UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN THINKING

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO ELEMENTS

• The elements of design are the building blocks used by the designers to create the
designs.

• They are the parts, the components that can be isolated and defined in any visual design,
they are the structure of the work, the objects to be arranged and used as part of any
composition.

• Although without referring to a specific design (editorial, web, etc.) we can say that the
general Design

1.2 TYPES OF DESIGN ELEMENTS

1.2.1 Point/Dot

• A point or dot (figure 1) is the smallest and most basic element of design and it can be
used alone or as a unit in a group (forming a line or a shape).

• It has position, but no extension, it is a single mark in a space with a precise and limited
location and it provides a powerful relation between positive and negative space.

Fig. 1 Typical representation of dot

1.2.2 Line

• If we place many points one next to the other we obtain a line (figure 2), which can have
length and direction, but no depth.

• Lines, besides to be used to create a shape, can be used to create perspective and
dominant directional lines (which create a sense of continuance in a composition).

• Also, they can be grouped to create a sense of value, density or texture.

 Fig. 2 Line

1.2.3 Shape

• Shape (figure 3) is an element defined by its perimeter, a closed contour.

• It is the area that is contained within implied line and it has have two dimensions: height
and width. A shape can be geometric (triangle, square, circle, etc.), realistic (animal,
human, etc.) or abstract (icons, stylizations, etc.)

Fig. 3 Shape

1.2.4 Form

• The Form (figure 4) is derived from the combination of point, line and shape.

• A form describes volume, the 3D aspect of an object that take up space and it can be
viewed from any angle (a cube, a sphere, etc.), it has width, height and depth.

Fig. 4 Form
1.2.5 Color

• The color (figure 5) is the response of the eye to differing wavelengths of radiation within
the visible spectrum. Colors are used to generate emotions, define hierarchy, create
interest, etc.

• There are many different kinds of color systems and theories but we will focus on the 3
properties: Hue, Value and Saturation.

Fig. 5 Color

Hue: is the color name.

Value: it refers to the lightness or darkness, to how close to black or white the Hue is. It
is defined as the relative lightness or darkness, which suggests the depth or volume of a
particular object or area, it is the degree of light and dark in a design, the contrast
between black and white and all the tones in between.

Fig. 6 Value

Saturation: It refers to the intensity of a hue, the less gray a color has in it, the more
Chroma it has.
1.3 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN

The principles of design combine the elements to create a composition, they are the guidelines
used to arrange the elements. Each principle is a concept used to organize or arrange the
structural elements of a design, and it applies to each element of a composition and to the
composition as a whole. The basic design principles are

1.3.1 Balance

Balance (figure 7) is the concept of visual equilibrium of similar, opposing, or contrasting

elements that together create a unified whole. It refers to the appropriate arrangement of the
objects in a design to create the impression of equality in weight or importance. It comes in 2
forms: Symmetrical (when the weight of a composition is evenly distributed around a central
vertical or horizontal axis) and Asymmetrical (when the weight of a composition is not evenly
distributed around a central axis).

Fig. 7 Balance

1.3.2 Emphasis

Emphasis (figure 8) marks the location in a composition which most strongly draw the viewer
attention, it is also referred as the focal point. It is the most important area or object when
compared to the other objects or areas in a composition. There are three stages of emphasis,
related to the weight of a particular object within a composition: Dominant (the object with the
most visual weight), Sub-dominant (the object or element of secondary emphasis)
and Subordinate (the object with the least visual weight, which is usually the background).
 Fig. 8 Emphasis

1.3.3 Movement

Movement (figure 9) is the visual flow through the composition, where (depending on the
elements placement) the designer can direct the viewer´s eye over the surface of the design. The
movement can be directed along edges, shapes, lines, color, etc and the purpose of movement is
to create unity with eye travel. By arranging the composition elements in a certain way, a
designer can control and force the movement of the viewer's eyes in and around the composition.

Fig. 9 Movement

1.3.4 Pattern

An object or symbol that repeats in the design is a pattern (figure 10). It can be a pattern with a
precise and regular repetition or an alternate pattern, which uses more than a single object or
form of repetition. We can say that is simply keeping your design in a certain format.

Fig. 10 Pattern
1.3.5 Repetition

Repetition (figure 11) creates unity and consistency in the composition; it is the reuse of the
same, similar or different objects throughout the design. The repetition can be irregular, regular,
uneven or even and can be in the form of Radiation (where the repeated elements spread out
from a central point) or Gradation (where the repeated elements become smaller or larger). It
often works with a pattern to make it seem active and along with the Rhythm helps to create
different types of it.

