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UNIT V - STABILITY CONTROL OF EV’S

Electronics Stability Control: Vehicle Model, Control Design for Differential Braking Based Systems, Steer-
By-Wire System, Independent All-Wheel Drive Torque Control: Active Automotive Suspensions: H2
Optimal Control, LQR Formulation for Active Suspension Design, Using Invariant Points, Sky-Hook
Damping Controller, Control with Hydraulic Actuators, Simulation Tools.

Electronics Stability Control:

Introduction
➢ Vehicle stability control systems that prevent vehicles from spinning and drifting out have been
developed and recently commercialized by several automotive manufacturers. Such stability control
systems are also often referred to as yaw stability control systems or electronic stability control
systems.

Fig. 1. Functioning of yaw control system

➢ In this figure, the lower curve shows the trajectory that the vehicle would follow in response to a
steering input from the driver if the road were dry and had a high tire-road friction coefficient. In this
case the high friction coefficient is able to provide the lateral force required by the vehicle to
negotiate the curved road.
➢ Electronic Stability Control (ESC), also known as Electronic Stability Program (ESP), is a crucial
active safety system that helps prevent a vehicle from skidding and improves stability during
cornering, braking, and sudden maneuvers.
➢ If the coefficient of friction were small or if the vehicle speed were too high, then the vehicle would
not follow the nominal motion expected by the driver - it would instead travel on a trajectory of
larger radius, as shown in the upper curve of Figure -1.
➢ The function of the yaw control system is to restore the yaw velocity of the vehicle as much as
possible to the nominal motion expected by the driver. If the friction coefficient is very small, it
might not be possible to entirely achieve the nominal yaw rate motion that would be achieved by the
driver on a high friction coefficient road surface.
➢ Automotive manufacturers have used a variety of different names for yaw stability control systems.
These names include VSA (vehicle stability assist), VDC (vehicle dynamics control), VSC (vehicle
stability control), ESP (electronic stability program), ESC (electronic stability control) and DYC
(direct yaw control).

Types of stability control systems

Three types of stability control systems have been proposed and developed for yaw control:
1) Differential Braking
Systems which utilize the ABS brake system on the vehicle to apply differential braking between the right
and left wheels to control yaw moment.
2) Steer-by-Wire
Systems which modify the driver's steering angle input and add a correction steering angle to the wheels
3) Active Torque Distribution
Systems which utilize active differentials and all wheel drive technology to independently control the drive
torque distributed to each wheel and thus provide active control of both traction and yaw moment.

DIFFERENTIAL BRAKING SYSTEMS

➢ Differential braking systems typically utilize solenoid based hydraulic modulators to change the
brake pressures at the four wheels. Creating differential braking by increasing the brake pressure at
the left wheels compared to the right wheels, a counter-clockwise yaw moment is generated.

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➢ Likewise, increasing the brake pressure at the right wheels compared to the left wheels creates a
clockwise yaw moment. The sensor set used by a differential braking system typically consists of
four wheel speeds, a yaw rate sensor, a steering angle sensor, a lateral accelerometer and brake
pressure sensors.

Vehicle model
➢ The vehicle model used to study a differential braking based yaw stability control system will
typically have seven degrees of freedom. The lateral and longitudinal velocities of the vehicle (x and
y respectively) and the yaw rate ld/ constitute three degrees of freedom related to the vehicle body.
The wheel velocities of the four wheels ( w ff, w fr, wrf and wrr )
➢ constitute the other four degrees of freedom. Note that the first subscript in the symbols for the wheel
velocities is used to denote front or rear wheel and the second subscript is used to denote left or right
wheel. Figure 8-2 shows the seven degrees of freedom of the vehicle model.

