MODULE - 1

Session 2
1.1 Introduction – Design Basics
What is design?
To design is to pull together something new or to arrange existing things in a new way to
satisfy a recognized need of society.

“Design establishes and defines solutions to and pertinent structures for problems not
solved before, or new solutions to problems which have previously been solved in a
different way.”

 The ability to design is both a science and an art. The science can be learned through
techniques and methods to be covered in this text, but the art is best learned by doing
design. It is for this reason that design experience must involve some realistic project
experience.
 Design should not be confused with discovery.
• Discovery is getting the first sight of, or the first knowledge of something,
• A design is the product of planning and work.

 We should note that a design may or may not involve invention. Some designs are
truly inventive, but most are not.

Good design requires both analysis and synthesis.

 We approach complex problems like design by decomposing the problem into
manageable parts. This is called analysis. It usually involves the simplification of the
real world through models.
 Synthesis involves the identification of the design elements that will comprise the
product, its decomposition into parts, and the combination of the part solutions
into a total workable system.
Session 3
1.2.1 Importance of Engineerning Design Process
 Decisions made in the design process cost very little in terms of the overall
product cost but have a major effect on the cost of the product.

• only a small fraction of the cost to produce a product (≈5 percent) is involved with the
design process, while the other 95 percent of cost is consumed by the materials,
capital, and labour to manufacture the product.
• However, the design process consists of the accumulation of many decisions that result
in design commitments that affect about 70 to 80 percent of the manufactured cost of
the Product
• the decisions made beyond the design phase can influence only about 25 percent of
the total cost. If the design proves to be faulty just before the product goes to market,
it will cost a great deal of money to correct the problem.
 You cannot compensate in manufacturing for defects introduced in the
design phase.

• The second major impact of design is on product quality. The old concept of product
quality was that it was achieved by inspecting the product as it came off the
production line. Today we realize that true quality is designed into the product.
• one aspect of quality is to incorporate within the product the performance and
features that are truly desired by the customer who purchases the product
• the design must be carried out so that the product can be made without defect at a
competitive cost.
The design process should be conducted so as to develop quality, cost-
competitive products in the shortest time possible.

• The third area where engineering design determines product competitiveness is

product cycle time. Cycle time refers to the development time required to bring a new
product to market.
• The use of new organizational methods, the widespread use of computer-aided
engineering, and rapid prototyping methods are contributing to reducing product cycle
time.
• Not only does reduced cycle time increase the marketability of a product, but it reduces
the cost of product development.
Session 4
1.2.2 Types of Design
Original design

• This form of design is at the top of the hierarchy.

• It employs an original, innovative concept to achieve a need.
• Sometimes, but rarely, the need itself may be original. A truly original
design involves invention.
• Successful original designs occur rarely, but when they do occur, they
usually disrupt existing markets because they have in them the seeds of
new technology of far-reaching consequences.
Adaptive design

• This form of design occurs when the design team adapts a known solution
to satisfy a different need to produce a novel application.

• For example, adapting the ink-jet printing concept to spray binder to hold
particles in place in a rapid prototyping machine
Redesign

• This form of engineering design is employed to improve an existing

design.
• The task may be to redesign a component in a product that is failing in
service, or to redesign a component so as to reduce its cost of
manufacture.
• Often redesign is accomplished without any change in the working
principle or concept of the original design.
• For example, the shape may be changed to reduce a stress concentration,
or a new material substituted to reduce weight or cost. When redesign is
achieved by changing some of the design parameters, it is often called
variant design
Selection design

• Most designs employ standard components such as bearings, small

motors, or pumps that are supplied by vendors specializing in their
manufacture and sale.
• Therefore, in this case the design task consists of selecting the
components with the needed performance, quality, and cost from the
catalogs of potential vendors.
 1.3 Ways to think about Design Process
“designing a system.”
• By a system we mean the entire combination of hardware, information, and people
necessary to accomplish some specified task.
• A system may be an electric power distribution network for a region of the nation, a
complex piece of machinery such as an aircraft jet engine, or a combination of
production steps to produce automobile parts.

