a S (Argonthvo 3 Algosithms ase Fundamental +o computes ey) oa engineesing. An odgosithro is nomed Fosomn cen th — cenbusy pessian mathematician Abu Jato Mohammed ibo Musa-al- Khowasizmi. Et is simply a set of ules tox costing out some task , either by hand OF, mose us ,0n Amachine. tn athes Wosds , an algerithm is used by a computer to silve a problem. pennies An obgasithin is: step - by -step process of solving a pasticulas problem. Tt defines finite , well - defined and unambiguous sesies oF instsuctions fox accomplishiy a task. Trpuds ut oud Ane | aigosithm piCzedt Poopesties (or) Charactexsistics @«) Attzibutes of alqosithry ; + Input > An abgosithro oy fake 2e1 os move number of inputs: Outputs : An olgosithra “must produee atleast one oukpat. Definiteness: Each instsuction must be defined cleasly and un ambi quous: Finiteness + An od.qerithro maust be tesminated successfull aftes g finite number of steps: Effectiveness: The algor thea should poodice cossect and % accuratt Reaulbs¢ Arecas’ to study an algosithrn: 2 These ore fous’ cowas to study ax abgoxithm | Hod to devise abgorithms. 2 How to validate abqoathms. 3% How to analipe algosithrns: uw How to test O ps mM, | Ie How to clevise olgovithms: 2 => Devise an algorithm means designing Gun algosithro oa writing os creating. or de veloping an algostthra- > “These ose ditfesent desqn | techniques to develop am alge le Divide amd Congues. bp tan 2+ Gyreedy Method 2. Dynamic Prograraring. yw, Back tacking, : 45: Branch and, Bound. 2» How to validate algorithry: once algosthm, is designed, it 1s necessary to ghow the jit cornputes the covrect answer fos oll degel inpuls - this process is Known os algovithm validation. 3. How to’ analyze . abgovithrn: this field of study ts alo Known as analysis ot algorithms oF performance analysis: Ft wefen +p a task of determining how much computing fme and storage ew algonthrn requires:How to test apsogtam : / Testing A proysarg consists of two phases ie Debug ging 2 Poof li nay | Pewfosmnance measusment. Debugging $ Tt is a psocess of etecubng progiam 09 sample dota sets: To determine whethes faulty results occurs tn cossect them. and, it 30 Pook ling | Pewlosmnance measusement ¢ executing a cossect proymrm on cha 5 “t takes to com Tt isa poocess ot ets amd measuring the time and space, pute the esults: Algosithm can expressed 13 i Natural Jounguage 2. Plow chart 3. Pseudo code 4 Propmrnming Janquage- Pseudo code s > Psede code is one of the wpe to describe an algovithin- > Pseudo code cues both natumal ond poogsaroming Jonquage to dessihe on algorithrn. => Pictorial representation of an algowthm is known flw« > Textual eprerentaton of an algorithm is know as pseudo code. hast:S- These ase two Pseudo cate specitications: , " Comments begins with “//' of the line- and continue until the end Blocks are indicated with matching byaces ff A Compound statement CCollection of statements) can be Bepresented as a Hock. The bod y or procedure ox erick also fosms a Hock- An identities begins with a letter Assignment of values to various % done using asi Joes statement Assignment of — Catoble) 1 = C&apsesion)+ boolean values, taue and falie . ty oder +0 psocuce these valiux the logical opesatot, and, ot, Not and elational opesations 4,7,4,2, 4 oe Ptovides. 6 Elements of maltidimentiond May ane accessed usin: fi eu se ev] Sogie A etouctures of Pseudo code : [. Sequence Jogi Tstaucton ase prorfrmed ‘in sequence. 