − Q with
Percentage
= reduction × 100
Q without
24976.67 − 3138.35
= × 100
24976.67
= 87.43%
20. An enclosure is measured 1.5m × 1.7m with a height of 2m. The walls and ceiling are
maintained at 250oC and the floor at 130oC. The walls and ceiling have an emissivity of
0.82 and the floor 0.7. Determine the net radiation to the floor. VTU Jan 2008
Data:
370 Heat Transfer

Roof (ceiling)

(4)

Side wall (2) (3)

2m
Wall(front)
(1)

1.
5m 1.7m
Floor
Shape factor for 1 & 2
Z Height of the vertical surface 2
= = = 1.33
X Width 1.56
Y Length of horizontal surface 1.7
= = = 1.13
X Width 1.5
From the chart ( shape factor for perpendicular rectangles with a common edge )
Z Y
=at 1.33
= and 1.13 we get shape factor F12 = 0.16
X X
Shape factor for 1 & 3
Z 2 Y 1.5
= = 1.2, = = 0.88
X 1.7 X 1.7
From the chart ( shape factor for perpendicular rectangles with a common edge )
Z Y
at
= 1.2
= and 0.88 we
= get F13 0.24
X X
Shape factor for 1 & 4
X 1.7 Y 1.5
= = 0.85, = = 0.75
L 2 L 2
From the chart ( shape factor for alligned parallel plates )
X Y
=at 0.85
= and 0.75= we get F14 0.18
L L
Heat flow from walls to floor
s ( T14 − T24 )
Q 21 =
1− ∈1 1 1− ∈2
+ +
A1 ∈1 A1F12 A 2 ∈2
5.67 × 10−8 ( 5234 − 4034 )
=
1 − 0.7 1 1 − 0.82
+ +
1.5 × 1.7 × 0.7 1.5 × 1.7 × 0.16 1.5 × 2 × 0.82
Q 21 = 1019.83W
 A1 ∈1 A1F12 A 2 ∈2
5.67 × 10−8 ( 5234 − 4034 )
=
Radiation Heat Transfer 1 − 07 1
+ +
1 − 0.82 371
1.5 × 1.7 × 0.7 1.5 × 1.7 × 0.16 1.5 × 2 × 0.82
Q 21 = 1019.83W
Heat flow from right sidewall to floor
s ( T34 − T24 )
Q31 =
1− ∈1 1 1− ∈3
+ +
A1 ∈1 A1F13 A 3 ∈3
5.67 × 10−8 ( 5234 − 4034 )
=
1 − 0.7 1 1 − 0.82
+ +
1.5 × 1.7 × 0.7 1.5 × 1.7 × 0.24 1.7 × 2 × 0.82
Q 21 = 1470.89W
Heat flow from ceiling to floor
s ( T44 − T24 )
Q 41 =
1− ∈1 1 1− ∈4
+ +
A1 ∈1 A1F14 A 4 ∈4
5.67 × 10−8 ( 5234 − 4034 )
=
1 − 0.7 1 1 − 0.82
+ +
1.5 × 1.7 × 0.7 1.5 × 1.7 × 0.18 1.5 × 1.7 × 0.82
Q 21 = 1128.58W
Net radiation Q net =×
2 Q 21 + 2Q31 + Q 41
= 2 × 1019.83 + 2 × 1470.89 + 1128.58
Q net = 6110.02W
21. Consider two large parallel plates, one at 1000K with emissivity 0.8 and other is at 300K
having emissivity 0.6. A radiation shield is placed between them. The shield has emissivity
0.1 on the side facing hot plate and 0.3 on the side facing cold plate. Calculate percentage
reduction in radiation heat transfer as a result of radiation shield. VTU May - 2007
Data: =T1 1000K,= ∈1 0.8, =
T2 300K, = ∈2 0.6, =∈3h 0.1, =∈3c 0.3
( i) Heat transfer / m area between two parallel plates without shield
Hot Cold
(
s T14 − T24 )
without
1 1
+ −
∈1 ∈2
(
5.67 × 10 8 10004 − 3004 )
1 1 ε1 ε2
+ −
0.8 0.6
29292W / m
( ii) When radiation shield is used
For thermal equilibrium

