Dissertation
Dissertation
Submitted by
Ankita Ranout
Roll No: 230110106
Batch-2023-2025
Submitted by
Ankita Ranout
Roll No: 230110106
Batch-2023-2025
The part of work presented in this dissertation has not been submitted either in part or in full to
this or any other university for the award of any degree.
Ankita Ranout
Supervisor
(DR.EKTA SHARMA)
Assistant Professor
Department of Chemistry
Swami Vivekanand Institute of Engineering &
Technology
Acknowledgement
I would like to convey my sincere gratitude and respect to Mrs Gurwinder Kaur for giving
me an opportunity to do this project and providing facilities for doing project work.
I am also thankful to Dr Ekta Sharma for her invaluable suggestions, constructive criticism,
motivation and guidance for carrying out related experiment and for preparing the associated
reports and presentation. Her encouragement towards the current topic, lively interactions,
valuable guidance, and constant encouragement throughout the course of my project helped
me a lot in this project work which also created an area of interest for my professional career
ahead.
I would like to thank all the teachers, lab assistants and everyone who helped me in my
project work and all the members of Swami Vivekanand Institute of Engineering &
Technology who provided a comfortable environment while working on my project. I would
like to express my sincere gratitude to my friends and colleagues for their help in the
laboratory, systematic placement and presentation of the information in this project work.
Ankita Ranout
(M.Sc. Chemistry)
4
INDEX
1 Abstract 7
2 Introduction 8
3 Design of Lithium-ion 10
Batteries
4 Characteristics of 25
Lithium-ion Batteries
6 Applications of Lithium-ion 32
Batteries
8 Conclusion 39
9 References 42
10 Plagiarism
5
Abstract
Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have transformed the way we store and utilize energy in today's
world. This project takes a global view of LIBs; how they are prepared, their properties,
applications and future. On the preparation side, there are different components that are put
together, including the anodes, cathodes, electrolytes, and separators, to make high-performance
cells. There are several properties of LIBs that are impressive in terms of energy storage, such as
high energy density, lightweight, usable, reusable, and long-lasting. LIBs have an extensive
variety of applications, which include running portable electronics, to powering electric
vehicles, to storing renewable energy. As the world continues to develop in technology,
sustainability, and the push for an electrified world the importance of LIBs is increasing.
Investigative research continues in developing to make improved performance, safety, and
versatility. Some of the innovations that contribute to better quality cells include solid-state
batteries and other developing technologies. This project shows the importance of LIBs with
respect to the future of energy storage, and discusses possible paths to achieve higher
performance and work with wider use.
6
Introduction
Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have transformed the way we store and use energy. Known
for their high energy density, recharge ability, and versatile applications, they have become an
essential part of our everyday lives. Whether it’s powering smartphones, laptops, electric cars,
or storing solar energy, LIBs are the backbone of modern energy systems.
Fig-1
At the heart of every LIB are a few key components: an anode, a cathode, an electrolyte,
and a separator. These parts work together to store and release energy efficiently. It’s this design
that powers the portable electronics we rely on daily—helping us stay connected, productive,
and mobile.
But lithium-ion batteries aren’t just about convenience. They play a critical role in
renewable energy systems as well. By storing excess energy from solar panels or wind turbines,
LIBs help balance energy supply and demand. This allows homes and power grids to access
clean energy even when the sun isn’t shining or the wind isn’t blowing, making LIBs a key
enabler of a sustainable energy future.
7
Fig-2
In the transportation sector, lithium-ion batteries are powering the shift to electric and
hybrid vehicles, reducing our reliance on fossil fuels and helping cut carbon emissions. This
shift is fueling rapid innovation—resulting in longer battery ranges, faster charging, and
enhanced safety.
Fig-3
Conclusion
In short, lithium-ion batteries are more than just a power source—they’re a driving force
behind the clean energy transition. From the phones in our hands to the cars we drive and the
energy grids of tomorrow, LIBs are helping to build a world that’s cleaner, smarter, and more
efficient.
8
DESIGN OF LITHIUM ION BATTERIES
Fig-4
In a lithium-ion battery, the anode is one of the two essential electrodes where key
electrochemical reactions take place — both during charging and discharging. You can think of
the anode as the home base for lithium ions when the battery is storing energy.
9
The material most commonly used for the anode is graphite, a type of carbon that has a
layered structure perfect for "hosting" lithium ions. Here's how it works:
Fig-5
During charging, lithium ions move from the cathode across the electrolyte and embed
themselves neatly between the layers of graphite at the anode. This is called intercalation —
slipping lithium ions between the layers without damaging the structure.
