Class 9 Notes by: Dr.

Meenakshi Gawade

FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE : CELL

Cell wall (Protective wall): Plants cells, in addition to the plasma membrane have another
rigid outer covering called cell wall. The cell wall lies outside the plasma membrane. The plant
cell wall is mainly composed of cellulose. It is a complex substance and provides structural
strength to plant cells.
When a living plant loses water through osmosis there is shrinkage or contraction of contents
of the cell away from cell wall. This phenomenon is known as plasmolysis.

NUCLEUS:-
The nucleus has a double layered covering called nuclear membrane. The nuclear membrane has
pores which allow the transfer of material from inside the nucleus to its outside, that is, to the
cytoplasm

The nucleus contains chromosomes, which are visible as rod-shaped structures only when the cell is
about to divide. Chromosomes contain information for inheritance of characters from parents to next
generation in the form of DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) molecules.

Chromosomes are composed of DNA and protein.

DNA molecules contain the information necessary for constructing and organising cells.

GENES:-Functional segments of DNA are called genes.

In a cell which is not dividing, this DNA is present as part of chromatin material. Chromatin material is
visible as entangled mass of thread like structures. Whenever the cell is about to divide, the chromatin
material gets organised into chromosomes.

The nucleus plays a central role in cellular reproduction, the process by which a single cell divides and
forms two new cells. It also plays a crucial part, along with the environment, in determining the way
the cell will develop and what form it will exhibit at maturity, by directing the chemical activities of
the cell.

NUCLEOID:- In some organisms like bacteria, the nuclear region of the cell may be poorly defined due
to the absence of a nuclear membrane. Such an undefined nuclear region containing only nucleic acids
is called a nucleoid. Such organisms, whose cells lack a nuclear membrane, are called prokaryotes (Pro
= primitive or primary; karyote ≈ karyon = nucleus). Prokaryotic cells also lack most of the other
cytoplasmic organelles. Many of the functions of such organelles are also performed by poorly
organised parts of the cytoplasm. The chlorophyll in photosynthetic prokaryotic bacteria is associated
with membranous vesicles (bag like structures) but not with plastids as in eukaryotic cells

Organisms with cells having a nuclear membrane are called eukaryotes.

CYTOPLASM:-

The cytoplasm is the fluid content inside the plasma membrane. It also contains many specialised cell
organelles. Each of these organelles performs a specific function for the cell. Cell organelles are
enclosed by membranes.

In prokaryotes, beside the absence of a defined nuclear region, the membrane-bound cell organelles
are also absent.

The eukaryotic cells have nuclear membrane as well as membrane-enclosed organelles. The
significance of membranes can be illustrated with the example of viruses.

Viruses lack any membranes and hence do not show characteristics of life until they enter a living
body and use its cell machinery to multiply.

CELL ORGANELLES:-
IMPORTANCE OF CELL ORGANELLES :-

Every cell has a membrane around it to keep its own contents separate from the external
environment. Large and complex cells, including cells from multicellular organisms, need a lot of
chemical activities to support their complicated structure and function. To keep these activities of
different kinds separate from each other, these cells use membrane-bound little structures (or
‘organelles’) within themselves. This is one of the features of the eukaryotic cells that distinguish them
from prokaryotic cells. Some of these organelles are visible only with an electron microscope.

Examples of cell organelles are:- endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, mitochondria
and plastids. They are important because they carry out some very crucial functions in cells.

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)-

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a large network of membrane-bound tubes and sheets. It looks like
long tubules or round or oblong bags (vesicles). The ER membrane is similar in structure to the plasma
membrane. . ER varies greatly in appearance in different cells, it always forms a network system.

There are two types of ER–1) rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) 2)smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(SER).

ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM RER looks rough under a microscope because it has particles
called ribosomes attached to its surface. The ribosomes, which are present in all active cells, are the
sites of protein manufacture. The manufactured proteins are then sent to various places in the cell
depending on need, using the ER.

SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM FUNCTION OF SER:-

 1. The SER helps in the manufacture of fat molecules, or lipids, important for cell function. Some
of these proteins and lipids help in building the cell membrane. This process is known as
membrane biogenesis.
2. Some other proteins and lipids function as enzymes and hormones.
3. SER plays a crucial role in detoxifying many poisons and drugs.