Fig. 11 Repetition

1.3.6 Proportion

Proportion (figure 12) is the comparative relationship in between two or more elements in a
composition with respect to size, color, quantity, degree, etc, or between a whole object and one
of its parts. The purpose of the proportion principle is to create a sense that has order between the
elements used and to have a visual construction; and it can occur in two ways: Harmonious
(when the elements are in proportion) or Unbalanced (when the disproportion is forced).

Fig. 12 Proportion

1.3.7 Rhythm

Rhythm (figure 13) is the alternation or repetition of elements with defined intervals between
them, it creates a sense of movement and it is used to establish a pattern and/or a texture. There
can be 3 different types of rhythm: Regular, Flowing or Progressive. The Regular rhythm occurs
when the intervals between elements are similar, the Flowing rhythm gives a sense of movement
while the Progressive rhythm shows a sequence of forms through a progression of steps.
 Fig. 13 Rhythm

1.3.8 Variety

Variety (figure 14) is the principle that refers to the combination of elements in an intricate and
complex relationship using different values, lines, textures, shapes, hues, etc. It is
complementary to unity and often needed to create visual interest or to call the attention to a
specific area in the composition.

Fig. 14 Variety

1.3.9 Unity

Unity it is used to describe the relationship between the individual elements and the whole of a
composition (which creates a sense of completeness, that all of the parts belong together) and it
is a concept that comes from the Gestalt theory of visual perception and psychology. Three of the
most well-known concepts of this theory are the Closure (is the idea that the brain tends to fill in
missing information when it perceives an object is missing some of its pieces), Continuance (is
the idea that once you begin looking in one direction, you will continue to do so until something
more significant catches your attention) and Similarity, Proximity and Alignment (is the idea that
elements of similar size, shape and color tend to be grouped together by the brain).

Fig. 15 Unity
1.4 INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN THINKING

Design thinking (figure 16) is an iterative process in which you seek to understand your users,
challenge assumptions, redefine problems and create innovative solutions which you can
prototype and test. The overall goal is to identify alternative strategies and solutions that are not
instantly apparent with your initial level of understanding.

In essence, design thinking

• Revolves around a deep interest to understand the people for whom we design products
and services.
• Helps us observe and develop empathy with the target users.
• Enhances our ability to question: in design thinking you question the problem, the
assumptions and the implications.
• Proves extremely useful when you tackle problems that are ill-defined or unknown.
• Involves ongoing experimentation through sketches, prototypes, testing and trials of new
concepts and ideas.

Fig. 16 Definition of design thinking

1.4.1 Principles of Design Thinking

The following are four basic principles of design thinking.

1. The human rule: No matter what the context, all design activity is social in nature, and
any social innovation will bring us back to the “human-centric point of view”.
 2. The ambiguity rule: Ambiguity is inevitable, and it cannot be removed or
oversimplified. Experimenting at the limits of your knowledge and ability is crucial in
being able to see things differently.

3. The redesign rule: All designs are redesigned. While technology and social
circumstances may change and evolve, basic human needs remain unchanged. We
essentially only redesign the means of fulfilling these needs or reaching desired
outcomes.

4. The tangibility rule: Making ideas tangible in the form of prototypes enables designers
to communicate them more effectively.

Fig. 17 Principles of design thinking

1.4.2 Phases of Design Thinking

Based on the four principles, the Design Thinking process can be broken down into five steps or
phases (figure 18), as per the aforementioned Hasso-Plattner-Institute of Design at Stanford
(otherwise known as d.school): Empathise, Define, Ideate, Prototype and Test.
 Fig. 18 Phases of design thinking

Design Thinking starts with empathy, a deep human focus to gain insights which may reveal new
and unexplored ways of seeing, and courses of action to follow in bringing about preferred
situations for business and society.
• It involves reframing the perceived problem or challenge at hand, and gaining perspectives,
which allow a more holistic look at the path towards these preferred situations.
• It encourages collaborative, multi-disciplinary teamwork to leverage the skills, personalities
and thinking styles of many in order to solve multifaceted problems.
• It initially employs divergent styles of thinking to explore as many possibilities, deferring
judgment and creating an open ideation space to allow for the maximum number of ideas and
points of view to surface.
• It later employs convergent styles of thinking to isolate potential solution streams, combining
and refining insights and more mature ideas, which pave a path forward.
• It engages in early exploration of selected ideas, rapidly modelling potential solutions to
encourage learning while doing, and allow for gaining additional insights into the viability of
solutions before too much time or money has been spent
• It tests the prototypes which survive the processes further to remove any potential issues. • It
iterates through the various stages, revisiting empathetic frames of mind and then redefining the
challenge as new knowledge and insight is gained along the way.
• It starts off chaotic and cloudy steamrolling towards points of clarity until a desirable, feasible
and viable solution emerges.
1.4.3 The problems design thinking can help solve:
Design Thinking is suited to addressing a wide range of challenges and is best used for bringing
about innovation within the following contexts:
 Redefining value
 Human-centred innovation
 Quality of life
 Problems affecting diverse groups of people
 Involving multiple systems
 Shifting markets and behaviours
 Coping with rapid social or market changes
 Issues relating to corporate culture
 Issues relating to new technology
 Re-inventing business models
 Addressing rapid changes in society
 Complex unsolved societal challenges
 Scenarios involving multidisciplinary teams
 Entrepreneurial initiatives
 Educational advances
 Medical breakthroughs
 Inspiration is needed
 Problems that data can't solve
1.5 HISTORY OF DESIGN THINKING