During discharging, when the battery is being used, those lithium ions leave the graphite
anode and travel back to the cathode, creating an electric current that powers your device.
Why graphite? It's stable, reliable, and allows lithium ions to move in and out easily
without breaking down — exactly what’s needed for repeated charge/discharge cycles.
Apart from graphite, other advanced carbon materials like carbon nanotubes, graphene,
and carbon composites are also being explored. These materials offer even better conductivity,
longer battery life, and improved safety features.
In simple terms:
10
The anode acts like a sponge that soaks up lithium ions during charging and releases
them when the battery powers a device — a crucial part of the battery’s smooth operation.
Opposite to the anode, the cathode is where lithium ions head during battery discharge
— it’s where they settle after traveling through the electrolyte.
The cathode is incredibly important because it defines many of the battery’s main
performance metrics:
Cathodes are usually made from lithium metal oxides, materials that combine lithium
with metals like cobalt, iron, or manganese. These oxides can absorb and release lithium ions
during each charge/discharge cycle.
Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LiCoO₂): Known for high energy density and stability, making it
perfect for portable electronics like smartphones and laptops.
11
Fig-6
Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO₄): Praised for being extremely safe and thermally
stable, ideal for electric vehicles (EVs) and large battery storage systems.
Fig-7
12
Lithium Manganese Oxide (LiMn₂O₄): Offers a good balance between cost, energy
output, and stability, used in power tools and medical devices.
Other advanced materials like NCM (Nickel Cobalt Manganese) are also gaining
popularity because they allow manufacturers to fine-tune battery performance to specific needs,
like boosting lifespan or energy output.
In short:
The cathode acts like the "destination" for lithium ions during battery use — and its
material largely decides how powerful and durable the battery will be.
The electrolyte is the invisible but essential bridge that allows lithium ions to move
between the anode and cathode while keeping them physically separated.
A lithium salt, such as LiPF₆, LiBF₄, or LiClO₄, which provides lithium ions for
transport.
Lithium ions travel through the electrolyte between the anode and cathode.
13
Electrons travel around an external circuit (not through the electrolyte) to power your
device.
In essence:
The electrolyte serves as the liquid road that lithium ions speed down during every
charge and discharge cycle, making smooth battery operation possible.
Finally, we have the separator — a thin but mighty barrier placed between the anode and
cathode.
Its main job? Preventing the anode and cathode from touching which would cause a
dangerous short circuit and potentially a fire or explosion. Despite being a barrier, the separator
is porous, allowing lithium ions (but not electrons) to pass through.
Polyethylene (PE)
Polypropylene (PP)
14
They are carefully engineered to:
Sometimes, separators are coated with ceramic layers to boost heat resistance and reduce
risks even further.
In simple terms:
The separator is like a safety net, making sure the battery runs efficiently and safely
without any unwanted internal shortcuts.
Conclusion:
Every part of a lithium-ion battery — the anode, cathode, electrolyte, and separator —
works together like a finely tuned orchestra.
15
Understanding these components helps explain why lithium-ion batteries have become
the powerhouse technology behind smartphones, electric vehicles, and renewable energy
systems.
This is the foundational step in battery production. Think of it like making the perfect
dough before baking bread—what goes in and how well it’s blended determines the quality of
the final product.
Fig-8
Cathode Material (Positive Electrode): Made from lithium compounds like lithium cobalt
oxide (LiCoO₂), lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO₄), or nickel manganese cobalt (NMC).
These materials are selected based on energy density, cycle life, cost, and safety.
Binders: These are like glue. Materials like PVDF or CMC bind the particles together
and help them stick to metal foil surfaces.
Conductive Additives: These include carbon black or extra graphite particles that
improve the electrical conductivity of the electrode, allowing electrons to move freely
during charge/discharge cycles.
c. Mixing Process
All components (active materials, binders, and additives) are mixed together using either:
Wet mixing: Where a solvent like NMP or water is added to create a slurry.
Ball milling: Uses mechanical grinding to break down particles and achieve a consistent
mixture.
The goal is to achieve uniform and stable slurry, which ensures consistent electrode quality.
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d. Coating on Metal Foils
Slurry coating
The coated foil forms a thin, even layer which is essential for predictable battery
performance.