=
(
s T14 − T34
=
)
s T34 − T24( ) 1 2
with
1 1 1 1
+ −1 + −1
∈l ∈3h ∈3c ∈2
T Temperature of the shield
 0.8 0.6
= 29.292W / m 2
( ii ) When radiation shield is used
372 Heat Transfer
For thermal equilibrium
s ( T14 − T34 ) s ( T34 − T24 )
=Q with = Hot Shield Cold
1 1 1 1
+ −1 + −1
∈l ∈3h ∈3c ∈2
T3 = Temperature of the shield
10004 − T24 T 4 − 3004
Or = 3
1 1 1 1
+ −1 + −1 ε1 ε3h ε3c ε2
0.8 0.1 0.8 0.6
1000 × 109 − T34 T 4 − 3004
= 3
10.22 1 1
+ −1
0.3 0.6
1000 × 109 − T34 T34 − 8.1 × 109
=
10.22 4 1 3 2
9 4
1000 × 10 − T=3 2.56T3 − 20.696 × 109
4

T34 + 2.56T34 = 1000 × 109 + 20.696 × 109

3.56T34 1020.696 × 109
=
T34 286.31 × 109
=
T3 = 731.75K
Now
s ( T14 − T34 )
Q with shield =
1 1
+ −1
∈1 ∈3h
5.67 × 10−8 (10004 − 731.754 )
=
1 1
+ −1
0.8 0.1
= 3943.5W / m 2
Percentage reduction in heat flow
Q without − Q with
= × 100
Q without
29292 − 3943.5
= × 100
29292
= 86.54%
22. Two square plates 1m × 1m are parallel and directly opposite each other at a distance
of 1m. The hot plate is 800K and has an emissivity of 0.8. The colds plate is at 600K and
has an emissivity of 0.8. Radiation heat exchange takes place between the plates. Draw
the equivalent radiation network indicating all the résistance and calculate the net heat
transfer rate by radiation at each plate and to the ambient. Radiation heat exchange also
takes place between ambient (300K) and plates. VTU Jan - 2006
Data:
= X 1m, = Y 1m, = L 1m, = T1 800K,= ∈1 0.8,
= T2 600K,= ∈2 0.8,
= T3 300K
X 1 Y 1
= = 1, = = 1
L 1 L 1
X Y
From the chart ( shape factor for aligned parallel plates=
) at 1=
and 1, we get
L L
Radiation Heat Transfer 373

(2)

L Eb3 = J3

R4 R5

=X 1m, = Y 1m,
= L 1m, = TR1 1 800K,= ∈1 0.8,
= T2Q4 600K,
R3 =Q5∈2 0.8,=T3 300KR2
Y (1)
X 1 Y 1
= = 1, = = 1 J1 J2 Eb2
XL 1 Eb1 L 1 Q Q2 Q3
1
X Y
From the chart ( shape factor for aligned parallel plates=
) at 1=
and 1, we get
L L
F12 = 0.21
Also, F12 + F13 =
1
F13 =
1 − 0.21 =
0.79
and F21 + F23 =
1
F23 =
1 − 0.21 =
0.79
The values of the resistance are
1− ∈1 1 − 0.8
= R1 = = 2.5
A1×∈1 1 × 1 × 0.8
1− ∈2 1 − 0.8
=R2 = = 2.5
A 2 ×∈2 1 × 1 × 0.8
1 1
=R3 = = 4.76
A1 × F12 1 × 1 × 0.21
1 1
=R4 = = 1.266
A1 × F13 1 × 1 × 0.79
1 1
=R5 = = 1.266
A1 × F21 1 × 1 × 0.79
1− ∈3
Since the ambient is very large, ths surface resistance may be taken as zero and
A 3 ∈3
thus E b3 = J 3
The radiositeis J1 and J 2 can be calculated by setting the sum of heat currents entering
nodes, J1 and J 3 to zero.
E b1 − J1 J 2 − J1 E b3 − J1
Node J1 ; + + 0
=
R1 R3 R4
J1 − J 2 E b3 − J 2 E b2 − J 2
Node J 2 ; + + =0
R3 R5 R2
But, E b1 = 5.67 × 10−8 ( 8004 ) =
sT14 = 23.22kW / m 2
E b2 = 5.67 × 10−8 ( 6004 ) =
sT24 = 7.35kW / m 2
 E b1 − J1 J 2 − J1 E b3 − J1
Node J1 ; + + 0
=
R1 R3 R4
J −J E −J E −J
374
Node J 2 ; 1 2 + b3 2 + b2 2 = 0 Heat Transfer
R3 R5 R2
But, E b1 = 5.67 × 10−8 ( 8004 ) =
sT14 = 23.22kW / m 2
E b2 = 5.67 × 10−8 ( 6004 ) =
sT24 = 7.35kW / m 2
sT34 =
E b3 = 5.67 × 10−8 × 3004 =
0.459kW / m 2
Substituing E b1 , E b2 and E b3 into the above equations.
For Node J 1
23.22 × 103 − J1 J 2 − J1 0.459 × 103 J1
+ + =0
0.25 4.76 1.266
92.88 × 103 − 4J1 + 0.21J 2 − 0.21J1 + 360.19 − 0.789J1 =
0
−5J1 + 0.21J 2 + 98.24
= × 103 0 − − − (1)
For Node J 2
J1 − J 2 0.459 × 103 − J 2 7.35 × 103 − J 2
+ + = 0
4.76 1.266 0.25
0.21J1 − 0.21J 2 + 362.56 − 0.789J 2 + 29.4 × 103 − 4J 2 =
0
0.21J1 − 5.0J 2 + 29.76
= × 103 0 − − − ( 2)
Solving (1) & ( 2 )
−5J1 + 0.21J 2 + 98.24 × 103 =0 × 0.21
0.21J1 − 5.0J 2 + 29.76 × 103 =×
0 5
−1.05J1 + 0.0441J 2 + 19.58 × 103 =
0
+1.05J1 − 25J 2 + 148.8 × 103 =
0
−24.96J 2 + 168.38 × 103 =
0
168.38 × 103
J2 = = 6.75 × 103 W / m 2
24.96
Now −5J1 + 0.21 × 6.75 × 103 + 9.24 × 103 =
0
J1 18.93 × 103 W / m 2
=
Total heat lost by plate (1)

