Academic and Career Skills Top Tips

Writing essays and other assignments

 Writing at University

During your degree at Lincoln University you will complete essays, reports, and other kinds of
written assignments. These assignments will … You might be asked to write …

• help you develop a deeper understanding of the subject  an essay

 a field trip report
• help you develop research, thinking and communication
 a case study
skills
 a business report
• and, of course, allow your lecturer to assess your  a critique or review
understanding  a laboratory report
 an annotated bibliography

What is “good” academic writing? (What are your lecturers looking for?)
Each type of assignment will have slightly different purposes and formats, but all assignments share
some common features. Academic writing is …
1. Relevant
 addresses the question which was asked
2. Well-researched
 shows you have read widely and critically, and selected appropriate information
3. Reasoned
 includes analysis (i.e interpreting or showing the significance of what you have read, not
just describing, or repeating information)
 presents an argument (or point of view, or academic opinion)
 uses evidence to support points
 presents points in a logical order
4. Structured
 includes an introduction, body or discussion, and conclusion (as well as any other specific
sections your lecturer requires)
5. Referenced
 includes information about the source of the evidence you have used
6. Readable
 is written clearly and explicitly (academic writers do not “imply” – they write in a “direct”
way)
 is written in a concise and formal style
 is well presented (e.g. correct grammar and spelling, required layout)

Not sure what an “academic opinion “ is ? Or how to write in a “formal style”?

See page 12 for more resources that will help you become a better academic writer.
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You cannot research and write essays and other assignments in a day – researching, drafting
and editing well takes time.

Successful writers work through the five stages below to complete an assignment. Approaching
writing as a series of steps can help to make the task seem more manageable: it breaks the
writing into a series of smaller tasks, and it can help you to manage your time more efficiently.

That doesn’t mean it is a neat linear process! You may find you have to return to some of the
stages several times. Also, many writers prefer to start writing early, developing a plan as they
write and then re-organising the ideas they have generated into a complete first draft.
Whichever approach you use, however, careful preparation, thinking and reviewing are
essential to produce clear, organised writing.

See pp 4-6
• Analyse the question
for more
Prepare
• Make a research plan
detail

See p 7
• Search for information for more
• Read widely and critically
Research detail

• Develop a writing plan (key points and evidence or detail to See p 8

Organise support each point) for more
detail

See pp 8-9
• Using your writing plan as a guide, start writing
Write for more
detail

• Leave your draft for a few days before revising for content
See pp 10-11
• Edit for structure and style
Review for more
• Proof read for errors and presentation
detail

Having difficulty getting started? Not sure which type of writing process suits you best?

See page 12 for more resources that will help you become a more efficient writer.

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Prepare

Choose the topic

• Consider the time and resources available

• Consider your interests and abilities

Analyse the question

• Identify the topic

• Identify the focus
• Identify the instruction
e.g. Discuss the effects of the goldrush of the 1860s on New Zealand society and the
environment.
Topic = the 1860s goldrush
Focus = its effects on NZ society and the environment
Instruction = discuss

• Check the marking guide and other criteria for the assignment
• Rephrase the question in your own words to check your understanding

Develop a research plan

• Identify the related issues and concepts you have encountered in the course so far
• Generate more specific questions that explore the topic

e.g. Discuss the differences between glaciated and stream-eroded valleys.

= what are the characteristics of glaciated valleys?
= what are the characteristics of stream-eroded valleys?
= what are the differences between the two?
= why do these differences occur?

• Develop a tentative writing plan

Would you like to find out more about analysing assignment questions?
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See page 12 for more resources that will help you interpret those tricky questions
A few hints on interpreting assignment instruction words:
Instruction words in assignment questions tell you what type of text to write.
It is always risky to try to precisely define, in isolation, the words used in essay instructions; these
words can be used in slightly different ways in different disciplines and by different lecturers.
When you are interpreting assignment questions, consider also the following:
 what level is the course?
 what are the course objectives?
 what other guidelines have you been given by the lecturer?

