SYSTEMATICS

Syllabus : S ystematics aims at classifying all the organisms on the basis of characters gathered through
different fields of science.
(As mentioned for AIPMT )
 There are about 1.7 million types of
organisms. The approximate number of
Historical Accounts
known plant species is 3,43,000. Of these,
A.P. de 1813 Term Taxonomy insects show maximum diversity with
Candolle
7,50,000 species.
E.H. 1866 Three Kingdom
Taxonomy
Haeckel Classification
It is the study of identification, nomenclature
Copeland 1956 Four kingdom and classification of organism.
Classification
 The term „Taxonomy‟ was coined by A.P. de
Whittaker 1969 Five Kingdom Candolle (1813).
Classification
Systematics: Term coined by Linnaeus.
John Ray (1627 – Termed species
1705) New Systematics: The term was coined by
Julian Huxley (1940). It aims at taking into
Carolus (1753) Binomial system of
consideration all the characteristics of organism
Linnaeus Classification
gathered through different fields of science for
Adolf 1926 Used taxon term w.r.t systematics.
Meyer animal Kingdom
Founder of Taxonomy : Aristotle
H.J. Lam 1948 Used term taxon in Father of Taxonomy : Carolus Linnaeus
plant kingdom
Term Taxonomy : Candolle
Haeckel ____ Concept of Phylogeny Taxonomy is a Greek word i.e.,

Turill 1938 Alpha taxonomy Taxis : arrangements

nomos : Law
Julian 1940 Termed New
Huxley Systematics

Cuvier ____ Coined term phylum.

History and Types of Classification

A. History : Classification of organism is almost as old as

man himself. Humans as the advanced species with power

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of reasoning and communication through language, species belongs and the second part represents the
classified organisms from different points of view at identify of the species to which the organism
different times. belongs. He also described 5900 species of plants in
this book „Species Plantarum‟ (1753) and 4326
Our Vedic literature (2500 BC to 650 BC) reveals species of animals in „Systema Naturae‟ (1758) by
740 plants and 250 animals. placing them in six categories – mammals, birds,
Chandyogya Upanishad has classified animals into amphibians, fishes, Insects and worms.
Divaja (viviparous), Andaja (oviparous) and From the period of Aristotle to the period of
Udbhija (minute animals). Linnaeus, systematists employed limited traits for the
Susruta Samhita (600 BC), Post Vedic Indian classification of organisms. Thereafter, came the
literature, classifies all living substances into phase of classical taxonomy giving rise to natural
Sthavar (immobile) such as plants and Jangama system classification followed by numerical
(mobile) such as animals. Plants were further taxonomy (phenetics) and phylogenetic
grouped as vanaspati, vrksa, virudha and osadhi. classification or clasdistics.
Similarly, animals were grouped as kulacara,
Classification
matsya, janghala and guhasaya.

Parasara differentiated angiosperms into It deals with the mode of arranging organisms or
group of organisms into categories according to
Dvimatruka (dicotyledons) and Ekamatruka
a systematic plan or an order.
(monocotyledons); the former had jalikaparna
(reticulate–veinted leaves) and the letter had 1. Empirical classification : In this
naunlaparna (parallel–veined leaves). classification plants are classified on the

Hippocrates 2 (460 – 377 BC) and Aristotle 3 (384 – basis of alphabetical order.
322 BC), the Greek scholars, arranged animals into 2. Rational classification : it is of four
major groups–Insects, Birds, Fishes and Whales.
types
Theophrastus 4 (370 – 285 BC) categorized plants
into four categories : trees, shrubs, under–shrubs and (a) Practical classification : plants are
herbs on the basis of their habit, form and texture. He classified on the basis of economic
named and described 480 plants in his book „ Historia importance.
Plantarum‟.
(b) Artificial systems : A system of
Pliny the Elder (28 – 79 A.D.) introduced system of
classification based on one or two superficial
artificial classification and mentioned over 1000
economic plants with nearly 2000 items in his characters chosen arbitrarily is called an
„Historia Natuarlis‟. artificial (or arbitrary or utilitarian) system of

John Ray (1627 – 1705 A.D.) In the late seventeenth

classification e.g. classification of plants into
century, described more than 18000 plants and herbs, shrubs and trees (on the basis or habit).
animals in three volumes under the title „Historia
Classification of Theophrastus : He divided
Generalis Plantarum‟. He coined the term „species‟
plants into four categories herbs, under -shrub,
for an assemblage of morphologically similar
shrub, Trees. He differentiated annuals,
organisms. He also attempted to distinguish genus biennials and perennials.
and species.
Main publication of Theophrastus are
Carolus Linnaeus 5 (1707 – 1778 A.D.), a Swedist
(i) Historia Plantanusm
naturalist, developed the scientific system of naming
species, commonly called binomial system of (ii) Enquiry into plants
nomenclature. Accordingly, species name has two
(iii) Etiology of plants.
parts – the first part represents genus to which the