Fig. 2. Degrees of freedom for vehicle model for differential braking based system

Vehicle Body Equations

Let the front wheel steering angle be denoted by 6. Let the longitudinal tire forces at the front left, front
right, rear left and rear right tires be given by Fxft, Fgr , Fxrt and FXrr respectively. Let the lateral forces at
the front left, front right, rear left and rear right tires be denoted by Fyft , Fyfr, Fyre and Fyrr respectively.

Then the equations of motion of the vehicle body are

Here the lengths I f , lr and eW refer to the longitudinal distance from the c.g. to the front wheels,
longitudinal distance from the c.g. to the rear wheels and the lateral distance between left and right wheels
(track width) respectively.

Slip Angle and Slip Ratio

Define the slip angles at the front and rear tires as follows

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Define the longitudinal slip ratios at each of the 4 wheels using the following equations

Control architecture

Fig 3. Yaw stability control system

➢ The control architecture for the yaw stability control system is hierarchical and is shown in Figure 8-
3. The upper controller has the objective of ensuring yaw stability control and assumes that it can
command any desired value of yaw torque. It uses measurements from wheel speed sensors,
➢ a yaw rate sensor, a lateral accelerometer and a steering angle sensor. Using these measurements and
a control law to be discussed in the following sub-sections, it computes the desired value of yaw
torque.
➢ The lower controller ensures that the desired value of yaw torque commanded by

Lower controller design

The lower controller determines the brake pressure at each wheel, so as to provide a net yaw torque that
tracks the desired value for yaw torque determined by the upper controller.

Upper controller design

The objective of the upper controller is to determine the desired yaw torque for the vehicle so as to
track the target yaw rate and target slip angle discussed in section 8.2.5. The sliding mode control design
methodology has been used by several researchers to achieve the objectives of tracking yaw rate and slip
angle A good introduction to the general theory of sliding surface control can be found in the text by Slotine
and Li (1991). The sliding surface is chosen so as to achieve either yaw rate tracking or slip angle tracking
or a combination of both.

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STEER-BY-WIRE SYSTEMS
In the use of a steer-by-wire system for yaw stability control, the front wheel steering angle is
determined as a sum of two components. One component is determined directly by the driver from hislher
steering wheel angle input. The other component is decided by the steer-by-wire controller, as shown in
Figure 8-4. In other words, the steer-by-wire controller modifies the driver's steering command so as to
ensure "skid prevention" or "skid control". This must be done in such a way that it does not interfere with
the vehicle's response in following the path desired by the driver.

Fig. 4. Structure of steer-by-wire stability control system

Choice of output for decoupling

In path following the driver keeps the car - considered as a single point mass m - on the desired path, as
shown in Figure 8-5. She does this by applying a desired lateral acceleration ayp to the mass m in order to
re-orient the velocity vector of the vehicle so that it remains tangential to the desired path.

Fig. 5. The path following task of the driver

➢ The driver has a secondary task of "disturbance attenuation." This task results from the fact that the
vehicle is not really a point mass but has a second degree of freedom which is the yaw motion of the
vehicle.
➢ Let the yaw moment of inertia of the vehicle be I,. The yaw rate of the car is excited not only by the
driver desired lateral acceleration ayp but also by a disturbance torque M f l . The yaw rate excited
by the lateral acceleration ayp is expected by the driver and is used to this yaw rate. However,
disturbances such as a flat tire and asymmetric friction coefficients at the left and right wheels
induce a disturbance torque M f l which excite a yaw motion that the driver does not expect.
➢ This choice of the lateral acceleration output position ensures that the acceleration is independent of
the rear lateral tire force Fyr. Thus, the uncertainities associated with some of the tire forces on
decoupling are removed and more robust decoupling can be achieved.

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Controller Design
The total steering angle is given by

Let the vehicle velocity angle at the front tires be Ovf . This is the angle between the longitudinal axis of the
vehicle and the velocity vector at the front wheels. Then
There is no easy way to measure Ovf . Otherwise the control law could be chosen as Jsbw = Ovf . That
would ensure that the slip angle did not depend on the yaw rate. It would depend only on the driver
commanded front wheel steering angle and would not depend on any other state variables.