2- Selection Sogic 3 Tt abso called as decision Joxic 3s Ttesation Jogie? Tt psodece the Loops @g. TF THEN ~ ELSE Tr MEN \ARTLE Block FOR LOOR REPEAT UNTIE- . Input omd output o9e done wings the inst suctions ) xead and write Al gosit hm Name C Paseme ter Jit ) { j Recursive algosithms ¢ > These ave two types of secussive algorithms. le Divect secursive algorithms. D+ Indisect secussive algosithmns- \- Diveck Tecussive algosithrn : An algowthm called by itsdir Known as direct Secussive algosithms Void main c) { po actual 4. fact(n 1 aa.guments = ax fact) po formal * oct Cint 9) omguments mera thon ee) cseturn V5, che nx tactin) sseturn C nx-fact (n-1) )5 po 1 2 Pactin) | stack€4% The while loop takes the following -fosro 2 ‘while Ceondition) do statement 15 1 statement 15 ~> Fox loop takes the Allowing, own Fox Vasi= Value! te voluer step do t Statement | 5 Statement 23 > The ‘repeat -until staternent takes the Following fore se peat t statement 15 statement 25 j until Condition ); > A Condition statement hax the following -fams TF Cconditon ) ther statement 14 ebe statement 257 Tndivect Recursive algorithm + An algogthr cablad indivactly © is Known as indisect Secussive algonthm. Void main’ ) WS} home ( ) i i AL) CSEL)Y 5 { eee AIMLC) { ed) Bse)s { \ AC) 5) 4 psc ) { CSE 05 j + Pexfosmance Analipis ¢ > Determining time ond space of an algovithmo ope quivses is known ax pestormance analysis Pestosmance amaligis contains two components: '" Time Complexity . 2- Space complerity. + Time Compleritys Time sequised tor an algovithrn to perform a given task is Known ais time complexity, Number of Steps sequired oe an algovithro perfosrn & given task 3 Known as time complenity.. s 7 me Time complenity = compile fame + Ruo — Compile {me dees not depends on ‘input valuss —> Compile time constant ox fued- & ™ Execution time depends on instance charactemist Run tme ts not dived that means it varies. ~ We can detesmine time complexity of an algorithm 10 two ony \ Table method Cusing Cost 1) Faequancy] 2° Count variable method: '* Table method : > Fint, detesmine the number of steps rx etecution (sle) of the statement- —? Determine the total number of times each show statement is executed. ™ Number of tma a statement evecuter is lenown aa Cost Low Frequency ot that statement- > & caralining this two quantities to que total contnuaton of each statement is obtained. = & adding the contsibutions of all the statements step count tor entre algorithm is obtained 243 Find tme cornplenity dos the que algorithm using table method.statement ste Fréquenes — totak steps Algosithro Sur (a9) 0 = t — t ° : Jo | S12 0:05 \ ' : | dos it=\ to ndo \ (nti) ont | gs. 2 st ali; 1 n ‘ | n wetusm 95 ' ' | 1 I oO ° Time compleaity of this algo -s ants ‘is number of steps wequived for this algorithm +o pestosm the 3 -task- TR now then 2N4B= 7, > Te nas then zntd= 12. whese 9 is instance characteristics: (input, value ) <> Lhen 'n’ value tncxeases, time complenity also incseascs Can time ) - > Determaine the time corn plerity foxy the gen algonthro addition of two matrices - smo statement ste treque ey Teta steps ] \ fetgonithen add ( o,b.6,/9) | 0 - a aly ° a io 3 | toy fel to m do \ mth ™4+)\ | 4 [hx J-1 ton do ' ment) rant | s | etiil- ata + bli, \ an on { ° S ! a | 6] y — — i 7 a { Cornplenity of This algorithm is iam]3 Write an algoxithrn to tind nth tibonace! nurnber ov 3 Find complerity- j Statement Algorithm Fibonacci On) a2 | 4 > if0n41) then ‘ write (N) 3 a else = i ™ fai205 fite15 fox f=2 to ndo 4 tna fittes fos tii fist; ‘ write a); To analyze the time Complerity of an omd not to consider two Cases ne} Case 144) ry oqo -ep ° ° 0 algovit hny , we neel when nay, tines 3 and 4 get executed once each. since cac of onelt), sotatal step cunt fer line has an steps fry ereeution this care i Cove 22 nv The total steps fos this Case ig unt] - 4 ‘ isd thd meang time com plexity ts 2 (constant ), &Count > Variable method: In this method, count Vawable %s used in the pxgtam => Count variable is a global variable ‘mitialized with avale "Rew’. This is done sb that each, Hime a staternent original progsam is executed valine at count eq, of that statement- Algosithrn Sum (4,9) count = count +1 // count is global Jt is ‘nits Wy 2e00 Count = count +1 4, Il tos loop {st.- sear Countte count+t 5 Count i= Count + = count+\* J) last me Fos tox Laop count ars i) fos } the setusn statement: Out pul; Tk nes Sa12.