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Classification of Otto Brunfels  He classified (b) It indicates natural relationships among
plants on the basis of presence or absence of organisms.
flowers. (c) It also shows evolutionary or phylogenetic
relationships.
Classification of John Ray  He classified (d) It places only the actually related organisms in a
plants on the basis of Herbaceous and Tree group.
nature.
Clssification of Carlous Linnaeus – He
classified plants in 24 classes as 23 flowersing Artificial Natural Classification
and non-flowering plants . The main basis of Classification
classification of Linnaeus is number, length and
1 It is based on one or 1 It is based on number
union of stamens, therefore classification is a few characters. of characters.
called sexual system of classification. 2 It gives meager 2 It gives detailed
Drawbacks : The artificial classification is, no information about information about the
the groups. groups.
doubt easier, but has serious drawbacks.
3 It uses superficial 3 It uses characters of
(a) The criteria used are arbitrary and do not reflect characters such as morphology, anatomy,
natural relationships. habitat and habits. cytology, physiology,
(b) Unrelated organisms are put together, forming phylogeny,
biochemistry, etc.
heterogeneous groups. For example, insects, birds
4 It gives 4 It gives homogenous
and bats are combined together as flying (aerial)
heterogeneous groups of related
animals; cacti, euphorbias and halophytes are clubbed groups of unrelated organisms.
together as succulent plants. organisms. 5 It places related
(c) Related organisms are placed in different groups. 5 It may put the organisms into the
For instance, whales in aquatic animals, rats in related organisms same group.
terrestrial animals. into separate groups. 6 It depicts phylogenetic
6 It does not reflected relationships of
(d) Some animals change their habitat as they grow, phylogenetic organisms.
e.g., frog is fully aquatic is larval (tadpole) stage and relationships of
amphibious in the adult stage. Housefly is terrestrial organisms. 7 Homology is used as
in the larval stage and aerial when adult. 7 Homology is not an important criterion
(e) Artificial classification does not reflect the used as a criterion. todetermine similarity.
8 It has been given up, 8 It is followed these
evolution of organisms.
being unrealistic. days.

(c) Natural system : Such systems proposed by

Bentham & Hooker take into account many (d) Phylogenetic systems : The evolutionary
comparable characters at a time. The taxonomic history of a group of organisms is called
position of a species indicates a lot of properties phylogeny. Ideally, a classification must reflect
of the species. Morphological as well possible evolutionary relationships. Organisms
physiological characters are taken into belonging to same taxa are believed to have a
consideration while classifying organisms. common ancestor, and may be represented in the
form of a family tree called cladogram.
Classification of A.L. De Jussieu  He
Term Phylogeny was coined by Haeckel. This
classified plants on the basis of cotyledons.
system includes
Classification of Bentham and Hooker – on the
Classification of Eichler
basis of free and fused petals.
Advantages : Natural Classification is the most Classification of Oswald – Tippo – Classified on
rational system of classification and has been adopted the basis of the presence or absence of embryo.
by all the biologists. It is better than artificial
classification in many respects: Classification of Von Neil
(a) It avoids the heterogeneous grouping of unrelated He coined the terms prokaryotes and Eukaryotes.
organism.

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 Present system of classification is based on (b) Complexity of body organization :
the combination of natural and phylogenetic Unicellularity vs. multicellularity :
studies. simple unicellular forms to complex
mulitcellular forms.
Classification is Dynamic : The system of
classification is not s rigid one. Biologists differ (c) Mode of obtaining nutrition :
among themselves on many points of classification, Autotrophic vs. heterotrophic (parasitic
and the system is always subject to modification as or saprozoic) organisms.
more and more is learnt about organisms, and their
fossil history.  Six kingdom classification : It was
Living organisms have been classified as follows by proposed by Woese and he divided living
different workers organism into Kingdom Archebacteria,
Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and
 Two Kingdom system of classification of Animalia.
organisms was proposed by Carlous
Linneaus Traditionally, all the organisms of
the world used to be divided into two  Viruses do not fit nearly into any
kingdoms- the animal kingdom (or animalia) classification of living organisms because
and the plant kingdom (or plantae). they have a very simple, non – cellular
 Three kingdom classification : E. H. structure and cannot exist independently of
Haeckel, a German zoologist (1866) other organisms.
suggested that a third kingdom, protista, be  Carolus Linnaeus put forward classification
created to include the unicellular eukaryotic based on similarities of structure and
micro-organisms. function (not habitat). In his first book
 Four kingdom classification : It was System Naturae (1737), he included the
proposed by Copeland and he divided living names, classification and brief descriptions
organism into Kingdom Monera, Protista, of plants and animals known to him. His
Plantae and Animalia. another contribution is Binomial system of
nomenclature published in his book „Species
 Five kingdom classification : According to plantarum’ (1753), the book also includes
five kingdom concept proposed by Whittaker descriptions of about 5,900 species of plants
(1969) the organisms are divided into five and 4,000 species of animals known to him.
kingdom – Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae He is called as the “Father of taxonomy”.
and Animalia – On the basis of the
following criteria:
(a) Complexity of cell structure:
Prokaryotic vs. eukaryotic organisation
of cells.

