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 Ch4 MATERIALS : METALS AND NON-METALS …Very Quickly

 Ch15 SOME NATURAL PHENOMENA ... Very Quickly
 Pg 212-214 (ch4 Light)
 Ch17 STARS AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Kharif: Paddy/rice, maize, soyabean, groundnut, cotton, etc. {khaRiF ...RainFall}

Rabi: wheat, gram, pea, mustard and linseed

Method for separating good, healthy seeds from the damaged ones:
Damaged seeds become hollow and are thus lighter. Therefore, they float on water.

Manure improves soil’s texture, porosity, water retaining capacity & humus content.

Methods of irrigation
Traditional: moat (pulley-system), chain pump, dhekli, rahat (Lever system)

Best time for the removal of weeds is before they produce flowers and seeds.

Harvesting = cutting of crop after it is mature

Threshing = separating grain seeds from the chaff in the harvested crop {combine or winnowing}

Harvest festivals: Pongal, Baisakhi, Holi, Diwali, Nabanya, Bihu

Examples (pg20)
 Algae: Chlamydomonas, Spirogyra
 Protozoa: Amoeba, Paramecium
 Fungi: Yeast (unicellular), Bread mould, Penicillium, Aspergillus,

Friendly microorganisms
 Curd (Lactobacillus), cheese, pickles  Bacteria
 Bread, pastries, cakes {baking industry}  Yeast
o Yeast reproduces rapidly and produces CO2 during respiration. Gas bubbles fill the dough and increase its volume
 Alcohol & wine  Yeast
o Yeast is grown on natural sugars present in grains like barley, wheat, rice and crushed fruit juices, etc. It converts
sugar into alcohol.
o Fermentation = process of conversion of sugar into alcohol {Louis Pasteur}
 Medicines  mostly from bacteria & fungi
o Alexander Fleming; penicillin
 In agriculture, they are used to increase soil fertility by fixing nitrogen  bacteria (Rhizobium) & blue-green algae
 Cleaning up of the environment: organic wastes are broken down into harmless and usable substances by bacteria.

Harmful Microorganisms

Pathogen: Diseases (in Humans)

 Virus: Common cold, influenza (flu), Dengue, polio, chicken pox, Measles, Hepatitis B
 Protozoa: dysentery, malaria
 Bacteria: Cholera, typhoid, tuberculosis (TB)
Carriers:
 Female Anopheles mosquito carries parasite of malaria
 Female Aedes mosquito acts as carrier of dengue virus

Human Disease Microorganism Transmission

Tuberculosis (TB) Bacteria Air
Measles Virus Air
Chicken Pox Virus Air / Contact
Polio Virus Air / Water
Cholera Bacteria Water/Food
Typhoid Bacteria Water
Hepatitis B Virus Water
Malaria Protozoa Mosquito

[Diseases in Animals]
 Anthrax is a dangerous human and cattle disease caused by a bacterium
 Foot & mouth disease of cattle is caused by a virus

[Diseases in Plants]

Plant Disease Microorganism Transmission

Citrus canker Bacteria Air
Rust of wheat Fungi Air, seeds
Yellow vein mosaic of bhindi (Okra) Virus Insects

Food Preservation
Chemical
 Salts, edible oils (pickle),
 sodium benzoate, sodium metabisulphite (jam, squash)
 Common Salt: meat, fish; amla, raw mangoes, tamarind
o Dry salt checks the growth of bacteria
 Sugar: Jams, jellies and squashes
o Sugar reduces the moisture content which inhibits the growth of bacteria which spoil food.
 Oil & Vinegar: pickles, Vegetables, fruits, fish and meat
Others:
 Boiling (kills)
 Refrigeration (inhibits growth)
 Pasteurization
o Milk is heated to ~70oC for 15-30 seconds, and then suddenly chilled and stored
o Pasteurized milk can be consumed without boiling as it is free from harmful microbes.
 Storage & Packing in sealed air tight packets …prevents microbial attack {dry fruits, vegetables}

Nitrogen Cycle

Synthetic Fibres

Rayon = Artificial Silk

 Like silk, but cheaper
 ~1900
 Although rayon is obtained from a natural source, wood pulp, yet it is a man-made fibre.
 Also, rayon is mixed with cotton to make bed sheets or mixed with wool to make carpets.