Q1=
E b1 − J1
=
( 23.22 − 18.93) × 103 = 17.16 × 103 W / m 2
R1 0.25
Total heat lost by plate ( 2 )

=
E b2 − J 2
Q3 =
( 7.35 − 6.75) × 103
R2 4.76
= 0.126kW = 0.126 × 103 W
Total heat recieved / absorbed by the ambient
J1 − J 3 J 2 − J 3
Q 4 + Q=5 +
R4 R5

=
(18.93 − 0.459 )103 + ( 6.75 − 0.459 )103
 Q3
E b2 − J 2 ( 7.35 − 6.75) × 103
= =
R2 4.76
Radiation Heat Transfer 375
= 0.126kW = 0.126 × 103 W
Total heat recieved / absorbed by the ambient
J1 − J 3 J 2 − J 3
Q 4 + Q=5 +
R4 R5

=
(18.93 − 0.459 )103 + ( 6.75 − 0.459 )103
1.266 1.266
3
= 19.56 × 10 W
23. The surfaces of a double walled spherical vessel is used for storing liquid oxygen and
covered with a layer of silver having emissivity of 0.03. The temperature of the outer
surface of the inner wall is –153oC and the temperature of the inner surface of the outer
wall is 27oC. The spheres are 21cm and 30cm in diameter, with the space between them is
evacuated. Calculate the radiation heat transfer through the walls into the vessel and the
rate of evaporation of liquid oxygen, if its enthalpy of evaporation is 220kJ/kg.
VTU Jan – 2006
0.3
Data: T1 = −153 + 273 =120K, T2 = 27 + 273 = 300K, ∈1 = ∈2 = 0.03, r2 == 0.15m,
2
0.21
r1 = = 0.105m, h fg = 220 × 103 J / kg, Q12 = ?, m = ?
2
Heat flow between two concentric spheres (2)

A1s ( T14 − T24 ) (1)

Q12 = Evacuated 27oC
1− ∈1 1 1− ∈2 A1
+ + × space C2
∈1 F12 ∈2 A2 r1
A1 d12 –153oC
For concentric shperes F12 = 1, =
A 2 d 22 r2
0.212
= = 0.49
0.32
A1 = 4pr12 = 4p × 0.1052 = 0.1385m 2
Substituting the values in the above equation
0.1385 × 5.67 × 10−8 1204 − 3004 
Q12 =
1 − 0.03  1 − 0.03 
+1+   × 0.49
0.03  0.03 
−61.98
=
49.17
Q12 = −1.26W
− ve sign indicates heat flows from outside to inside
Rate of evaporation of liquid oxygen
Q12 1.26
m =
=
h fg 220 × 103
m 5.73 × 10−6 kg / s
=
 − ve sign indicates heat flows from outside to inside
Rate of evaporation of liquid oxygen
Q12 1.26
376 =m = Heat Transfer
h fg 220 × 103
m 5.73 × 10−6 kg / s
=
24. Two black discs each of diameter 500mm are placed directly opposite at a distance 1m
apart. The discs are maintained at 1000K and 500K respectively. Calculate the heat flow
between the discs when,
i) No other surface are present
ii) The discs are connected by right cylindrical black no flux surface.
Data: r1= r2= 0.25m, L= 1m, T1= 1000K, T2= 500K
( i ) When no other surface are present
∈1 =∈2 =1, A1 = A 2 = p × 0.252 = 0.196m 2
L 1 r2 0.25
= = 4 = = 0.25
r1 0.25 L 1
L r
From the chart ( shape factor for coaxial parallel discs )=
are 4=
& 2 0.25, we get
r1 L
F12 = 0.04
Now heat flow between two discs
Q12 = A1F12 s ( T14 − T24 )
= 0.196 × 0.04 × 5.67 × 10−8 (10004 − 5004 )
Q12 = 416.2W
( ii ) When the discs are connected by right cylindrical black no flux surface
Q
=12 A1 ( Fg ) ( E b1 − E=
b2 ) A1 ( Fg ) s ( T14 − T24 )
12 12