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 KINGDOM  MONERA PROTISTA FUNGI PLANTAE ANIMALIA
CHARACTERS

1. Cell Type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic

2. Unicelluar or Unicellular Unicellular Multicellular Multicellular Multicellular

multicellular

3. Nuclear membrane Absent Present Present Present Present

4. Mitochondria Absent Present or absent Present or absent Present Present

5. Chloroplast Mostly absent Mostly absent Absent Present Absent

(photosynthetic (Present in some

membranes present types)
in some types)

(Non cellulose
Present in some
6. Cell wall Chitin and other Cellulose and Absent
polysaccharides +
forms, various non cellulose other
amino acids) types) polysaccharides polysaccharides

Bacterial flagella; Nonmotile

7. Motility Most animals
gliding or non– 9+2 cilia and 9+2 cilia and
(Locomotion) move in search of
motile flagella; flagella in gametes
food
amoeboid, of some forms
contractile fibrils Absorption
Make their own
Autotrophic or (heterotrophic)
Photosynthetic or food by Ingestion followed
8. Mode of Nutrition
heterotrophic photosynthesis by digestion
heterotrophic
(autotrophic) (heterotrophic)
Fertilization and
Fertilization and Fertilization and
All can reproduce meiosis
Fertilization and
9. Reproduction & asexually, no meiosis meiosis
mitosis or meiosis merosis
Development

Taxon – It is a unit of classification, which may Systematic Hierachy – It is also called Linnaean
represent any level of grouping of organisms hierarchy because it was first proposed by
based on certain common characteristics. Linnaeus.

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It is the system by which various taxonomic (i) Which are closely related
categories are arranged in a proper descending (structurally and functionally)
order. sharing a common gene pool;
Kingdom is the highest rank and species is the (ii) Which can interbreed freely in
smallest unit. nature and produce fertile offsprings
 Linnaeus thought the species to be static, in a natural environment. This
constant fixed and immutable. concept of species is called
 Tribe is intermediate category between sub – biological concept.
family and genus. Taxon, term by Adolf
Meyer, is taxonomic group of any rank.
 Hierarchy: It is a series of different ranks The term species was proposed by John Ray.
placed in descending order. It was first Ernst Mayr defined species as a group of
given by Linnaeus who introduced five
potentially interbreeding natural population
categories in the taxonomic hierarchy viz.,
of closely resembling organism.
class, order, genus, species and variety.
Later on 3 more categories viz., kingdom  Typological concept of species: It is the
division or phylum and family were added most simple and widely held species
and variety was discarded to make a concept. According to this concept there is
hierarchy or 7 obligate categories viz.,
an ideal pattern (type) for each species.
kingdom – division (in plants) or phylum (in
Individuals of a species match the type as
animals)- class – order-family-genus-
species. closely as possible; variations, if any, are
due to imperfectness of physical world.
Kingdom Animalia
Such a concept is said to be typological
Phylum Chordata because it conceives of an ideal type of
Subphylum Vertebrata body for each species.

Class Mammalia  Nominalistic species concept explains that species

have no existence whereas individuals do.
Order Primates
 Biological species concept describes that the
Family Hominideae
individuals freely interbreed, closely resemble each
Genus Homo other and differ visibly from all other groups within a
species.
Species Sapiens

 Higher the category, higher the number of

organisms in it. Higher the category, fewer
will be the number of common characters.
Types of species
 In case two or more names are given, the (1) Allopatric species : Species having different areas of
oldest i.e., the name given first is recognized geographic distribution.
as valid name and all other names are called
(2) Sympatric species : Species having same or
synonyms.
overlapping areas of geographic
 Biological concept of species: distribution.

Species is the fundamental unit (3) Polytypic species : Species with two or more
subspecies.
classification. A species is a group of
organisms. (4) Taxonomic species : Species having a definite
binomial name.

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(5) Sibling species : True species which do not  In asexually reproducing organisms also,
interbreed but difficult to
physical resemblances and differences are
distinguish, morphologically.
used for delimiting species.
(6) Biospecies : Species erected on the basis of
reproductive and genetic
isolation of a natural
population. Binomial system of nomenclature : Carolus

(7) Macrospecies : A large polymorphic species with

Linnaeus is credited with the establishment of
several subdivisions. binomial system of nomenclature. According to
(8) Microspecies : A true breeding genetic unit this system, the name of a species is composed
below the rank of species. of two words in Latin. The first word is generic
(9) Morphospecies : Species erected on the basis or name (identifying genus) while the second word
morphological characters only. is specific name (identifying species). The
(10) Fossils species or generic and specific names are followed by the
Fossil species : Species which are found as name of the taxonomist who first described the
fossils only. species or gave it its present name.
(11) Neontological species : Living species of today are
 General principles of nomenclature were
called neontological species.
published in 1978 in the form of
(12) Synchronic species : Two or more species belonging
International Code of Botanical
to same time period.
Nomenclature (ICBN). In accordance with
(13) Agamospecies : Asexually reproducing species
like Amoeba and Euglena.
International code of Botanical
Nomenclature, the names of different
(14) Gamospecies : These are sexually reproducing
species. categories must end in the standard ending
(suffixes) given below:
(15) Allochronic species : Two or more species belonging
to different time periods.