Finally, don't forget to ask for clarification from your course tutor, your lecturer, or a Learning
Advisor, if you are unsure about what is required in an assignment

Describe ? Analyse??: What’s the difference?

Instruction words can be categorised into the three general types in the diagram below. Most
assignments require both description and analysis.

describe / explain analyse / interpret evaluate

Describe ... Analyse ….

asks questions such as wants you to ... asks questions such as ... wants you to ...
...
describe how ? interpret
who ?
summarise why ? synthesise
what ?
outline what is the significance ? show inter-relationships
when ?
“so what” ? show the significance of
where ?
question

reason

(sometimes) evaluate

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Some commonly used instruction words:
Argue: Set out a reasoned case in support of a point of view.
Analyse: Separate the subject into its main parts and discuss the significance of the
parts and their inter-relationships.
Compare: Present and discuss the similarities of two (or more) things. It is usually
appropriate to discuss the differences at the same time.
Contrast: Present and discuss dissimilarities or differences between two (or more)
things. Often, questions will ask you to compare and contrast.

Criticise: Weigh up the issues and make a judgement. You are expected to discuss the
(or critique; limitations as well as the merits or contributions.
critically discuss)

Define: Give a clear concise meaning. You should keep in mind the class to which a
thing belongs and whatever differentiates the particular object from all others
in that class.

Describe: Give a detailed account of the main features of a subject.

(or identify, state)
Diagram: Present a drawing, chart, or plan, with clear concise labels. In some cases you
should also include a brief explanation or description.
Discuss: Examine and analyse carefully all aspects of a topic. Present considerations
for and against.
Evaluate: Assess the merits and limitations of something. Weigh up the evidence and
give a judgement.

Examine: Investigate or research a topic and discuss in detail.

Explain: Clarify or make clear the meaning or significance of something; give the
reasons or causes for something; or show how something has developed or
occurred.
Illustrate: Explain or clarify your answer by presenting a figure, picture, diagram or
concrete example.
Interpret: Show the meaning or significance of information.

Justify: Prove or show grounds for your decisions or conclusions.

List: Give the key points in a concise form. Notes, headings, tables, numbered
(or enumerate) points may be appropriate.
Review: Analyse and discuss the key points or issues. Critically examine ideas and
themes.

Summarise: Give the main points or facts in a condensed form. Details, and usually
illustrations or examples, may be omitted.
(or outline)

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Research

Stay focused

• Keep the question in front of you while you read

• Keep reviewing your tentative plan

Search for information

• Read widely
• Read efficiently - use skills of previewing and skimming to identify potentially
useful information

Read critically

• Look for different points of view

• Question what you read
• Question the authority of the author

Make notes

• Be selective
• Summarise and paraphrase (don't just copy!)
• Begin sorting and grouping information
• Keep detailed bibliographic information for accurate referencing

Would you like to become a more effective and efficient researcher?

See page 12 for more resources.

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Organise

Reflect / think
• Try to clarify your central idea or "answer" to the question
• If you cannot come up with a central idea, continue reading, thinking and talking, or try
some "exploratory" writing about the topic

Summarise your "answer"

• Write your answer or central idea in one or two sentences

Develop a writing plan

• Create an outline, a mind map, or flow chart
• Identify key points to support or explain your central idea
• Decide on a logical order for the points
• Identify evidence or detail to support points

Write
Get the ideas down on paper
• Start with the easiest section of your plan
• Don't aim for perfection on this first draft

Use paragraphs to highlight logical structure

• Develop each key point into one paragraph
• Express the main idea in the first one or two sentences
• Use the rest of the paragraph to expand, support or explain that point
• Include the source of all your evidence (i.e. provide a reference)

Write an introduction

Write a conclusion

Having difficulty organising your ideas? Can’t seem to get those ideas on paper?
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See page 12 for more resources that will help you become a better academic writer.
All types of academic writing (essays, reports etc) include clear introductions and conclusions, and a
series of logically ordered paragraphs.