Nylon
  1930s
 Made without using any natural raw material (from plant or animal)
o It was prepared from coal, water and air
 It was the 1st fully synthetic fibre
 Characteristics: silky, strong, elastic, light, lustrous, easy to wash
 Uses:
o socks, stockings, ropes, tents, toothbrushes, car seat belts, sleeping bags, curtains
o Parachutes & ropes for rock climbing {A nylon thread is actually stronger than a steel wire.}

Polyester
 Characteristics: wrinkle-free, crisp, easy to wash
 Uses: shirts & other dresses
 Different forms / types / variations
o Terylene: can be drawn into very fine fibres that can be woven like any other yarn
o PET (Polyethylene terephthalate): used for making bottles, utensils, films, wires
o Polycot = polyester + cotton
o Polywool = polyester + wool

Acrylic fibre
 Wool-like, but cheaper
 Uses: sweaters, shawls, blankets…

Synthetic vs. Natural

 [Advantage] Synthetic fibres are more durable and affordable which makes them more popular than natural fibres.
 [Disadvantage] Synthetic fibres melt on heating. If the clothes catch fire, it can be disastrous. The fabric melts and sticks
to the body of the person wearing it. We should, therefore, not wear synthetic clothes while working in the kitchen or in a
laboratory.

Characteristics of Synthetic Fibres

 dry up quickly (soak less water than the natural fabrics  take less time to dry)
 durable,
 less expensive,
 readily available
 easy to maintain

Plastics

2 types of plastics: thermoplastic, thermosetting

Thermoplastic = Plastic which gets deformed easily on heating and can be bent easily
 E.g.: Polythene, PVC
 Used for manufacturing toys, combs, various types of containers, etc

Thermosetting = plastics which when moulded once, cannot be softened by heating

 E.g.: Bakelite, melamine
 Bakelite: poor conductor of heat and electricity
o Used for making electric plugs/switches/plug boards, handles of various utensils, etc.
 Melamine: resists fire and can tolerate heat better than other plastics
o Used for making floor tiles, kitchenware and fire-proof fabrics (uniforms of firemen have coating of melamine
plastic to make them flame resistant).

Characteristic properties of plastics:

 Non-reactive: Plastics do not react with water and air. They are not corroded easily.
o That is why they are used to store various kinds of material, including many chemicals.
  Light weight, strong, durable, can be easily moulded (into various shapes & sizes), cheaper. Also, it can be recycled,
reused, coloured, melted, rolled into sheets or made into wires.
o That’s why plastic is so versatile & is widely used in industry and for household articles.
 Poor conductors: Plastics are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
o That is why electrical wires have plastic covering, and handles of screw drivers are made of plastic.
o Handles of frying pans are also made of plastic.

Plastics find extensive use in the health-care industry. E.g.: packaging of tablets, threads used for stitching wounds, syringes,
doctors’ gloves and a number of medical instruments.

Teflon is a special plastic on which oil and water do not stick. It is used for non-stick coating on cookwares.

Plastics and the Environment: pg 41.

Most of the thermoplastics can be recycled.

However, during recycling certain colouring agents are added. This limits its usage especially for storage of food.

Coal

Carbonisation = slow process of conversion of dead vegetation into coal

Coke
 tough, porous and black
 almost pure form of carbon
 used in the manufacture of steel and in the extraction of many metals
 Coal gas: obtained during the processing of coal to get coke

Coal tar
 black, thick liquid with unpleasant smell
 mixture of many substances
 Products obtained from coal tar are used as starting materials to manufacture synthetic dyes, drugs, explosives, perfumes,
plastics, paints, photographic materials, roofing materials, naphthalene balls (used to repel moths and other insects)
{These days, bitumen, a petroleum product, is used in place of coal-tar for metalling the roads}

Petroleum
 dark oily liquid; unpleasant odour
 process of separating the various constituents/ fractions of petroleum = refining

LPG Fuel for home and industry

Petrol Motor fuel, aviation fuel, solvent for dry cleaning
Kerosene Fuel for stoves, lamps and for jet aircrafts
Diesel Fuel for heavy motor vehicles, electric generators
Lubricating oil Lubrication
Paraffin wax Ointments, candles, Vaseline etc.
Bitumen Paints, road surfacing

Petrol is used as a fuel in light automobiles such as motor cycles/scooters and cars.
Heavy motor vehicles like trucks and tractors run on diesel.