Division Phyta
(16) Keystone species : It is a species which determines
the biotic structure of the entire
Sub division Phytina
community by predation or by
any control mechanism. Sea–
otters that feed on invertebrates Class Phyceae or opsida or ae
is classic example of keystone
species. Order Ales

(17) Parapatric species : These are species with adjacent

Suborder Ineae
geographic ranges meeting in very
narrow zone of overlap.
Family Aceae
(18) Linnean species : Linnean species is a taxonomic
species distinguished on Sub family Oideae
morphological grounds.

(19) Monotypic species : Monotypic species are species Tribe Eae.

without differentiation of
subspecies or varieties. Nomenclature  Two types of names have been
given

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1. Vernacular or common names – The locally  It is not a tautonym
used names are called vernacular names, but
 Its type specimen has been described inlatin
these names cannot be used by biologists due to
and is kept in a recognized herbarium
following drawbacks.
collection.
Different vernacular names are used to recognize
 The new name has been published in a
an organism in different regions of a country.
widely circulated scientific journal.
A single vernacular name is after used for
several species.  According to law of priorty the oldest name
is valid. The original specimen(s) from
Common names our unscientific and do not which a new species is described is called
convey any taxonomic relationship with other type specimen.
organisms.
Type specification
2. Scientific names – These are the names given
to organisms by biologists based on agreed The application of the names is determined by
principles and criteria for their acceptability all means of nomenclatural types. When a species is
over the world. described as new, the author must indicate which
is the type of specimen on which the new
(i) Polynomial Nomenclature – Prior to 1750,
species is based, which should be properly
biologists used descriptive names for organisms
with each names being made up of several latin maintained in the herbarium. When a specimen
words. cannot be preserved, an illustration or figure or a
description may be a type:
(ii) Binomial Nomenclature – Carolus Linnaeus
proposed this system in which scientific name The various type specimens are:
consists of two parts or epithets is called
1. Holotype- the specimen or other
binomial nomenclature. Every scientific name
has a first word for genus followed by a second element used by the author as the
word representing species. nomenclatural type.

(iii) Trinomial Nomenclature – Sometimes 2. Isotype – Duplicate of holotype eg.. if

three words are used for naming the organisms. several branches of a tree are collected
First word is generic the second is specific while at the same time, one specimen may be
the third word represents sub species and chosen as atype and the next as isotype.
variety.
3. Paratype – any other specimen cited
There are rules which are framed and standard with the original description of
by International code of Botanical Nomenclature holotype.
(ICBN) and ICZN. These codes are established
and improved upon at International Botanical 4. Syntype – when an author describes a
and Zoological congresses held from time to new specimens and cites two or more
time. The name of bacteria and viruses are specimens, they become the syntypes.
provided by ICBN, ICVN, ICNCP –
5. Lectotype – specimen selected from
International code for cultivated plants.
original material to serve as
Valid names nomenclatural type where there is no
 Name is anew and given according to the holotype.
binomial nomenclature along with 6. Neotype – new nomenclatural type when
abbreviation of author‟s name
the original material is missing.

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 In the family, Chenopodiaceae, Amaranthaceae,
Aizoaceae a coloured pigment Betacyanin is present
Tautonyms – the names of a species is a binary
which indicates closeness among these families.
combination, consisting of the name of the
genus followed by a single specific epithet. (8) Numerical taxonomy : It is on the basis of
Tautonium condition when the specific name number of shared characters of various organisms and
repeats unaltered the generic name Eg Malus is also called phanetic classification. In biology,
malus. phenetics, also known as numerical taxonomy or
taximetrics, is an attempt to classify organisms based
3. Types of classification
on overall similarity, usually in morphology or other
(1) Classical taxonomy : Classification based on observable traits, regardless of their phylogeny or
the morphological traits is called old systematic or evolutionary relation.It evolved around 1950,
classical taxonomy.
although it was first attempted by Adanson(1763), on
(2) Artificial taxonomy : This type of the basis of external traits only. It is therefore also
classification make use of habit and habitat of called Adansonian taxonomy. A family tree based on
organisms for grouping. Pliny was the first to use phonetic or numerical taxonomy is called
this system.
dendrogram.
(3) Practical taxonomy : This system was based
(9) Cytotaxonomy : It is called so as it is based on
on the utility of organisms.
cytological studies.
(4) Natural taxonomy : This is based on natural
(10) Karyotaxonomy : It is based on nuclear and
similarities amongst organisms. It was proposed by
chromosomal studies.
John Ray and later by Candolle, Bentham and
Hooker (1862). (11) Morphotaxonomy : It is based on
morphological studies of organisms. It is based on
(5) Phylogenetic taxonomy : Basis of this
similarities and dissimilarities of all structural traits
classification was phylogeny, that is the evolutionary
history of a species. It was introduced by Engler and including both external and internal. In plants,
Prantl. presence and absence of seeds, fruits, flowers, floral
organs and structure of epidermal appendages,
(6) Experimental taxonomy : It is based on
trichomes, stomata, wood, floral anatomy are
experiment determination of genetic inter –
significant.
relationships . The relationship amongst population
are determined experimentally by removing the effect (12) New systematics : This classification takes into
of environment, cross fertilization, comparative account the cytological, morphological, genetical,
anatomical, palynological and physiological characters.
structures, cellular structures and identification of
evolutionary units within and amongst the related
species.
Alpha Taxonomy : Collection of plants,
(7) Chemotaxonomy : This type of classification identification on the basis of gross
is on the basis of chemicals present in morphological features including compilation of
cells/organisms. it is based on comparative study of monographs and flora is called alpha taxonomy
various chemicals and presence or absence of by Turrill, (1938). Alpha taxonomy, is the
secondary metabolites in organisms. science of finding, describing and categorising
For eg. The characters like presence of calcium organisms , thus leading to the recognition of
oxalate crystals called raphides, have been found to be proposed taxonomic groups or taxa (singular:
common to 35 families. taxon), which may then be named .