Once coated, the electrodes are dried in ovens to remove any remaining solvent. Then they
undergo:
18
Fig-9
After making the electrodes, the next step is putting together the actual battery cell. This
part is all about precise layering and structure.
The separator is a thin, porous film that keeps the anode and cathode from touching
(preventing short circuits), but still lets lithium ions pass through during charging and
discharging.
b. Winding or Stacking
19
Fig -10.
Each design has benefits—cylindrical cells are durable and easy to manufacture, while
prismatic cells save space and are great for compact battery packs.
Metal tabs (usually copper for the anode, aluminum for the cathode) are connected to the
electrodes. These serve as current collectors, channeling electrons in and out of the cell during
operation.
The whole layered structure is compressed to ensure good contact and structural
integrity. Afterward, the cell is sealed to keep out moisture and prevent leaks. This could
involve:
This step ensures the battery is safe, reliable, and performs as expected under various
conditions.
a. Sealing Techniques
After the internal components are packed and aligned, the outer casing is sealed using:
Each battery goes through multiple tests before it's ready for use:
21
Fig-11
Temperature Testing: Cells are tested under both high and low temperatures to ensure
they can function in extreme environments like hot summers or cold winters.
22
Fig-12
Abuse Testing: Includes overcharging, short-circuiting, nail penetration, and even fire
exposure. These tests help reveal any hidden dangers or failure points.
Every single step in this process—from mixing powders to final testing—is carefully
controlled to make sure the battery:
That’s why lithium-ion batteries are trusted in everything from smartphones and laptops
to electric cars, medical devices, and even spacecraft.
23
Characteristics of Lithium-Ion Batteries
What it means:
High energy density means that a battery can store a lot of energy in a relatively small
size and weight. When it comes to lithium-ion batteries, this characteristic is what makes them
so valuable compared to other rechargeable batteries.
Fig-13
Why it matters:
In short:
High energy density is the reason lithium-ion batteries power everything from tiny
earbuds to electric cars.
Fig-14
What it means:
Lithium-ion batteries are much lighter and smaller than older types like lead-acid or
nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) batteries.
25
Fig-15
Key points:
Weight: They use lightweight materials like lithium compounds and lightweight current
collectors, helping reduce the total weight of devices — a major win for portability and
comfort.
Size: Thanks to smart engineering and high-energy materials, lithium-ion batteries can
be manufactured in very compact forms, fitting even into slim smartphones and
smartwatches without sacrificing performance.
Applications: Their light, compact nature makes them perfect for portable electronics,
where both space and weight savings are crucial.
In short:
This is why your gadgets can stay slim, sleek, and powerful!
3. Rechargeability
26
What it means:
Rechargeability means lithium-ion batteries can be charged and used again hundreds to
thousands of times without significant loss of capacity.
Fig-16
Benefits:
Long Cycle Life: They can endure many charging cycles before noticeable decline,
making them very durable.
Sustainability: Because they last longer and are rechargeable, they help reduce waste and
the need for frequent replacements — good for the planet!
Cost-Effectiveness: While lithium-ion batteries might cost more upfront, their long
lifespan makes them cheaper over time.
Convenience: No need to keep buying new batteries — just recharge and go!
In short:
Rechargeability makes lithium-ion batteries a long-term, eco-friendly, and convenient
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solution.
What it means:
When a battery isn’t being used, it still slowly loses its charge over time — that's called
self-discharge. Lithium-ion batteries have a very low self-discharge rate compared to other
batteries.
Fig-17
Why it matters:
Retention of Charge: They can hold onto their charge for months or even years without
significant energy loss.
Longer Shelf Life: You can store them for a long time without worrying about them
dying.
Convenience and Reliability: Devices powered by lithium-ion batteries stay ready to use,
even after sitting idle for a while.
Lithium-ion batteries are reliable, low-maintenance power sources, ready when you need
them.
What it means:
Lithium-ion batteries last longer than older rechargeable batteries like nickel-cadmium
(NiCd) or nickel-metal hydride (NiMH).
Fig-18
Why lithium-ion batteries last longer:
High Cycle Life: They can survive hundreds to thousands of charge/discharge cycles
without serious loss of capacity.
Minimal Memory Effect: Unlike NiCd or NiMH batteries, lithium-ion batteries don’t
suffer from "memory effect" — the issue where batteries "forget" their full capacity if
29
not fully discharged.
Chemical Stability: They resist corrosion and self-discharge better, staying reliable over
time.
In short:
Lithium-ion batteries offer incredible longevity, making them the smart choice for
everything from smartphones to electric cars.