1859: World’s 1st oil well was drilled in Pennsylvania, USA

1867: oil was stuck at Makum in Assam

Petrochemicals = substances obtained from petroleum and natural gas

They are used to manufacture detergents, fibres (polyester, nylon, acrylic, etc), plastics, etc
Due to its great commercial importance, petroleum is also called ‘black gold’.

Natural Gas
 easy to transport through pipes
 stored under high pressure as CNG
 CNG is used for power generation. It is now being used as a fuel for transport vehicles because it is less polluting cleaner
fuel.
 Natural gas is also used as a starting material for the manufacture of a number of chemicals and fertilisers.
o Hydrogen gas obtained from natural gas, is used in the production of fertilisers (urea).

Fuel Gases
 Water Gas = CO + H2
 Syngas = CO + H2
 Biogas = CH4 + CO2 + H2S
 Producer Gas = CO + H2 + CH4 + N2 + CO2
 LPG = propane or butane
 Natural Gas = CH4 (methane)

Different substances catch fire at different temperatures.

Ignition temperature = lowest temperature at which a substance catches fire
Inflammable substances: have very low ignition temperature and can easily catch fire with a flame; e.g. Petrol, alcohol, LPG

Matchstick
Antimony trisulphide, potassium chlorate and white phosphorus with some glue and starch was applied on the head of a match
made of suitable wood.
When struck against a rough surface, white P got ignited due to the heat of friction. This started the combustion of the match.
However, white phosphorus proved to be dangerous both for workers (involved in the manufacturing of matches) & users.
These days, head of the safety match contains only antimony trisulphide and potassium chlorate.
The rubbing surface has powdered glass and a little red phosphorus (which is much less dangerous).
When the match is struck against the rubbing surface, some red phosphorus gets converted into white phosphorus. This immediately
reacts with potassium chlorate in the matchstick head to produce enough heat to ignite antimony trisulphide and start the combustion.

2 NaHCO3(s) {baking soda}  CO2(g) + H2O(g) + Na2CO3(s)

Read from pg70 onwards

Non-luminous zone of the flame has a high temperature.

7
National Park: large and diverse enough to protect whole sets of ecosystems; they preserve flora, fauna, landscape and historic objects
of an area.
Satpura NP = 1st Reserve Forest of India; finest Indian teak is found here; also a Tiger Reserve

Cells were 1st observed in cork by Robert Hooke in 1665.

Plant Cells & Bacterial cells have a Cell Wall.

Cell wall  shape & rigidity

Smallest cell = bacteria

Largest = ostrich egg

A tissue is a group of similar cells performing a specific function.

Nucleus is separated from cytoplasm by a porous nuclear membrane.

Smaller spherical body in the nucleus = nucleolus
Nucleus contains thread-like structures called chromosomes. These carry genes and help in inheritance or transfer of characters from
the parents to the offspring. Chromosomes can be seen only when the cell divides.
Nucleus, in addition to its role in inheritance, acts as control centre of the activities of the cell.

Nucleus of the bacterial cell is not well organised like the cells of multicellular organisms. There is no nuclear membrane.
Cells having nuclear material without nuclear membrane = prokaryotic (pro: primitive; karyon: nucleus); e.g. bacteria, blue green
algae
Eukaryotes (eu: true; karyon: nucleus).

Protoplasm = living content/substance of the cell; includes cytoplasm & nucleus

Large vacuoles are common in plant cells.

Vacuoles in animal cells are much smaller.