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Beta taxonomy
According to Ernst Mayr's definition, beta
taxonomy is the process of arranging taxa into
higher categories which reflect the evolutionary
history of a group of organisms.

Alpha taxonomy refers to the more traditional

methods of classification while beta taxonomy refers Famous Herbarium
to more recent experimental methods.
Botanic Garden, Paris 8000000 sheets
Omega taxonomy  (Turril 1938) – It Royal Botanic Garden, Kew London
brings out the correct relationship as in the new 7500000 sheets
systematics. Komarov Botanical Institute, Leningrd
5000000 sheets
Harvard University, Massachusets
Cladistics is the hierarchical classification of 3500000 sheets
species based on evolutionary ancestry. Conservatory and Boatnic Garden, Geneva
Cladistics is distinguished from other taxonomic 3000000 sheets
systems because it focuses on evolution rather Central National Herbarium, Sibpur, Howrah
than similarities between species, and because it 2500000 sheets
places heavy emphasis on objective, quantitative
Botanical Garden :
analysis. Cladistics generates diagrams called
Botanical garden is actually a collection of
cladograms that represent the evolutionary tree
living plants for both pure and applied studies.
of life. Cladistics classifies organism according
Botanical Garden of India
to the historical order in which different
Indian Botanic Garden Kolkata
evolutionary branches arose.
Lioyd Botanic Garden Darjeeling
Taxonomical Aids : National Botanic Garden Lucknow
Herbarium : Collection of plants or plant part Garden of the Indian Agricultural Research
which are dried, passed, mounted on herbarium Institute New Delhi
sheets and which have been identified and Garden of the Forest Research Institute
classified according to a definite system of Dehradun
classification so that they provide maximum Famous Botanical Garden
information about the plants concerned, is called of the world
Herbarium. Royal Botanic Garden, Kew London
Succulents are not mounted on herbarium sheets Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh
but are collected in 4% formalin or FAA Botanical Garden Berlin
(formalin acetic acid). Bondes Garden Vienna
1 1 Main Botanic Garden Moscow
Size of herbarium sheet-standard, i.e., 16 11
2 2 Nikitisky Botanic Garden Yalta
inches or 41.25 × 28.75 cms. Indian Botanic Garden Sibpur, Kolkata
Kebun Raya (Botanic Garden) Bogor, Java
Missouri Botanic Garden USA

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Arnola Arboretum Boston, USA Agricultural
Research
ICARDA International Centre Syria
of Agricultural
Famous Research Institutions Research for Semi
BSI Botanical Survey of Kolkata Arid Tropics
India ICARISAT International Centre Hyderabad
CAZRI Central Arid Zone Jodhpur for Agricultural
Research Institure Research for Semi
CDRI Central Drug Lucknow Arid Tropics
Research Institute IGFRI Indian Grassland and Jhansi
CFTRI Central Food Mysore Fodder Research
Technology Research Institute
Institute IISR Indian Institute of Lucknow
CIP International centre Peru Sugarcane Research
of Potato IIST Indian Institute of Kanpur
CIMAP Central Institute of Lucknow Sugar Technology
Medicinal and IRRI International Rice Phillipines
Aromatic Plants Research Institute
CJTRI Central Jute Kolkata ITRC Industrial Toxicology Lucknow
Technology Research Research Institute
Institute NEERI National Nagpur
CPHERI Central Public Health Nagpur Environmental
Engineering Engineering
Research Institute Research Institute
CPRI Central Potato Shimla NIO National Institute of Goa
Research Institute Oceonography
CRRI Central Rice Cuttack SBI Sugarcane Breeding Coimbtore
Research Institute Institute (TN)
CSSRI Central Soil Salinity Karnal
Research Institute (Hry)
CSIR Council of Scientific New Delhi
and Industrial
Research
CTRI Cental Tobacco Rajmundry
Research Institute (A.P.)
FRI Forest Research Dehradun
Institute
IARI Indian Agricultural New Delhi
Research Institute
(PUSA)
ICAR Indian Council of New Delhi