* Space Complenity t memory it mean.” —> Space complenity iy the amount © og to sun | > Space needed by on algoathmn % the mem ot the Fol lowing Cornponents- a \- Fined part: ‘ 2+ Variable past. |. Fired Past: > &Fited past that consisting of the space needed bg inct uct variables, constants ete. 2+ Vasiable Part + —> A variable past that consists of the space need by nefesence variables and the secursion stack space amd instance chenacte > The space equisernent SCP) ot any algorithm 'p’ may be written as se) # C+ Sp. Cinstance characteristics) where ¢iS constant. => when analyzing the space complerity of an algorithm we Concentrate on estimating ‘instance charactesistics (Sp) - > Fos any given problem we need to detesmine hich instance characteristics to vse te measure the space vequisements: eqs Find space complenity tox given algorithm. algosithm sum (ain) I Tterative function fox urn ob oacy of i che ments. St= St atils y \ seturn Ss 5» ve given algosithrn consisting of thsee variables (9,1,5) ond one arnay vee The space needed by each variable I wosd since it iS of integes type so, 3 wosds of space required bx three variables: \ + The space needed by an astay a’ is 1 words since it contans ‘on’ eloments: ° The space completity of this algosithm is ScP)= C+ Se S 2 3to ‘sum (n) 2- Find the space complenity fox qiven abgonthrn. [sum of avsay of elements using Feeursive function J} Alqgovithrn Reum Cain) { if (n 40) then seturn 05 ehie teturn CReum CON-1) 4a Cn} 1 ; 5 ‘ cursive Function , So Becussive > This algorithrn consists of se Func function unex Stack concept’ —> The secursion stack space includes space for the formal pasameters, local variables amd the seturn addvess = Assume that the seturn addvey sequives only one word of memay ~~ Each coll to Roum Feqyriver atleast theee words (value of n, setusn adders and pointer to army ‘a! )- ~> Since the depth of -securssion i nti So, *ecurcsion stack space needed iS 2 3Cn+l)-> Pevtormance evaluation can be divided into to moje § | Psiosi chemeestimates. 2+ Posteviosi testing, Is Paiows Estimates: ™ These ase aio known as pestosmance analipis : Estimating time and space sequired fos an algorithm . This is to pestosm a task is Known as pestormance amaligis: This cam be Pestormed hefose execution. 2- Postesiosi testing > It is abto known ax pestosmance measusement- Estimating time and space sequised toy a program to pesform a tark is Known as pestosrnance meassement- This Com he pestosmed dussing erecution of pvoqsam> * Best case, wosst case, Avesuge care 19 me, complerity, Best Case + minimury Oumbes of steps executed on a given payametes(ny is Known ag het case» €531. Time Complexity ot \inear Search in bert case is OW 2° Time Complexity of Binary Search 19 best cae is OO Avesage Case s Avesage number of Steps eve cuted 6N A given pasarnetey isenowy Os Average Coue- &4: In Lineay Search Ocn) 4 In inary Seach O Clegn)- @ % ‘a,2 vst Cases Ndr rawr, numbers ot steps is Kknoon as wort Cae executed On a guen gervametes Eqs | Time complenity of lineas Seach in wost care 6 OLN): 2+ The tme cornplevity ot binay Seasch 19 worst care is Olvgn, ¥ Ordes of quowth + Meauuring pestormance of an algorithm in -relaton with Input sige(n) ts lenown as osder of qnooth: 256 65536 4244961296 Example fos) best care , wort, Car, ond average case « Hese N25 10 20 30 4O %0 x Linea Search & “es Given “Inpuk is 10- One Cornpannsion | sequited to Search an erent {0 So, Hrne Complenity of linecey Search bet case ts OO- in> Gwen input 8 50. ‘5’ comparisions is sequised: to sea. ' the elements 50: tHese input sige n=5 So, Hime Comp: of Linear seasch is O(n) ~> Given input values ate (0,20,30, 40, 50 12,3,4,5 Comparisions ave required +o seach» the lament 10, 20,30, 40150 sespectiuely. ae 142424 YH5 715 Avg > ye5 P pontt) ne a oO. th. BO - 0m neglected 2 Consides the elements '0/20,75+30) 35, 50, 46- Binary Search 3 > Given ‘pat