The early insights of Design Thinking date back to the early 50s and 60s when people started
studying Design Reasoning and Design Methodology. However, these are often associated with
the context of ancient architecture and engineering, which were limited to implementing
complex scientific ideas into practical life. It’s important to address some Design Thinking
Myths that can sometimes simplify the concept too much, missing its broader applications.
Design Thinking is much more than just a process; it is a mindset that encourages the relentless
pursuit of understanding, creativity, and innovation. By placing human needs at the heart of the
problem-solving journey, Design Thinking empowers individuals and teams to generate
transformative solutions that have a lasting impact on society, reinforcing the importance
of Desirability in Design Thinking for meaningful outcomes.
Even though it is nearly impossible to figure out all the aspects that led to the birth of Design
Theory and how it functions, it is widely believed that strategic thinking took a giant leap after
the Second World War.
Timeline of Design Thinking (figure 19)
1960s
In the 1960s, designers applied scientific methodology to understand design functions and
influences. Nigel Cross's paper explores the struggle between design discipline and design
science, aiming to make design scientific and rational.
In the early days, it was known as participatory methodology. Before the label was given to this
method by subsequent innovations in design, it was primarily used in urban planning and
designing.
1970s
Herbert A. Simon, a Nobel Prize laureate, introduced design as a 'way of thinking' in his book,
The Sciences of the Artificial. He introduced Design Thinking principles, including rapid
prototyping and observation, which are core to modern design and entrepreneurial processes.
As participatory methodology developed throughout the 70s, it grew to be considered an
interdisciplinary interaction design language. Science has inspired many methods in participatory
design, such as usability testing across the departments, including role-playing, prototyping and
mock-ups.
1980s
In 1982, Nigel Cross's "Designerly Ways of Knowing" paper compared designers' problem-
solving processes to non-design-related solutions in everyday life. Brian Lawson, Emeritus
Professor at the University of Sheffield, discussed insights from tests comparing methods
scientists and architects use to solve ambiguous problems.
1990s
IDEO, a global design and innovation company, introduced Design Thinking to the mainstream,
creating customer-friendly terminology and toolkits. Richard Buchanan, Head of Design at
Carnegie Mellon University, discusses its origins and how sciences evolved into specializations.
Design Thinking integrates specialized
fields of knowledge to address global problems from a holistic perspective.
2000s
David Kelley founded Stanford's Hasso Plattner Institute of Design, which focuses on Design
Thinking development and implementation. The Design Thinking movement was rapidly gaining
ground, with pioneers like IDEO and the design schools paving the way for others. Universities,
business schools, and companies have adopted the methodology, sometimes re-interpreting it to
suit their context or brand values.
Present day
The Industrial Revolution and World War II both stretched our understanding of what was
technologically feasible. Due to the immense social changes at the time, engineers, architects,
industrial designers, and cognitive scientists started to focus their research on problem-solving.
From the 50s and 60s onward, Design Thinking emerged, or perhaps, converted the technique by
infusing the period's strategic, technological, and human needs. It evolved gradually over five
decades only to become the prominent innovation methodology of modern times.
It keeps on exploding and enriching by those at the front end contributing to the research and
development. Design Thinking is still being improved by people at the forefront of research and
development and is gaining ground across many industries.
 Fig. 19 Timeline of design thinking