Fertilization = fusion of egg & sperm, which results in the formation of zygote
Zygote  Embryo  Foetus

Internal Fertilisation: humans, cows, dogs and hens; fertilization which takes place inside the female body
External fertilization: common in aquatic animals like fish, starfish; amphibians (frogs, toads)

Viviparous = animals which give birth to young ones (humans, dog, cow or cat)
Oviparous = animals which lay eggs (frog, lizard, butterfly, or moth, hen and crow

Silkworm (egg → larva / caterpillar → pupa → adult)

Transformation of larva into an adult through drastic changes = metamorphosis

Asexual Reproduction: Only a single parent is involved

Budding Hydra
Binary Fission Amoeba
Multiple Fission Plasmodium

Cloning
1996: Dolly = 1st mammal to be cloned
10

Sebaceous glands = oil glands

Exocrine Glands: release their secretions through ducts; e.g. sweat glands, oil glands and salivary glands

Endocrine glands = ductless glands; release hormones directly into the bloodstream
Hormones are secretions from endocrine glands, or endocrine system.
Endocrine glands release hormones into the bloodstream to reach a particular body part (target site). Target site responds to the
hormone.

Hormones, responsible for male and female secondary sexual characters

 Testosterone = male hormone; begins to be released by the testes at the onset of puberty  broad chest, facial hair...
 Estrogen = female hormone; produced by ovaries once puberty is reached in girls  breast
Production of these hormones is under the control of hormones secreted from pituitary gland (endocrine).

Menarche, Menstruation, Menopause

M = XY
F = XX
Endocrine Gland Secretion / Hormone Function Disease
Thyroid Thyroxine Goitre
Pancreas Insulin Diabetes
Adrenal * Salt balance in blood
* Adjust to stress
Pituitary * orders glands to secrete hormone
* secretes growth hormone

(Following table is not from NCERT, so may be ignored)

Endocrine gland Hormone Action
Thyroid Throxine Stimulation and regulation of rate of cellular metabolism
Calcitonin Inhibits release of calcium from bone.
Parathyroid Parathyroid hormone (PTH) Stimulates release of calcium from bone.
Adrenal cortex Cortisol, other corticosteroids Affect carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism.

Adrenal Adrenalin and noradrenalin Increase blood [glucose], alter diameter of blood vessels (some constrict,
medulla others dilate), increase rate and strength of heart beat. (The 'fight or flight'
response to stress.)
Ovary Estrogen Develop and maintain female sex characteristics. Initiate accumulation of
blood on uterine wall during menstrual cycle.
Progesterone Promotes continuation of growth of uterine lining during menstrual cycle.
Testis Androgens Promote sperm production. Develop and maintain male sex
characteristics.
Pancreas Insulin Stimulates uptake of glucose into tissues in response to ↑blood [glucose]
Glucagon Stimulates release of glucose from tissue glycogen stores in response to
low blood [glucose].
Posterior Anti diuretic hormone (ADH) Controls water excretion by kidneys.
pituitary Oxytocin Stimulates (uterine contraction during childbirth) & milk secretion.
Anterior Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) Stimulates follicle formation in female and sperm formation in male.
pituitary Lutenising hormone (LH) Stimulates ovulation in females and androgen secretion in males.
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) Stimulates and maintains metabolism by regulating the thyroid gland.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) Stimulates and regulates the adrenal cortex.
Growth hormone (GH)/somatotropin Stimulates bone growth, inhibits glucose breakdown, stimulates fat
breakdown.
Prolactin Stimulates milk production
Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH) Increases synthesis of melanin (skin pigment)
Hypothalamus Releasing hormones (many) (RH) These hormones travel from hypothalamus to the ant. pituitary, triggering
 the release of the appropriate ant. pituitary hormone.

Change from larva to adult = metamorphosis.

Metamorphosis in insects is controlled by insect hormones.
In a frog, it is controlled by thyroxine (produced by thyroid). Thyroxine production requires the presence of iodine in water. If the
water in which the tadpoles are growing does not contain sufficient iodine, the tadpoles cannot become adults.