i$ 20. ‘I! Comparision js sequited to Seasch this element. So tme complenity of binary seach mm worst care ig a Loyn log] = 2-%1 © 3 Cappsonimately ) > 1,292,33,3,3 Comparisions are ssequired to searth the echoments 30,20, 40, 10, 25, 35,50 Resrpectved4- Qgi+ 14 2424 3434343 = 17 total compasisons v avg- a: Tyr % 3 (Appwnimately ) + Aayrptotic Notations ¢ aoe eee con be eupressed sn diffesent Time compleni ty notations: They ode notations Known As \- Gig oh (O) 2- Omega Cr) 3 Teta (0) 4. Little oh Co) s Little omega Cas) | Big oh (0) Notaton + —+ Bia oh notation ‘the asymptotic funtion fone O90) [wood as in) 1s big oh ok gen] if ard only if thexe exists Positive — congtanrts ‘c' amd Me such that fin eceyn) tet oll n, no Convest the giver function -f(n)2 20+ into Exomple : fone 6X9) big ob notation. 4cn) = 20+3 ants 2 69 fej. Cl 24s Lan 523(F) nl : 2 = OCaC . @ ue on , ") 726 O-7 Cees qealt) my ae wet) ny 23,> TNhis statement -ftn)= OC4en)) states only thot gen) 's OO Upper ‘ound value of #00) -foxr all nano: > Value of 'c? must be least ar possible The function 243 -O0n) it these exists positive conctants Coe omd Mm=3 such thot 243 4 3n oe Nie Ey » Fiy)= 6-24 Into big ob notation, fin) 6% 4n> finy= Ogen) €f an. Ji) G57 Men 4 fone Cx qin) 6.2% nr 2cr 6274 nr 2 7,29 "S214 CT) nay 286 28 CT) ner ST £56 CF) nas 7 "eer) nayOmega Notation (1) ¢ A-function -frn)> agen) Hh here enists positive constants c and M such thot din) 2 C¥ Gm) VO, ZMH Xv _ 4en) —~ (x am oe te Fanction, fon) = Bnar into Omega feny= andr fon) = Alqen)) any2 = SL On) eas £m) 2 Cx GW) 4) > on anta 2 an sz a nar) « w 6 mez () N24 n=3 Oe ee ee constants 23, No2\ such that ant? 2 an A ane2| 2 The function qin) % only \owey bond on tin). possibl > value ch © Mae be, Mone as possible Mis.3. Theta) Notation: = The tunction #eny= OC 90nd) He these exist positive Constants ¢,, Cr and a. such that Sie gon) 2 tony e K2* FM) Yn, n>n, C.* Fn) Jo hon ——— ¢, * Zin) E91 Convert the function 3n+2 ‘into 'Q’ notation Given fen) = 342 40n)= O@«n)) ant+r= Otn) CR Gen) 2 fen) a ce tiny> 4 4cn) ce 3 Cty * an) fin) 2 Cix qn) Sn4+2 > 3n anar> a*n S>3 M1 a) Sn42 5 un 26 nme2 Ct) 524 ™\ Cr) Near ne fre! Ere 21) non, "412 nary ~ Len C3 Goh Renee Mo = 2,3, 4,-- . > The function 3n4r =O) HE there enists Positive 12> 4 Brmy=2 Such that 304 3ntr 2 un = constants C23 Pa nortty, The ‘Q” notation is more precious than bth OG 9" é notations - The fen) is OC gerd) HF gen) is both an upper omd lower bound on fen): 4 Little oh(0) 2 The -function -Pen) = oC gen) iff “these “o_o Gp ty hen) 2 O 291 Convert 3n+2 Into little ‘ob’. fcn) =3n47 fen) = of 9n)) an4rz = 0 (n>) lr Fm) No Jn) - ue Bn42r _ tt 30 wD wee nog cs > Lt axblyaxlyt noe " = 2 > Oro Nth Lr 20 hod Wr5. Little “Omega” (2)? The function ten) = 04 Ca)' a kt do) ~~ so. NA fin) €gs Pony. an*43nd1 Convert this function inte bsg oF. ten) = OC gen) tin). Otnr) c=4 n= 4 #0) 2c * gin) BM4ang | 2 cent > Time Complerity of selection sort is big'oh notation Oe * Towers of Hanoi Poeblers is an erample of secursive algosithm. > These war adiamond -towey Clabelled ‘A’ ) with 64 Golden disks. The disks were of decreasing sige ond wese Staked Mm the towers in decreasing order A SiZe Fem — bottom to top.: esides this towes these wese two othes diamond Vtowess L labelled @' yt") “Since the time of Creation Beahman Priests have been attempting to move the dlisk Prom towers 1A’ “to -towey Using tower ‘UO wese intermediate Stosies. > 8 the disks wese vey heavy they can moved only one ata time. > In addition, at no time can adisk on a topot smalls disk. Algorithrn Towers of Hanoi Ln, x, ¥, 2) { FCn>1) then oe Towers of Hanoi Cn-1, 4) 2.4)5 write (“move top disk tom towes", x, “to top ottover¥) Towers of Homi (n-1, 2,4, %)5 5 recurrence elation of tywex of ttenoi is 2TCn-1)+) eS @ascme cthat tomer Ay consists OF 3 clisce amd move dise fam ‘a’ to ‘@’ by using ‘ec’ as intesmediate ne rn wve | | sey om a a ¢