Then the slip angle dynamics at the front tires would be

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Independent All-Wheel Drive Torque Control

Independent all-wheel drive (AWD) torque control refers to a system that allows each wheel to receive a
different amount of torque, enabling precise control over vehicle handling and stability. This advanced
technology, often seen in high-performance vehicles and electric vehicles with in-wheel motors, can
enhance cornering, traction, and overall driving dynamics.

Traditional four wheel drive systems

➢ If the differential braking based yaw stability control system is used during vehicle acceleration, it
reduces the acceleration of the vehicle and therefore may not provide the longitudinal response the
driver needs.
➢ A solution to this problem that is being actively investigated and developed in the automotive
industry is the use of independent drive torque control with all wheel drive technology to enhance
both traction and
➢ In a 4-wheel drive system the drive torque is transmitted to all four wheels
➢ The advantage of a 4-wheel drive (4WD) system is that longitudinal tire traction forces are generated
at all 4 wheels to help the forward motion of the vehicle. This is very helpful in situations where loss
of traction is a problem, for example in snow, off-road terrain and in climbing slippery hills.
Fourwheel drive systems provide no advantage, however, in stopping on a slippery surface. This is
determined entirely by the brakes and not by the type of drive system.
➢ The major components that enable 4-wheel drive operation are the differentials at the front and rear
axles and the transfer case. The differential at the front (or the rear) allows the left and right wheels
to spin at different speeds. This is necessary during a turn where the outer wheel moves on a circle of
larger radius and must turn faster. The transfer case routes torque from the transmission to both the
front and rear axles. Depending on the design, the transfer case may provide equal amounts of torque
to the front and rear axles, or it may proportion torque to the front and rear axles. The transfer case
routes torque to the front and rear using a differential called the center differential.
➢ In a 4-wheel drive system, when 4-wheel drive is engaged, the front and rear drive shafts are locked
together so that the two axles must spin at the same speed. Four-wheel drive systems can be full-time

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or part-time systems. In a part-time 4-wheel drive system, the driver can select 4-wheel or 2-wheel
drive operation using a lever or a switch

Torque transfer between left and right wheels using a differential

➢ An open differential splits the torque evenly between each of the two wheels to which it is
connected. If one of those two wheels comes off the ground, or is on a very slippery surface, very
little torque is required to drive that wheel. Because the torque is split evenly, this means that the
other wheel also receives very little torque. So even if the other wheel has plenty of traction, no
torque is transferred to it. This is a major disadvantage of an open differential.
➢ An improvement on the open differential is a locking differential. In a locking differential, the driver
can operate a switch to lock the left and right wheels together. This ensures that both wheels together
receive the total torque. If one of the two wheels is on a slippery surface, the other wheel could still
receive adequate torque and provide the longitudinal traction force. Thus a locking differential
provides better traction on slippery surfaces and can be used when required by the driver.

Active Control of Torque Transfer to all Wheels

➢ Twin clutch torque biasing differentials have recently been developed in the automotive industry in
which torque can be transferred to the inner or outer wheels in a variety of different ratios as required
by an active control system.
➢ The torque transfer between front and rear wheels can be similarly controlled actively using the
center differential in the transfer case. By independently controlling the drive torque transferred to
each of the 4 wheels, both traction and yaw stability control can be achieved. Yaw stability control
can thus be achieved during the acceleration of a vehicle without requiring differential activation of
the brakes which would have resulted in a net decrease in acceleration.

Active Automotive Suspensions: H2 Optimal Control

➢ The analysis of "invariant points" is used to understand these performance limitations. A simple
control law called sky-hook damping which needs only a few sensor measurements and can provide
most of the benefits of full state feedback control laws is discussed.
➢ A two-degree-of-freedom "quarter-car" automotive suspension system is shown in Figure below. It
represents the automotive system at each wheel i.e. the motion of the axle and of the vehicle body at
any one of the four wheels of the vehicle.

