Here are detailed study notes on Unit: Global Environmental Issues and Policies, covering all

the listed topics.

1. Causes and Effects of Major Environmental Issues

A. Climate Change

Causes:

 Emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) like CO₂, CH₄, N₂O due to

burning fossil fuels, deforestation, agriculture, and industrial activities.
 Urbanisation and land-use changes.

Impacts:

 Rising global temperatures.

 Melting glaciers and rising sea levels.
 Increased frequency of extreme weather events.
 Threat to biodiversity and ecosystems.
 Negative effects on agriculture, water security, and human health.

B. Global Warming

Definition: The long-term heating of Earth's climate system due to human activities.

Causes:

 Greenhouse effect intensified by human activities.

 Deforestation reduces carbon sinks.
 Increased carbon footprint from transport and industry.

Impacts:

 Ocean acidification and coral bleaching.

 Disruption of climatic patterns.
 Increased vector-borne diseases.
 Economic losses due to natural disasters.
C. Ozone Layer Depletion

Causes:

 Emission of ozone-depleting substances (ODS) like chlorofluorocarbons

(CFCs), halons, and other similar chemicals.
 These substances break down ozone molecules in the stratosphere.

Impacts:

 Increased UV radiation reaching Earth’s surface.

 Higher risks of skin cancer, cataracts, and weakened immune systems.
 Damage to crops and marine ecosystems.

D. Acid Rain

Causes:

 Sulphur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) released from burning
fossil fuels combine with atmospheric moisture to form acids.

Impacts:

 Soil degradation and damage to crops.

 Aquatic ecosystem acidification.
 Corrosion of buildings and monuments.
 Forest decline in sensitive regions.

2. Impacts of Environmental Issues

On Human Communities:

 Health issues due to pollution and extreme weather.

 Displacement due to sea-level rise.
 Loss of livelihoods in agriculture and fisheries.

On Biodiversity:

 Extinction of species due to habitat loss.

 Coral reef destruction.
 Disruption of food chains and ecosystems.
On Global Economy:

 Reduced agricultural productivity.

 Increased healthcare costs.
 Costly disaster management and infrastructure repair.

On Agriculture:

 Crop failures due to erratic rainfall and droughts.

 Pest outbreaks and reduced soil fertility.
 Shifts in agricultural zones.

3. International Agreements and Programmes

A. Earth Summit (1992, Rio de Janeiro)

 Led to Agenda 21 for sustainable development.

 Established the CBD, UNFCCC.

B. UNFCCC (1992)

 Framework for global cooperation to combat climate change.

 Led to Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement.

C. Kyoto Protocol (1997)

 Legally binding emission reduction targets for developed countries.

 Mechanisms: Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), Joint
Implementation, and Emissions Trading.

D. Montreal Protocol (1987)

 Phased out production of ozone-depleting substances.

 Successful in healing the ozone layer.

E. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

 Conservation of biodiversity.
 Sustainable use and fair sharing of benefits from genetic resources.
F. Ramsar Convention (1971)

 Conservation and wise use of wetlands.

G. Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC)

 Prohibits development, production, stockpiling, and use of chemical

weapons.

H. UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme)

 Coordinates global environmental activities.

 Publishes reports like GEO (Global Environment Outlook).

I. CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered

Species)

 Regulates international trade in endangered flora and fauna.

4. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

 Adopted by UN in 2015; 17 goals to be achieved by 2030.
 Goals relevant to environment: Climate Action (Goal 13), Life Below
Water (Goal 14), Life on Land (Goal 15), Clean Water and Sanitation
(Goal 6), Affordable and Clean Energy (Goal 7), Responsible
Consumption and Production (Goal 12).

India’s National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC, 2008)

Eight Missions:

1. National Solar Mission – Promote solar energy.

2. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency – Reduce energy
consumption.
3. National Mission on Sustainable Habitat – Urban waste
management and building efficiency.
4. National Water Mission – Conservation and efficient water use.
5. National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem –
Preserve biodiversity and glaciers.
 6. National Mission for a Green India – Afforestation and ecosystem
services.
7. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture – Climate-resilient
agriculture.
8. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change –
Climate research and knowledge sharing.

5. Environmental Legislation in India

A. Wildlife Protection Act, 1972

 Protection of wild animals, birds, and plants.

 Creation of protected areas (National Parks, Sanctuaries).
 Prohibits poaching and trade in wildlife.

B. Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974

 Prevention and control of water pollution.

 Establishment of Central and State Pollution Control Boards.

C. Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980

 Restricts use of forest land for non-forest purposes.