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O BJECTIVE P ROBLEMS c) syntype d) isotype

1. Which is the oldest publication covering

8. Starting point for plant names is considered :
Indian plants ? a) Species Plantarum (1753)
a) Hortus Malaboricus b) Genera Plantarum (1754)
b) philosophia Botanica c) Philosophia Botanica (1751)
c) Flora of gangetic plains d) Critica Botanica (1737)
d) Flora Silemesis
9. Phenetic classification is based on :
2. The result of numerical taxonomy are a) ancestral linage of existing organisms
summarized in the form of tree-like diagrams b) observable characteristics of existing
called : organisms
a) histograms b) karyograms c) dendorgrams based on DNA characteristics
c) Idogram d) dendrogram d) sexual characteristics

3. Basis of classification in biochemical 10. A true species consists of a population :

systematics are : a) sharing the same niche
a) biochemical characters b) interbreeding
b) ecological characters c) feeding over the same food
c) physiological characters d) reproductively isolated
d) anatomical characters
11. A system of classification in which a large
4. According to principle of priority, the valid number of traits are considered is :
name of an organism is ; a) artificial system b) phylogenetic system
a) oldest name proposed after 1753 c) synthetic system d) natural system
b) oldest name applied
c) oldest name modified recently
12. Floral features are commonly used for
d) name most popular identification of angiosperms because :
a) reproductive parts are more conservative
5. Most of the herbaria in India arrange their b) flowers can be safely pressed
plants according to : c) flower are nice to work with
a) Bentham and Hooker‟s system d) flowers have various colours and scents
b) Engler and Prantl‟s system
c) Takhtajan system 13. Keystone species in an ecosystem are those :
d) Eichler‟s system a) present in maximum number
b) that are most frequent
6. Two plants are taxonomically very close if : c) attaining a large biomass
a) both have same kind of venation d) contributing to ecosystem properties
b) both produce same kind of proteins
c) both store energy in same kind of molecules 14. The basis of phylogenetic classification is :
d) all of the above a) utilitarian system
b) habits
7. The type specimen used by the author in c) morphological similarities
original publication is called : d) common evolutionary descent
a) neotype b) holotype

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15. Specimen used for original publication by a) syntype b) isotype
the author is : c) neotype d) mesotype
a) holotype b) isotype
c) syntype d) lactotype 24. Chemotaxonomy is connected with :
a) classification of chemicals found in plants
16. According to binomial nomenclature which b) use of phytochemcial data in systematic
is no possible ? botany
a) tautonyms b) synonyms c) application of chemical on herbarium sheets
c) bionyms d) autonyms d) use of statistical methods in chemical
yielding plants
17. Two morphologically similar populations are
intersterile. The belong to : 25. Statistical methods used in classification :
a) one species b) two bio species a) numerical b) adansonian
c) two sibling species d) none of these c) phonetic d) all of these

18. New systematics and the concept of life was 26. Cladistics can be best defines as
given by : a) The relationship between subspecies and
a) Clementia b) Elton species
c) Odum d) Huxley b) relationship between two most forward races
c) relationship between endangered and
19. Two similar holotypes are called : surviving species
a) mesotypes b) meotypes d) methods of classification that attempt to
c) syntypes d) isotypes interfere phylogenetic relationship

20. Reproductively isolated, morphologically 27. The basis of karyotaxonomy is :

similar sympatric population is a; a) number of nucleoli
a) cline b) demes b) sedimentation rate of ribosomes
c) clone d) sibling species c) chromosome banding
d) chromosome number
21. Mayr‟s biological concepts of species is
mainly based on : 28. Taxonomy based on determination of genetic
a) morphological traits relationships is :
b) reproductive isolation a) cytotaxonomy
c) modes of reproduction b) numerical taxonomy
d) morphological and reproduction c) biochemical taxonomy
d) experimental taxonomy
22. There are two populations sharing same
habitat and are also morphologically similar but 29. Holotype is a specimen
intersterile. In terms of biological concept of a) Nomenclatural type used by author
species they are : b) Nomenclatural type when the original is
a) one species b) two distinct species missing
c) two sibling species d) sympatric c) Nomenclatural type when the lectotype is
missing
23. A botanist is to nomenclate a similar speices. d) Synonym of para type
The scientist will study :