1
( Fg )12 =
1  A1  1  1
 − 1 +  − 1 +
 ∈1  A 2  ∈2  F12
2
A 2 − A1F12
F12 =
A1 + A 2 − 2A1F12
A1s ( T14 − T24 )
\ Q12 =
1  A1  1   A1 + A 2 − 2A1F12 
 − 1 +  − 1 +  2 
 ∈1  A 2  ∈2   A 2 − A1F12 
But ∈1 =∈2 , A1 =A 2
 1 + F12 
\ Q12 =A1s ( T14 − T24 )  
 2 
1+ 0.04 
= 0.196 × 5.67 × 10−8 10004 − 5004   
 2 
Q12 = 5416W
 Radiation Heat Transfer 377

25. Calculate the net radiant heat exchange per unit area for two large parallel plates at
temperature of 427oC and 27oC respectively. ∈hotplate = 0.9, ∈coldplate = 0.6. ∈If
shielda= polished
0.4.
aluminium shield is placed between them, find the percentage reduction in the heat
otplate = 0.9, ∈ transfer.
coldplate = 0.6. ∈shield = 0.4.
VTU December 2014
Data: T
T11 == 427 + 273
427 + 273 == 700K,
700K, T T22 == 27 + 273
27 + 273 == 300K, ∈11 == 0.9,
300K, ∈ ∈22 == 0.6,
0.9, ∈ 0.6, ∈ = 0.4
shield = 0.4
∈shield
( ii ) Heat
Heat trasfer
trasfer rate
rate without
without radiation
radiation shield
shield
s(T
s T1144 −
−T T2244 )
Q
Q without
without =
= 1 1
1 + 1 −1
+ −1
∈11 ∈
∈ ∈22
10−8 ( 700 3004 )
−8 4 4
5.67 × 10
5.67 × 7004 −− 300
=
= 11 11
+
+ − 11
−
0.9
0.9 0.6 0.6
2
= 7400W
= 7400W // m m2
( iiii ) Heat
Heat transfer
transfer rate
rate with
with shield
shield
s(T T224 )
4 4
s −T
T114 −
Q with
Q =
with =
 11 11   11 11 
 ∈ + + − − 11 + +  −
− − − 11
∈ ∈shield ∈
 ∈11 ∈22   ∈shield ∈22 
10 ( 700 300 )
−88 4 4
5.67
5.67 × × 10 −
700 −4
− 300 4
=
= 1
 1 + 11 − 1 +  11 + 11 − 1
 0.9 + 0.6 − 1 +  0.04 + 0.6 − 1
 0.9 0.6   0.04 0.6 
479.31W // m
= 479.31W
= m 22
Percentage reduction
Percentage reduction in in heat
heat transfer
transfer
Q without −
−Q Q with
= Q without
= with × 100
× 100
Q
Q without
without

 7400 − 479.31
7400 − 479.31  × 100
=
= 
 7400  × 100
7400 
= 93.52%
= 93.52%
26. A pipe carrying steam runs in a large room and exposed to air at 30oC. The pipe surface
temperature is 200oC. Diameter of the pipe is 20cm. If the total heat loss per meter length
of the pipe is 1.9193kW, determine the emissivity of the pipe surface. [VTU Jan 2018]
Data : T∞ = 30oC, TS = 200oC, d = 0.2m, Q = 1.9193 × 103 W, ∈ = ?
Q = s ∈ AS[TS4 –T∞4]
= 1.9193 × 103 = 5.67 × 10–8 × ∈ × p × 0.2 × 1[(200 + 273)4 – (30 + 273)4]
∈ = 0.27
378 Heat Transfer