1.6 NEW MATERIALS IN INDUSTRY

The following are some of the new materials in the industry.
1.6.1 Graphene
It is a two-dimensional material with excellent thermal conductivity and mechanical strength.
Applications
 Electronics: Graphene can be used in cellphones, tablets, computers, and other
devices.
 Energy storage: Graphene can be used in batteries and supercapacitors.
 Sensors: Graphene's ability to sense changes in its environment makes it useful for
chemical sensors.
  Coatings: Graphene coatings can protect against chemicals, moisture, corrosion,
UV, and fire.
 Composites: Graphene can be used to strengthen and lighten plastics, metals, and
other materials.
 Biomedical devices: Graphene's biocompatibility and high surface area make it
useful for drug delivery and tissue engineering.
 Construction: Graphene can be used to make concrete stronger and less permeable
to water.
 Other uses: Optical electronics, Ultrafiltration, Photovoltaic cells, Water
purification, Solar cells, and Photonics circuits.
1.6.2 Advanced ceramics
Heat- and wear-resistant ceramic components can be used to make engines run cooler and last
longer. Advanced ceramics have many applications, including in medicine, electronics, energy
storage, and more.
Applications
 Medicine
Dental restorations: Advanced ceramics are used in dental implants and other
restorations
Orthopedic procedures: Advanced ceramics are used in orthopedic procedures
 Electronics
Display technology: Advanced ceramics are used in display technology
Quantum technology: Advanced ceramics are used in quantum technology
Memory devices: Advanced ceramics are used in memory devices
Sensors: Advanced ceramics are used in sensors
 Energy storage
Wearable electronics: Advanced ceramics are used in wearable electronics
IoT devices: Advanced ceramics are used in IoT devices
 Chemical processing
Chemical products: Advanced ceramics are used to handle chemical products
because they are non-reactive and can withstand high temperatures
  Space
NASA's Space Shuttle: Advanced ceramics were used in the ceramic tiles on
NASA's Space Shuttle to protect it from the heat of re-entry into the Earth's
atmosphere.
 Other applications
Semiconductor equipment: Advanced ceramics are used in semiconductor
equipment
Structural materials: Advanced ceramics are used as structural materials,
especially in applications involving high use temperatures
Abrasion resistance: Advanced ceramics are used in wear plates of crushing
equipment in mining operations
1.6.3 Advanced composites
Fiber-reinforced composites are stiffer and have a higher specific strength-to-weight ratio than
conventional materials
Applications
 Aerospace:
The most prominent use of advanced composites, where they are used in aircraft
wings, fuselages, and other components due to their lightweight and high strength
properties, significantly improving fuel efficiency.
 Automotive:
Increasingly used in car parts like hoods, doors, and chassis to reduce vehicle
weight and improve fuel economy.
 Sporting goods:
Found in tennis rackets, golf clubs, bicycle frames, and other sports equipment
due to their high stiffness and ability to be customized for specific performance
needs.
 Marine industry:
Used in boat hulls, masts, and other marine structures to achieve lightweight and
high-performance.
 Construction:
 Advanced composites are being explored for structural reinforcement in
buildings, bridges, and other construction applications due to their high strength
and durability.
 Medical implants:
Some advanced composites are being investigated for use in medical implants due
to their biocompatibility and ability to mimic bone properties.

1.6.4 Biomaterials
Materials that mimic natural tissues and organs, making them compatible with the human body.
Biomaterials are materials that are used to replace diseased or lost biological structures. They can
be natural or artificial, and are used to create implants and structures.
Types of biomaterials
 Polymers
These materials are flexible and can be used in sutures, vascular grafts, and soft
tissue replacements.
 Ceramics
These materials are strong, stiff, and resistant to corrosion. They are used in
dentistry and orthopedics.
 Metals
These materials are used because of their mechanical properties and thermal
conductivity.
 Chitosan
This biopolymer is derived from chitin and is biocompatible and biodegradable. It
can be used to create scaffolds for soft tissue engineering.
 Elastomers
These polymer materials can be stretched and recover when stress is removed.
 Biocompatibility
Biomaterials must be compatible with the body. They are often subject to the same
requirements as new drug therapies.
Applications: Biomaterials can be used to create implants and structures to restore form and
function. They can also be used for therapeutic or diagnostic purposes.
1.6.5 Carbon concrete
Carbon fiber can be used to reinforce concrete to make it stronger and more durable. Carbon
concrete is used in a variety of construction applications, including new construction,
strengthening, and reconstruction.
Applications
 Bridge construction: Carbon concrete can be used in bridge construction.
 Structural engineering: Carbon concrete can be used in structural engineering
projects.
 Prefabricated construction: Carbon concrete can be used in prefabricated
construction.
 Strengthening: Carbon concrete can be used to strengthen silos, bridges, canal
structures, and historical buildings.
 Sustainable construction: Carbon concrete is a sustainable construction material
that's lighter and stronger than conventional concrete.
Manufacturing carbon concrete
Carbon concrete is made by incorporating carbon fibers or bars into concrete. The carbon
fibers can be dispersed throughout the concrete or placed between its layers in mesh-like
textile mats.
Benefits
Carbon concrete has several benefits, including:
• Improved tensile strength
• Reduced crack width
• Increased flexural strength
• Lighter weight
• Aesthetically appealing
• Resource-saving
• Less material-intensive