 Requires Central government approval for deforestation.

D. Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

 Aims to control and prevent air pollution.

 Establishes pollution control boards.

E. Environment Protection Act, 1986

 Umbrella legislation after Bhopal Gas Tragedy.

 Authorizes central government to take measures for environmental
protection.

F. Forest Rights Act, 2006

 Recognizes rights of Scheduled Tribes and traditional forest dwellers.

 Provides access to forest land and resources for livelihood.
Key Points Summary
 Climate change and related issues are primarily caused by human
activities like fossil fuel burning, deforestation, and industrialization.
 Their impacts are global, affecting health, biodiversity, agriculture, and
the economy.
 International agreements (e.g., UNFCCC, Kyoto, Montreal) aim to
promote cooperation and sustainable development.
 India's efforts include the NAPCC and a set of environmental laws
focusing on conservation, pollution control, and community rights.
 Sustainable development is a unifying goal across national and
international efforts.

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Got it! Here's a clarified list of abbreviations for the international agreements and
programmes section from your syllabus:

International Agreements and Programmes –

Abbreviations Explained
1. UNFCCC – United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
→ A global treaty to address climate change and its impacts.
2. CBD – Convention on Biological Diversity
→ Focuses on conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use, and fair benefit-sharing.
3. CITES – Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora
→ Regulates international trade in endangered plants and animals.
4. CWC – Chemical Weapons Convention
→ Prohibits the development, production, and use of chemical weapons.
5. UNEP – United Nations Environment Programme
→ Coordinates environmental activities across the UN system and assists countries in
implementing sustainable environmental policies.
 6. SDGs – Sustainable Development Goals
→ A set of 17 global goals adopted by the UN in 2015 to promote prosperity while
protecting the planet.
7. NAPCC – National Action Plan on Climate Change (India)
→ India’s strategic plan with eight missions to combat and adapt to climate change.
8. ODS – Ozone-Depleting Substances
→ Man-made chemicals that cause the thinning of the ozone layer (e.g., CFCs).
9. GHGs – Greenhouse Gases
→ Gases that trap heat in the atmosphere, leading to global warming (e.g., CO₂, CH₄,
N₂O).

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Absolutely! Here's a detailed table listing each international agreement or programme with its
full form, year of adoption, and key outcomes or results—tailored for your exam preparation:

🌍 Key International Environmental Agreements – Detailed List

Abbreviati
Full Form Year Key Results / Outcomes
on

Established an international
framework to combat climate
United Nations
1992 (Rio change. Led to annual COP
Framework
UNFCCC Earth (Conference of Parties)
Convention on
Summit) meetings and major treaties
Climate Change
like the Kyoto Protocol (1997)
and Paris Agreement (2015).

Legally binding treaty with 3

goals: conservation of
biodiversity, sustainable use of
Convention on 1992 (Rio
resources, and fair benefit-
CBD Biological Earth
sharing. Led to the Aichi
Diversity Summit)
Biodiversity Targets and
Global Biodiversity
Framework.

CITES Convention on 1973 (came Regulates international trade in

International into force in over 38,000 species of animals
Abbreviati
Full Form Year Key Results / Outcomes
on

Trade in and plants. Classified species in

Endangered Appendices I–III based on threat
1975)
Species of Wild levels. Helped reduce illegal
Fauna and Flora wildlife trade.

Prohibits development,
production, stockpiling, and use
of chemical weapons. Overseen
Chemical 1993 (came
by the Organisation for the
CWC Weapons into force in
Prohibition of Chemical
Convention 1997)
Weapons (OPCW). Over 98%
of declared stockpiles have
been destroyed.

Coordinates global
environmental activities.
Publishes Global Environment
United Nations 1972
Outlook (GEO) reports,
UNEP Environment (Stockholm
supports countries in
Programme Conference)
environmental governance. Key
role in initiating treaties like the
Montreal Protocol.

17 global goals to be achieved

by 2030. Goals 6 (Water), 7
Sustainable
2015 (UN (Energy), 12 (Consumption), 13
SDGs Development
Summit) (Climate), 14 (Life Below
Goals
Water), and 15 (Life on Land)
are environment-focused.

India’s climate strategy with

National Action eight missions (e.g., Solar,
NAPCC Plan on Climate 2008 Sustainable Agriculture, Green
Change (India) India). Aims at adaptation and
mitigation of climate change.

Ozone-Depleting (Targeted Includes CFCs, halons, etc.