An introduction “leads the

reader in” to your essay or Introduction
report and provides a “map” of  Introduces the topic (e.g. background, key definitions,
what they will read. “problem” being addressed)
 States the central idea (the “thesis”) and/or the purpose of
Usually it is 5 – 10% of the total
the paper
word count.
 Previews the key points

Body (discussion) paragraphs

Para 1
Paragraphs are the “building
blocks” of your essay or report.  Focuses on a key point related to the theme of the
Each paragraph introduces and essay
develops a key point to back up  Includes supporting detail for the key idea
the overall “thesis” or theme of
your essay.
Link word or phrase:
Usually the key point is Connects 2 consecutive paragraphs
expressed in the first few
sentences, and the rest of the
paragraph explains the point in
more detail and provides Para 2
evidence to support the point.

When you use the opinions and

findings of others as evidence, Link
you need to include a reference
(citation).
Para 3
(If you are not sure how to reference,
check out the resources on p.12)

(Continue with as many paragraphs as needed)

A conclusion draws together the

ideas you have discussed and
provides a sense of “finality”
Conclusion
with a strong finishing  Summarises main points
statement.  Reinforces theme or central idea
 Finishes with a final comment
Usually it is 5 – 10% of the total
word count.

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See page 12 for more resources on structure, including examples of essays..
 Review
If you have time, leave your draft for a few days before revising it. Then ask yourself the following questions
about the content, structure, and style of your work. Don’t try to check for everything at once!

Try to get feedback from someone else on the general clarity and sense of your work.

1. Argument & ideas

Focus
 Have you answered (all parts of) the question?
 Is the thesis or central theme of the paper clear?
 Is the purpose or goal of the paper clear?

Logical flow
 Is there a series of clearly identifiable key points?
 Are all the points related to the central theme?
 Are all the points presented in a logical order?

Use of Evidence
 Is each point supported by appropriate and reliable evidence?
 Have you analysed, as well as reported, the evidence?
 Have you considered opposing views?

Relevance
 Is all the material relevant to the question?

Authorship
 Is it written in your own words?
 Are other people's ideas acknowledged (referenced)?

2. Structure

Paragraphs
 Does each paragraph focus on one main point?
 Does each sentence in the paragraph relate to the main point of the paragraph?
 Does each sentence follow on logically from the previous one?

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Flow
 Are there clear links between paragraphs and between sections?

Introduction
 Does the introduction clearly identify the topic of the paper?
 Is there a clear thesis (or purpose) statement in the introduction?
 Does the introduction give the reader an idea about what is to follow?

Conclusion
 Does the conclusion sum up the main points of the paper?
 Does the conclusion remind the reader of your thesis (or central theme)?
 Does the conclusion have a sense of finality?

3. Clarity & usage

Clarity
 Is the meaning of each sentence clear?

Accuracy
 Have you checked the grammar, punctuation and spelling?
(Have you used the computer spell check and then re-checked it yourself?
Have you checked for the types of mistakes you commonly make?)

Style
 Is your writing concise?
(e.g. Have you avoided repetition ? Have you avoided unnecessary jargon, clichés
and qualifiers?)
 Have you followed the formal conventions of academic writing ?
(e.g. Have you avoided contractions ? Have you avoided informal vocabulary?)

4. Presentation

 Are you within 10% of the word limit?

 Have you met the presentation requirements
(e.g. Have you included a title page? Have you used double spacing?)
 Have you used the appropriate referencing style? (e.g. APA, Chicago)

Not sure how best to revise and edit your work? See page 12 for more resources. 11
 Need more advice?

For further information

or advice
visit our website at
http://ltl.lincoln.ac.nz/
or ask at the Service Point
about the workshops,
drop-in sessions, and
individual appointments
we offer.

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