A large system usually is divided into subsystems, which in turn are made up of
components or parts.
• The subsystems selected for the system’s design are usually already existing
products.
• For example, planes used for commercial flights can include lightweight liquid-
crystal display (LCD) screens mounted on the back of each head rest.
• The design of the plane is a system design. The LCD screen is an already designed
product that is selected as a subsystem for the plane.
 Session 5 1.3.1 A Simplified Iteration Model

• Morris Asimow was one of the first to write introspectively about design.
• He viewed the design process as a transformation of specific information on needs and
general information on technology to produce a design outcome that must be evaluated.
• If the evaluation uncovers deficiencies the design operation must be repeated. The
information from the first design and all that was learned through the evaluation is fed
back into the design process as input. This type of repetition is called iteration.
• Acquisition of information is a vital and often a very difficult step in the design process.
• Once armed with the necessary information, the design team (or design engineer if the
task is rather limited) carries out the design operation by using the appropriate technical
knowledge through computational or experimental methods.
• At this stage it may be necessary to use an ideation process to generate a set of
alternative design concepts.
• Then a decision-making method is used to select one of the alternative concepts to
pursue.
• Next the design team may construct a mathematical model and conduct a simulation of
the design performance on a computer, or construct a prototype model and test it for
performance.
• After the design is set, the result must be evaluated for fitness.
Session 6 1.3.2 Design Method Versus Scientific Method
 1.3.2 Design Method Versus Scientific Method
 Scientific Method
• The scientific method starts with a body of existing knowledge based on observed
natural phenomena.
• Scientists have curiosity that causes them to question these laws of science; and as a
result of their questioning, they eventually formulate a hypothesis.
• The hypothesis is subjected to logical analysis that either confirms or denies it.
• Often the analysis reveals flaws or inconsistencies, so the hypothesis must be changed
in an iterative process.

• Finally, when the new idea is confirmed to the satisfaction of its originator, it must be
accepted as proof by fellow scientists.
• Once accepted, it is communicated to the community of scientists and it enlarges the
body of existing knowledge. The knowledge loop is completed.
 Design Method
• The design method starts with knowledge of the state of the art. That includes scientific
knowledge, but it also includes devices, components, materials, manufacturing
methods, and market and economic conditions.
• Rather than scientific curiosity, it is really the needs of society (usually expressed
through economic factors) that provide the impetus.
• When a need is identified, it must be conceptualized as some kind of model. The
purpose of the model is to help us predict the behavior of a design once it is converted
to physical form.
• The outcomes of the model, whether it is a mathematical or a physical model, must be
subjected to a feasibility analysis, almost always with iteration, until an acceptable
product is produced or the project is abandoned.
• When the design enters the production phase, it begins to compete in the world of
technology. The design loop is closed when the product is accepted as part of the
current technology and thereby advances the state of the art of the particular area of
technology.
• science is concerned with creating knowledge about naturally occurring phenomena
and objects,
• design is concerned with creating knowledge about phenomena and objects of the
artificial.
• Artificial objects are those made by humans rather than nature. Thus, science is based
on studies of the observed, while design is based on artificial concepts characterized in
terms of functions, goals, and adaptation.
Session 7 1.3.3 A Problem-Solving Methodology
 Many engineering science subjects use a traditional problem-solving process. The
problems in these subjects are clearly defined and usually have a single, correct
answer..
 In contrast to engineering science problem solving, engineering design tasks are ill
defined and have multiple solution alternatives.
 Design is iterative. Iterative means that a design team often must return to an earlier
step in the process and repeat the steps, to move forward. This is often the result of
new information based on the design team’s work.
 A design process has different steps than a traditional problem-solving process. A
general description of the design process consists of the following steps.
• Definition of the problem
• Gathering of information
• Generation of alternative solutions
• Evaluation of alternatives and decision making
• Communication of the results
Definition of the Problem
• The most critical step in the solution of a problem is the problem definition or
formulation.
• The importance of problem definition is often overlooked because this step seemingly
requires such a small part of the total design time.
• The problem statement should express, as specifically as possible, the details of the
design task. It should include definition of any special technical terms, performance
objectives, the design of similar products, and any constraints placed on solution of the
problem

• Problem definition often is called needs analysis, identification of customer

requirements, or problem identification.
• It is difficult to accurately determine the details of the design task at the beginning of
the process for all but the most routine design task. New needs are established as the
design process proceeds because new information is obtained throughout the process.
Gathering Information
The most critical step in the design process is identifying the information you need and
acquiring it. This is challenging because the design task typically requires information from
more than one discipline. The knowledge of new and best practices in engineering is
continually changing. The following are some of the questions concerned with obtaining
information:
• What do I need to find out?
• Where can I find it and how can I get it?
• How credible and accurate is the information?
• How should the information be interpreted for my specific need?
• When do I have enough information?
• What decisions result from the information?
Generation of Alternative Solutions
• The ability to generate high-quality design alternatives is vital to successful design.
• Generating alternative solutions or design concepts involves the use of creativity-
stimulation methods, the application of physical principles, quantitative reasoning, the
ability to find and use information, and experience.
• An essential difference between traditional problem solving and design is that the
design process generates multiple solutions.
• Therefore, the design process must include a step to evaluate the alternative design
solutions and select the best alternative.
Evaluation of Alternatives and Decision Making