27. In an isothermal enclosure at uniform temperature two small surfaces A & B are placed.
The irradation to the surface by the enclosure is 6200 W/m2. The absorption rates by
the surfaces A & B are 5500 W/m2 and 620 W/m2. When the steady state is established,
calculate the following.
(i) What are the heat fluxes to each surfaces? What are their temperature?
(ii) Absorptivity of both surfaces
(iii) Emissive power of each surface
(iv) Emissivity of each surface [VTU Jan 2018]
Data : Q = 6200 W/m2, QaA = 5500 W/m2, QaB = 620 W/m2, qA = ?, qB = ?, aA = ?, aB = ?
EA = ?, EB = ?, eA = ?, eB = ?
We have irradiation Q = sT4
6200 = 5.67 × 10–8 ×T4
T = 575K.
Since enclosure is isothermal, we have
TA = TB = T = 575K
\ Heat fluxes qA = qB = 0
QaA 5500
Absorptivity of surface A, a= A = = 0.887
Q 6200
QaB 620
Absorptivity of surface B, a= B = = 0.1
Q 6200
Emissive power of surfaces
EA =
aAQ = 5500W / m 2
0.887 × 6200 =
EB =
a BQ = 620W / m 2
0.1 × 6200 =
Emissivity of surfaces
According to Kirchoff 's law a = e
\e A = a A = 0.887
e B =a B =0.1
28. Two large parallel plates having emissivity of 0.3 and 0.6 are maintained at a temperature
of 900°C and 250°C. A radiation shield having an emissivity of 0.05 on both sides is
placed between the two plates. Calculate
i) Heat transfer without shield.
ii) Heat transfer with shield.
iii) Percentage reduction in the heat transfer due to shield.
iv) Temperature of the shield. [VTU Dec 2016 / Jan 2017]
Ans. ∈1 = 0.3, ∈2 = 0.6, ∈3 = 0.05
T1 = 900 + 273 = 1173K, T2 = 250 + 273 = 523 K
Qwithout = ?, Qwith = ?, T3 ? % Qreduction = ?
Case (i) : Heat transfer without shield
 Radiation Heat Transfer 379

s ( T14 − T24 )
Q without = Plate Plate
1 1
+ −1 (1) (2)
∈1 ∈2
5.67 × 10−8 (11734 − 5234 )
=
1 1
+ −1
0.3 0.6
= 25775.50 W / m 2
Temperature of the shield
at thermal equilibrium
(( )) (( ))
4 4 4 4
s T144 − T434 s T443 − T442
s (T T3 ) = s
= 1 3 1 2)
s T1 − −T
= s (T T3 −− TT2
1 1 1
=
=
3
= Plate (3) Plate
11 ++ 11 −−11 11 + 11 − 1 (1) (2)
∈1 + ∈3 − 1 ∈3 ++ ∈2 −−11
∈
∈11 ∈33 ∈ ∈
∈33 4∈ ∈22
1173444 − T3444 T344 − 523444
1173
= 1173
= −T
− T TT33 −− 523
523
=
= = =1 1 33 1 1
1 + 1 −1 1 + 11 − 1
+
0.3 0.6 − 1 0.05 0.6−−11
++
0.3 0.6 4 0.05 0.6
0.6
((
5.167 117344 − T344 =TT3444 −−523
))
4
52344
5.167 (1173 − T33 ) =T33 − 5234 Radiation shield
9.78 × 101212 − 5.167 T 44 = =TT4344 −−7.48
7.48 ×10
10 10
10
9.78 × 1012 − 5.167 T3334 = T33 − 7.48 ××10 10
12
9.853××10
9.853 1012
12 =
= 6.16T3444
6.16T 33
4 9.855××10
9.855 10121212
T34
=
=
T = 1.599
= 1.599×××10
1.599 10121212
10
3 6.16
6.16
T3 == 1124.64
T 1124.64K K
3
Heat transfer
Heat transferwith
withradiation
radiationshie
radiation shield
shie ldld

= ( 1
( ))
ss TT144 −−TT33344 )
4 4

Qwith
Q with =
11 + 11 − 1
+ −1
∈11 ∈
∈ ∈333
5.67××10
5.67
=
((
10−−−888(1173
1173 1124.6444)4
1173444−−−1124.64
1124.64 ))
11 111
++ −−−111
0.3 0.05
0.3 0.05
0.05
= 744.83W
744.83W//m m222
% Re duction
ductionin inheat
heattransfer
transfer
transfer
QQwithout − Q
without − Qwith
= without with
with
QQwithout
without
without
25775.50
25775.50−−744.83
744.83
744.83× 100
=
= ××100
100
25775.50
25775.50
== 97.11%
97.11%