ER is to serve as channels for the transport of materials (especially proteins) between various regions
of the cytoplasm or between the cytoplasm and the nucleus. The ER also functions as a cytoplasmic
framework providing a surface for some of the biochemical activities of the cell.

GOLGI APPARATUS –

First described by- Camillo Golgi

It consists of a system of membrane-bound vesicles (flattened sacs) arranged approximately parallel

to each other in stacks called cisterns. These membranes often have connections with the membranes
of ER and therefore constitute another portion of a complex cellular membrane system.

1. Function :- The material synthesised near the ER is packaged and dispatched to various targets
inside and outside the cell through the Golgi apparatus.
2. Its functions include the storage, modification and packaging of products in vesicles. In some
cases, complex sugars may be made from simple sugars in the Golgi apparatus.
3. The Golgi apparatus is also involved in the formation of lysosomes

LYSOSOMES:-

Lysosomes are membrane-bound sacs filled with digestive enzymes.

These enzymes are made by RER.

FUNCTION :- Lysosomes are a kind of waste disposal system of the cell.These help to keep the cell
clean by digesting any foreign material as well as worn-out cell organelles. Foreign materials entering
the cell, such as bacteria or food, as well as old organelles end up in the lysosomes, which break
complex substances into simpler substances. Lysosomes are able to do this because they contain
powerful digestive enzymes capable of breaking down all organic material.

LYSOSOMES AS SUICIDE BAGS :-

Lysosomes contain powerful digestive enzymes capable of breaking down all organic material. During
disturbance in cellular metabolism or, when the cell gets damaged, lysosomes may burst and the
enzymes digest their own cell. Therefore, lysosomes are also known as the ‘suicide bags’ of a cell.

MITOCHONDRIA
Mitochondria are known as the powerhouses of the cell.

Mitochondria have two membrane coverings. The outer membrane is porous while the inner
membrane is deeply folded. These folds increase surface area for ATP generating chemical reactions.

FUNCTION:-The energy required for various chemical activities needed for life is released by
mitochondria in the form of ATP (Adenosine triphopshate) molecules. ATP is known as the energy
currency of the cell. The body uses energy stored in ATP for making new chemical compounds and for
mechanical work.

Mitochondria have their own DNA and ribosomes. Therefore, mitochondria are able to make some of
their own proteins.

PLASTIDS:-

Plastids are present only in plant cells.

There are two types of plastids – chromoplasts (coloured plastids) and leucoplasts (white or colourless
plastids).

Chromoplasts -1.containing the pigment chlorophyll are known as chloroplasts.

2.Chloroplasts are important for photosynthesis in plants.

3.Chloroplasts also contain various yellow or orange pigments in addition to
chlorophyll.

Leucoplasts -are primarily organelles in which materials such as starch, oils and protein granules are
stored.

The internal organisation of the Chloroplast consists of numerous membrane layers embedded in a
material called the stroma. These are similar to mitochondria in external structure.

Like the mitochondria, plastids also have their own DNA and ribosomes.

VACUOLES

Vacuoles are storage sacs for solid or liquid contents.

Vacuoles are small sized in animal cells while plant cells have very large vacuoles.

PLANTS-The central vacuole of some plant cells may occupy 50-90% of the cell volume. In plant cells
vacuoles are full of cell sap and provide turgidity and rigidity to the cell. Many substances of
importance in the life of the plant cell are stored in vacuoles. These include amino acids, sugars,
various organic acids and some proteins.

In single-celled organisms like Amoeba, the food vacuole contains the food items that the Amoeba has
consumed.

In some unicellular organisms, specialised vacuoles also play important roles in expelling excess water
and some wastes from the cell.

Cell Division –

New cells are formed in organisms in order to grow, to replace old, dead and injured cells, and to form
gametes required for reproduction. The process by which new cells are made is called cell division.

There are two main types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis.
MITOSIS- The process of cell division by which most of the cells divide for growth is called mitosis. In
this process, each cell called mother cell divides to form two identical daughter cells. The daughter
cells have the same number of chromosomes as mother cell. It helps in growth and repair of tissues
in organisms.

MEIOSIS-Specific cells of reproductive organs or tissues in animals and plants divide to form gametes,
which after fertilisation give rise to offspring. They divide by a different process called meiosis which
involves two consecutive divisions. When a cell divides by meiosis it produces four new cells instead
of just two . The new cells only have half the number of chromosomes than that of the mother cells

It shows equational cell division It is reductional cell division