• The evaluation of alternatives involves systematic methods for selecting the best
among several concepts, often in the face of incomplete information.
• Engineering analysis procedures provide the basis for making decisions about
performance.
• Various other types of engineering analysis also provide information. Simulation of
performance with computer models is commonly used.
• Simulated service testing of an experimental model and testing of full-sized prototypes
often provide critical data.
• Without this quantitative information it is not possible to make valid evaluations.
Communication of the Results
• It must always be kept in mind that the purpose of the design is to satisfy the needs of
an internal review, a customer, or a client.
• The finalized design must be properly recorded and communicated, or it may lose much
of its impact or significance.
• The communication is usually by oral presentation to the sponsor or review committee
and by a written design report.
• Detailed engineering drawings, computer programs, three-dimensional (3-D) computer
models, and working models are frequently among the “deliverables” to the customer.
• It hardly needs to be emphasized that communication is not a one-time occurrence to
be carried out at the end of the project.
• In a well-run design project there is continual oral and written dialog between the
project manager and the customer.
Session 8 1.4 Considerations of a Good Design
Design is a multifaceted process. To gain a broader understanding of engineering design,
we group various considerations of good design into three categories:

1. Achievement of performance requirements

2. Life-cycle issues
3. Social and regulatory issues
Achievement of performance requirements
 Performance measures both the function and the behavior of the design, that is, how
well the device does what it is designed to do.
 Performance requirements can be divided into primary performance requirements
and complementary performance requirements.
 A major characteristic of a design is its function. The function of a design is how it is
expected to behave.
 Functional requirements are usually expressed in capacity measures such as forces,
strength, deflection, or energy or power output or consumption.
 Complementary performance requirements are concerns such as the useful life of
the design, its robustness to factors occurring in the service environment, its
reliability , and ease, economy, and safety of maintenance.
 Finally, the design must conform to all legal requirements and design codes.
 Closely related to the function of a component in a design is its form. Form is what
the component looks like and encompasses its shape, size, and surface finish.
These, in turn, depend upon the material it is made from and the manufacturing
processes that are used to make it.
 A variety of analysis techniques must be employed in arriving at the features of a
component in the design. By feature we mean specific physical attributes, such as
the fine details of geometry, dimensions, and tolerances on the dimensions.
 Environmental requirements for performance deal with two separate aspects.
 The first concerns the service conditions under which the product must operate.
The extremes of temperature, humidity, corrosive conditions, dirt, vibration, and
noise must be predicted and allowed for in the design.
 The second aspect of environmental requirements pertains to how the product will
behave with regard to maintaining a safe and clean environment, that is, green
design.

 Aesthetic requirements refer to “the sense of the beautiful.”

 They are concerned with how the product is perceived by a customer because of its
shape, color, surface texture, and such factors as balance, unity, and interest.
 Decisions about the appearance of the product should be an integral part of the
initial design concept.
 An important design consideration is adequate attention to human factors
engineering, which uses the sciences of biomechanics, ergonomics, and engineering
psychology to ensure that the design can be operated efficiently by humans.
 Manufacturing technology must be closely integrated with product design.
 There may be restrictions on the manufacturing processes that can be used,
because of either selection of material or availability of equipment within the
company.

 The final major design requirement is cost.