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30. Lectotype is a a) Dendrogram b) Cladogram
a) duplicate of holotype c) Taxonomy d) Hierarchy
b) specimen described alongwith holotype
c) specimen cited by author without making one 38. Turril‟s Omega () taxonomy is related with
type a) Collection of biota
d) specimen selected from original material for b) Identification of organisms
nomenclatural type when there is no holotype. c) Bringing out relationship
d) Compilation of flora and fauna
31. Neotype is a
a) Nomenclatural type from original material 39. A tautonym is
b) Nomenclatural type when the original a) Nonlatinised name
material is missing b) Same name for genus and species
c) One of the two or more specimens cited by c) Common name used as scientific name
author d) Unscientific explanation of a phenomenon
d) New species discovered by a scientist
40. Correlated characters are those which occur
32. Binomial nomenclature was established by a) at random
Linnaeus but it was first recognized by b) in groups or unit
a) John Ray b) Theopharastus c) in a particular portion of the body
c) Casper Bauhin d) Darwin d) in certain groups of organisms

33. “Taxonomy without phylogeny is like bones

without flesh” was remarked by
a) John Hutchinson
b) Takhtajan 41. Type specimen of a new species has to be
c) Oswald Tippo a) described in Latin
d) Bentham and Hooker b) published in recognized scientific jo urnal
34. If two or more species occupy overlapping c) kept in a recognized herbarium or collection
areas, they are d) all of the above
a) sibling b) allochronic
c) keystone d) sympatric 42. A taxonomic species distinguished on the
basis of morphological character is
35. Biosystematic has been explained as  and  a) Morpho species
taxonomy by b) Bio species
a) Turril b) Hutchinson c) Linneon
c) Julian Huxley d) Adonson d) Neontological species

36. Dendrogram is based on 43. A neontological species is

a) Phenetic taxonomy a) species belonging to a particular area
b) Adansonian taxonomy b) species of a particular time
c) Numerical taxonomy c) living species
d) All of these d) none of the above

37. Graphic representation indicating 44. ICBN was adopted in

evolutionary relationship of groups is a) 1951 b) 1961

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c) 1971 d) 1981 b) Slime fungus/Agaricus
c) Neurospora
45. ICZN was adopted in d) Escherichia/Salmonella
a) 1954 b) 1964
c) 1974 d) 1984 54. The branch of botany that deals with
identification, classification and nomenclature
46. In India the earliest classification of animals of plants is called-
was made in a) Ecology b) Physiology
a) Atharveda c) Entomology d) Systematic botany
b) Manu Smriti
c) Susruta Samhita 55. Floriculture is a branch of-
d) Chandyoga Upanished a) Botany b) Horticulture
c) Entomology d) Agronomy
47. On the herbarium sheets, labels are pasted
over
a) Right hand bottom b) Left hand bottom 56. Biological names (scientific name) are in-
c) Right hand top d) Left hand top a) Latin b) English
c) German d) Sanskrit
48. Who first propounded the principle of
phylogenetic system of classification of plants ? 57. The oldest book of botany written by
a) Darwin b) Eichler Theophrastus is
c) Linnaeus d) Engler & Prantl a) Species Plantarum b) Genera Plantarum
c) Families des Plantes d) Historia Plantarum
49. Who wrote the book “Flowering Plants:
Origin and dispersal.” 58. The system of plant classification proposed
a) Linnaeus b) Takhtajan by Takhtajan is-
c) Darwin d) Lamarck a) Artificial b) Natural
c) Phylogenetic d) None of the above
50. Angiosperms were classified by Oswald
Tippo in- 59. The oldest living plant is-
a) Pteropsida b) Spermatophyta a) Eucalyptus citriodora
c) Phanerogams d) Magnoliophyta b) Ficus bengalensis
c) Pinus wallichiana
51. A characteristic found in most plants and not d) Sequoiadendron giganteum
in animals is-
a) Metabolism b) Autotrophy 60. The famous botanical garden in the world is-
c) Sexual reproduction d) Inheritance a) New York Botanical Garden, USA
b) Royal Botanical Garden, Kew
52. Who proposed the classification of living c) Lloyd Botanical Garden, Darjeeling
organisms into prokaryotes and eukaryotes ? d) Royal Botanical Garden, Sydney
a) Eichler b) Linnaeus
c) C.B. Van Niel d) Cronquist 61. Plants found on mountain tops are usually
called-
53. Which is a prokaryote ? a) Alpine plants b) Conifers
a) Protista/Bacteriophage c) Mesophytes d) Halophytes

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62. In which group prokaryotes have been c) A basic category containing most of the
classified- taxonomic information
a) Arthrophyta b) Ascomycetes d) A population of similar characteristics which
c) Tracheophyta d) Monera forms evolutionary basis of variation

63. Who is called the „Father of Botany‟ ?

a) Aristotle b) Darwin
c) Theophrastus d) Linnaeus 71. Endemic plants are those which live in-
a) Freshwater lakes
64. The study of medicinal plants is called- b) Tissues of other plants
a) Pharmacognosy b) Pathology c) Geographically-limited areas
c) Pharmacology d) Silviculture d) Shady places

65. Most dominant plant on the earth are- 72. Who made the statement that “taxonomy
a) Thallophytes b) Spermatophytes without phylogeny is like bones without flesh” ?
c) Bryophytes d) Pteridophytes a) John Hutchnison b) Bentham & Hooker
c) Oswald Tippo d) Takhtajan
66. The study of evolutionary relationships of
specific group of organisms is called- 73. The father of palaeontology is-
a) Phylogeny b) Ontogeny a) Platter b) Aristotle
c) Morphology d) Taxonomy c) Cavier d) Stenser