30
Applications of Lithium-Ion Batteries
Lithium-ion batteries have become the cornerstone of modern energy storage, powering
everything from tiny earbuds to electric cars and satellites. Their high energy density, long life,
and lightweight design make them incredibly versatile. Let’s dive into the major sectors where
lithium-ion batteries are revolutionizing technology:
Fig-19
1. Portable Electronics
Why Lithium-Ion?
31
Lightweight, enabling sleek and slim device designs
Impact:
Thanks to lithium-ion batteries, consumers enjoy longer battery life, faster charging, and
thinner, lighter gadgets. Without them, the portability and performance of modern electronics
would be severely limited.
Why Lithium-Ion?
Impact:
These batteries are powering the transition from fossil fuels to clean electric
transportation. With better energy efficiency and range, they’re helping combat climate change
and reduce urban air pollution.
29
3. Renewable Energy Storage
Examples: Solar panel battery banks, wind energy storage systems, Tesla Powerwall
Why Lithium-Ion?
Fig-20
Impact:
29
4. Consumer Electronics
Why Lithium-Ion?
Consistent performance
Impact:
5. Medical Devices
Why Lithium-Ion?
32
Impact:
These batteries are critical to patient care, ensuring that life-saving devices work
continuously without frequent recharging or replacement.
Why Lithium-Ion?
Fig-21
33
Impact:
They reduce the payload weight and extend operational time in defense missions and
space exploration, improving mission success rates and reducing costs.
Why Lithium-Ion?
Fig-22
34
Impact:
They are key to building a stable, decentralized energy grid, capable of integrating
renewable sources and ensuring continuous power supply.
Why Lithium-Ion?
No direct emissions
Impact:
These batteries are helping make maritime transportation cleaner and more sustainable,
especially in ports and environmentally sensitive waters.
35
The Expanding Role of Lithium-ion Technology
Lithium-ion batteries are getting smarter and better, opening up exciting possibilities
across many industries. Let’s take a look at what’s coming next:
36
The Future of Lithium-ion Batteries: What’s Coming
Next
Lithium-ion batteries are constantly improving, and some of the most exciting changes
are just around the corner. Let’s break down what’s happening and why it matters.
Wearable Tech
Think smartwatches, fitness bands, or medical monitoring devices. These need
batteries that are light, flexible, and long-lasting. New developments in lithium-ion
37
battery design are making this possible, helping wearable tech become more comfortable
and convenient.
Space Missions
Lithium-ion batteries are also powering the future of space travel. They’re used
in satellites, space rovers, and other spacecraft because they’re lightweight, reliable, and
can store a lot of energy. Future missions to explore distant planets will rely heavily on
them.
In a Nutshell
The future of lithium-ion batteries is bright. With safer solid-state designs, better
materials, and more powerful features, they’re set to transform how we use energy. Whether it’s
powering smart gadgets, helping the shift to clean energy, or fueling space missions, lithium-ion
batteries will play a huge role in building a more efficient, innovative, and sustainable world
38
Conclusion:
Lithium-ion batteries have become essential to modern life. They power everything from
our phones and laptops to electric cars and renewable energy systems. Their popularity comes
from their ability to store a lot of energy in a small, lightweight package. Plus, they’re
rechargeable and incredibly versatile, which has helped drive major progress in many areas of
technology.
Looking ahead, lithium-ion batteries will be at the heart of new and emerging
technologies. They’ll help power the growing world of smart devices (like those in the Internet
of Things), wearable tech (like fitness trackers and medical monitors), and even space missions.
Their role in these areas will bring more convenience, new capabilities, and exciting innovation.
Perhaps most importantly, lithium-ion batteries are helping the world shift toward clean
energy. They make it possible to store solar and wind power and keep electricity flowing even
when the sun isn’t shining or the wind isn’t blowing. They’ll also work alongside smart grids to
manage energy more efficiently.
As the world becomes more focused on sustainability and reducing the effects of climate
change, lithium-ion batteries will continue to be a key part of the solution—helping us rely less
on fossil fuels and move toward a cleaner, greener future.
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Sure! Here’s a short and simple summary you can use for a slide or quick presentation:
Ongoing Innovation:
Research is improving battery materials for better performance, safety, and faster
charging—especially with solid-state technology.
Future-Ready:
These batteries will support emerging tech like IoT, wearables, and space
missions, making devices smarter and more efficient.
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Websites:
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