 Every design has requirements of an economic nature. These include such issues as
product development cost, initial product cost, life-cycle product cost, tooling cost,
and return on investment.
 In many cases cost is the most important design requirement. If preliminary
estimates of product cost look unfavorable, the design project may never be
initiated.
 Cost enters into every aspect of the design process.
Total Life Cycle
The total life cycle of a part starts with the conception of a need and ends with the
retirement and disposal of the product.
 The total life cycle of a part starts with the conception of a need and ends with the
retirement and disposal of the product.
 Material selection is a key element in shaping the total life cycle In selecting
materials for a given application, the first step is evaluation of the service
conditions.
 Next, the properties of materials that relate most directly to the service
requirements must be determined.
 Except in almost trivial conditions, there is never a simple relation between service
performance and material properties.
 The design may start with the consideration of static yield strength, but properties
that are more difficult to evaluate, such as fatigue, creep, toughness, ductility, and
corrosion resistance, may have to be considered.
 Material selection cannot be separated from manufacturability .
 There is an inherent connection between design and material selection and the
manufacturing processes.
 The objective in this area is a trade-off between the opposing factors of minimum
cost and maximum durability.
 Durability is increased by designing so as to minimize material deterioration by
corrosion, wear, or fracture.
 It is a general property of the product measured by months or years of successful
service, and is closely related to reliability, a technical term that is measured by the
probability of achieving a specified service life.
 Current societal issues of energy conservation, material conservation, and
protection of the environment result in new pressures in the selection of materials
and manufacturing processes.
 Energy costs, once nearly ignored in design, are now among the most prominent
design considerations. Design for materials recycling also is becoming an important
design consideration.
Regulatory and Social Issues
 Specifications and standards have an important influence on design practice. The
standards produced by societies often represent minimum or least-common-
denominator standards. When good design requires more than that, it may be
necessary to develop your own company or agency standards.
 The codes of ethics of all professional engineering societies require the engineer to
protect public health and safety. legislation has been passed to require federal agencies
to regulate many aspects of safety and health. They place direct constraints on the
designer in the interests of protecting health, safety, and security. Several aspects of
the regulations have far-reaching influence on product design.
 Although the intended purpose of a product normally is quite clear, the unintended
uses of that product are not always obvious. Under the CPSC regulations, the designer
has the obligation to foresee as many unintended uses as possible, then develop the
design in such a way as to prevent hazardous use of the product in an unintended but
foreseeable manner.
 When unintended use cannot be prevented by functional design, clear, complete,
unambiguous warnings must be permanently attached to the product.
 The designer must be cognizant of all advertising material, owner’s manuals, and
operating instructions that relate to the product to ensure that the contents of the
material are consistent with safe operating procedures and do not promise
performance characteristics that are beyond the capability of the design.
 An important design consideration is adequate attention to human factors engineering,
which uses the sciences of biomechanics, ergonomics, and engineering psychology to
ensure that the design can be operated efficiently and safely. It applies physiological
and anthropometric data to such design features as visual and auditory display of
instruments and control systems.
Session 9
1.5 Societal Considerations in Engineering Design
 The major social forces that have had an important impact on engineering design are
occupational safety and health, consumer rights, environmental protection, and the
freedom of information and public disclosure movement.
 The following are some general ways in which increased societal awareness of
technology, and subsequent regulation, have influenced the practice of engineering
design:
 Greater influence of lawyers on engineering decisions, often leading to product
liability actions
 More time spent in planning and predicting the future effects of engineering
projects
 Increased emphasis on “defensive research and development,” which is intended to
protect the corporation against possible litigation
 Increased effort expended on satisfying sustainability for products and Companies
engineering practice.
 Engineers must recognize that design requirements depend on public policy as much as
industry performance requirements. This is an area of design where government
influence has increased.

 There are five key roles of government in interacting with technology:

 As a stimulus to free enterprise through manipulation of the tax system
 By influencing interest rates and the supply of venture capital through
 changes in fiscal policy to control the growth of the economy
 As a major customer for high technology, chiefly in military systems
 As a funding source (patron) for research and development
 As a regulator of technology
 Engineering is concerned with problems whose solution is needed and/or desired by
society. The purpose of this section is to reinforce that point, and hopefully to show the
engineering student how important a broad knowledge of economics and social science
is to modern engineering practice.
Session 10
1.6 Problem Definition and Need Identification
 Design is a complex activity that requires intense focus at the very beginning to
determine the full and complete description of what the final product will do for a
particular customer base with a set of specific needs. The design process only proceeds
into concept generation once the product is so well described that it has met with the
approval of groups of technical and business discipline specialists and managers.

 Product development begins by determining what the needs are that a product must
fulfill. Problem definition is the most important of the steps in the PDP

 Understanding any problem thoroughly is crucial to reaching an outstanding solution. In

product design the ultimate test of a solution is meeting management’s goal in the
marketplace, so it is vital to work hard to understand and provide what it is that the
customer wants.
Problem definition begins the discovery of an unmet need and ends with a detailed
product design specification. The PDP process leads the design team through steps that
result in the design specification for the required artifact. The process requires finding
information from a wide variety of sources to drive the artifact’s development.

There are many parameters involved in creating a design. A parameter is a factor that
defines an artifact. A parameter is usually measurable, but parameters can include color or
maintainability. A physical artifact is described by dozens of parameters. Some of the
parameters are determined by the initial problem statement. Other parameters arise from
decisions made during the design process.
Here is the definition of parameters and their subsets. Listed below are the derivatives of
parameter and its derivative.

• Design Parameter: Parameters are a set of attributes whose values determine the
form and behavior of a design. Parameters include the features of a design that can
be set by decision-makers and designers and the values used to describe the
performance of a design..

• Design Variable: A design variable is a parameter over which the design team has a
choice. For example, the gear ratio for the RPM reduction from the rotating shaft of
an electric motor is a variable.

• Constraints: A design parameter whose value has been fixed becomes a constraint
of the design process. Constraints are limits on design freedom. They can take the
form of a fixed limit on weight, a legal restriction, the use of a standard fastener, or
a specific size limit determined by factors beyond the control of both the design
team and the customers.