67. Species having morphological similarities 74. Who use of the term „phylum‟ -
with other groups of organisms but not capable a) Cuvier b) Linnaeus
of reproducing among themselves are known as- c) Theophrastus d) Eichler
a) Morphospecies b) Biospecies
c) Allopatric species d) Sibling species 75. The use of plants in folk culture or the
mutual relationship of plants and tribals is
68. 5th June is- called-
a) World Environment Day a) Ethnobotany b) Social forestry
b) Worlds Health Organization Day c) Forest botany d) Tribal botany
c) Darwin‟s birth-day
d) Malaria eradication day 76. An artificial classification is one which-
a) Is based on several characters
69. Who received Noble Prize for their work on b) Shows phylogenetic tendency
green plants ? c) Is based on some characters
a) Beadle & Tatum b) Watson & Crick d) None of the above
c) Calvin & Borlaugh d) Microcystis
77. The author of a species is always printed in-
70. What is a species ? a) Roman b) Italics
a) A basic unit in the phylogenic history of c) Simple letters d) Capital italic letters
living organisms
b) A group of related populations from 78. Who used binomial system of nomenclature
evolutionary point of view for plants?
a) Mendel b) Lawrence

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c) Linnaeus d) Darwin 87. The branch of biology that is concerned with
the comparative study of organisms and all
relationships among them is called-
79. Which is the system of plant classification a) Systematics b) Classification
that is based on similarities and differences in c) Nomenclature d) Alpha taxonomy
characters?
a) Natural b) Quantitative 88. In taxonomic studies, the first step is-
c) Phylogenetic d) Artificial a) Description b) Naming
c) Classification d) Identification
80. Where the „National Institute of
Oceanography‟ is situated ? 89. The phylogeny and interrelationships
a) Chennai b) Panaji between taxa on the basis of structure and
c) Mumbai d) Coimbatore number of chromosomes is called-
a) Phenetics b) Cytotaxonomy
81. Who used the terms „Prokaryota‟ and c) Karyotaxonomy d) Molecular taxonomy
„Eukaryota‟-
a) Charles Darwin b) Van Niel 90. Which systems of classification takes into
c) Linnaeus d) Haeckel account all possible morphological character -
a) Artificial system b) Natural system
82. Who wrote the book “Dictionary of c) Phylogenetic system d) Sexual system
flowering Plants and ferns”?
a) Darwin b) Willis 91. Who wrote Die Naturalichen
c) Linnaeus d) Bentham & Hooker Pflanzenfamilien-
a) John Hutchinson b) A P De Candolle
83. What is phylogeny ? c) John Ray d) Engler and prantl
a) Structure & functions of organisms
b) Metabolic reactions in organisms 92. Hutchinson's system of classfication is-
c) Evolutionary history of organisms a) an artificial system
d) None of the above b) A natural system
c) A phylogenetic system
84. Seed plants developed during- d) A system based on experimental taxonomy
a) Silurian b) Devonian
c) Carboniferous d) Cretaceous 93. A group of freely interbreeding plants
constitute a-
85. Indian Botanical Garden at Calcutta was a) Species b) Genera
established by- c) Family d) Class
a) Linnaeus b) Bentham & Hooker
c) Brandis d) Robert key 94. A duplicate of holotypes is called-
a) Isotype b) Syntype
86. Plants growing in cold places are known as - c) Paratype d) Neotype
a) Oxylophytes b) Halophytes
c) psychrophytes d) Psammophytes
95. What are tautonyms-
a) Generic and specific name similar

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b) Similar name of genus, species and sub
Answers
species
c) Generic and specific name dissimilar Objective Problems :
d) Specific and varietal name similar 1c 2d 3a 4a 5a 6d

96. Who coined the term Tracheophyta- 7b 8a 9b 10d 11a 12d

a) Endlicher b) Engler 13d 14d 15a 16a 17c 18d
c) Copeland d) Eichler
19d 20d 21b 22c 23b 24b

97. Which type of organisms are included in 25d 26d 27d 28d 29a 30d
Akaryota- 31b 32c 33b 34d 35a 36d
a) Nucleated
37b 38c 39b 40d 41d 42c
b) Enucleated
c) Advanced nucleated 43c 44b 45b 46d 47b 48d
d) Primitive nucleated 49b 50b 51b 52c 53d 54d
55b 56a 57d 58c 59d 60b
98. Which are the four kingdoms in 4 kingdom
classification- 61b 62d 63c 64c 65b 66a
a) Monera, Protista, Plantae, Animalia 67d 68a 69c 70d 71c 72d
b) Monera, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia
73c 74a 75d 76c 77c 78c
c) Monera, Protista, Metaphyta, Metazoa
79b 80b 81b 82a 83c 84d
d) Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia
85d 86c 87a 88d 89c 90b

91d 92c 93a 94a 95a 96d

97b 98a

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