ODS under Phased out under the Montreal
Substances
Montreal Protocol, leading to recovery
Abbreviati
Full Form Year Key Results / Outcomes
on

Protocol –
of the ozone layer.
1987)

Most successful environmental

treaty. Phased out ODS like
CFCs. Amended by the Kigali
Montreal
— 1987 Amendment (2016) to phase
Protocol
down HFCs (though not ozone-
depleting, they are potent
GHGs).

Legally binding emission

reduction targets for developed
1997 (came
Kyoto countries. Introduced Clean
— into force in
Protocol Development Mechanism
2005)
(CDM). Criticised for limited
participation.

Held in Rio de Janeiro. Produced

United Nations Agenda 21, UNFCCC, CBD, and
Earth
Conference on Rio Declaration on Environment
Summit 1992
Environment and and Development. Defined
(UNCED)
Development sustainable development for
global governance.

First global treaty for

Convention on conservation of wetlands. Over
1971 (came
Ramsar Wetlands of 2,400 wetlands designated as
into force
Convention International Ramsar Sites globally. India
1975)
Importance has over 80 Ramsar Sites (as of
2025).

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Here are detailed notes on key environmental legislations in India, including their years,
objectives, key provisions, and impact—perfect for exam preparation:

📜 Environment Legislation in India

India’s environmental legislation is designed to protect ecosystems, human health, and
biodiversity, and to regulate pollution and resource use.

1. Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972

 Objective: To protect wild animals, birds, and plants; to ensure

ecological and environmental security.
 Key Provisions:
o Establishes protected areas: National Parks, Wildlife
Sanctuaries, and Biosphere Reserves.
o Prohibits hunting and poaching of endangered species.
o Creation of schedules listing species with varying levels of
protection (Schedule I = highest protection).
o Provides for Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB).
 Amendments:
o 2002: Strengthened penalties.
o 2022 Amendment: Increased fines and included CITES species.

2. Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974

 Objective: To prevent and control water pollution; to maintain or

restore the wholesomeness of water.
 Key Provisions:
o Establishes Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and
State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs).
o Industries must obtain consent to operate from SPCBs.
o Prohibits discharge of pollutants into water bodies without
treatment.
 Significance: First major environmental law post-independence.
3. Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980

 Objective: To conserve forests and regulate the diversion of forest

land for non-forest purposes.
 Key Provisions:
o Requires central government approval before forest land can
be diverted.
o Encourages afforestation and compensatory afforestation.
o Addresses encroachments and aims to maintain forest cover.
 Impact: Slowed deforestation and enabled monitoring of forest
clearance.

4. Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

 Objective: To prevent, control, and reduce air pollution.

 Key Provisions:
o Authorizes CPCB and SPCBs to monitor and control air
pollution.
o Declares air pollution control areas where stricter norms
apply.
o Industrial units in these areas must obtain clearances.
o Defines air pollutants and sets emission standards.
 Significance: First legislation specifically addressing air quality.

5. Environment (Protection) Act, 1986

 Objective: To provide a comprehensive framework for the protection

and improvement of the environment.
 Context: Enacted after the Bhopal Gas Tragedy (1984).
 Key Provisions:
o Empowers the central government to take all necessary
actions for protecting the environment.
o Enables setting of environmental standards and regulating
hazardous substances.
o Provides for Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA).
o Non-compliance can result in imprisonment up to 5 years
and/or fine.
 Umbrella Legislation: Covers gaps in other environmental laws.
6. Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers
(Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006

 Also known as: Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006

 Objective: To recognize and vest the forest rights and occupation of
forest land to forest-dwelling Scheduled Tribes (STs) and other
traditional forest dwellers (OTFDs).
 Key Provisions:
o Individual and community rights over forest land.
o Right to minor forest produce (e.g., bamboo, honey, fruits).
o Right to protect, regenerate, or manage forests.
o Gram Sabha is the authority to initiate rights recognition.
 Significance: Empowers forest communities and promotes
decentralized forest governance.

✅ Quick Summary Table

Yea Key Institutions /
Act Objective
r Provisions

Wildlife 197 Wildlife and habitat Schedules of protection;

Protection Act 2 protection creation of Protected Areas

197 Control water CPCB and SPCBs; “Consent to

Water Act
4 pollution Operate”

Forest 198 Central approval for land

Prevent deforestation
Conservation Act 0 diversion

198 Declaring air pollution control

Air Act Control air pollution
1 areas

Environment 198 Comprehensive

Empowering central govt; EIA
Protection Act 6 environmental law

Forest Rights 200 Rights of tribal and Individual and community

Act (FRA) 6 forest dwellers rights; Gram Sabha authority

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