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Fig. 6. Quarter-car active automotive suspension

The equations of motion of the two-degree-of-freedom quarter-car suspension shown in

The state space model of the quarter-car active automotive suspension system can be written as
x=Ax+BFa+Lir

➢ In general, there are two different approaches towards developing an active vibration control system
for any application - the feedforward approach and the feedback approach
➢ Feedforward control involves feeding a signal related to the disturbance input into the controller
which then generates a signal to drive a control actuator in such a way as to cancel the disturbance.
On the other hand, feedback control uses signals measured from the system response to a disturbance
to drive a control actuator so as to attenuate the response

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➢ Theoretically, a feedforward control system can provide superior performance than feedback control.
➢ However, a major limitation with feedforward control is that a signal that is well correlated with the
distrubance input needs to be available to the controller. Since this is often impractical, feedback
controllers have a much larger range of applications. In this chapter, only feedback control strategies
will be considered, since obtaining a reference signal related to the road disturbance still remains
impractical.

Transfer functions
The following three transfer functions are of interest and their attenuation will be used to judge the
effectiveness of the suspension system : d) Acceleration transfer function

Use of the LQR formulation and its Relation to H, - optimal control

Consider the following plant

where d E R is a disturbance input, assumed to be zero-mean white noise of unit intensity, u E R is the
control input and the variables in z E Rm constitute the ones to be minimized. In the case of the active
suspension problem, the variables in z consist of the sprung mass acceleration, the
suspension deflection and the tire deflection. Assume that the pair (A,Cl) is detectable, the pair (A, B2) is
stabilizable and that D ~> 0~ ~ D ~ If the control design problem for the above system is posed as that of
minimizing the variance of the output z , for the input d being white noise, then this control design problem
is called the H2 optimal control problem
It turns out that the solution to the H2 optimal control problem is the same as the solution to the
linear quadratic regulator (LQR) problem In the LQR problem, the controller is to be designed so that the
following performance index is minimized:

LQR formulation for active suspension design

LQR (Linear Quadratic Regulator) formulation is a method used in active suspension design to create a
control system that optimizes ride comfort and road handling by minimizing a quadratic cost function. This
function considers the state variables (e.g., body acceleration, suspension travel) and control inputs (e.g.,
actuator forces).
The original research on which the results presented in sections 11.2 - Define the following quadratic
performance index.

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The performance index J can be put into the standard matrix form of equation (1 1 .lo) as follows

The gain matrix G in equation ( 1 1 .17) consists of two parts: R- 1 B T P and R - I N . Note that R - I N
does not depend on the solution to the Riccati equation (1 1.16). It also does not depend on the weights pl ,
p, , p3 and p4 used in the performance index. It turns out that-1
a) the first term R B P depends on the choice of the weights p, , p2, p3 and p4 used in the performance index
b) the second term R - I N exactly cancels out the passive force k,xl + b, (x2 - x4) due to the passive spring
and damper. Hence the total force that acts on the sprung and unsprung masses in the case of this control
system is independent of the passive elements k, and. Even if the passive elements were changed in value,
the optimal feedback gains would not change since the f

Force due to the passive elements is cancelled out by the R - I N part of the control law.
Performance studies of the LQR controller
following figures (Figures 1 1-2, 11 -3 and 1 1-4). One can see that the sprung mass acceleration is reduced
considerably over a broad frequency range. However, its value is unchanged compared to the passive
suspension at one particular frequency - the unpsrung mass resonant frequency of 10 Hz. No matter how
heavily the sprung mass acceleration is weighted, its performance cannot be improved at that frequency. For
these weights the suspension deflection and tire deflection transfer functions are considerably worse than
that of the passive suspension at the unsprung resonant frequency. Also, the suspension deflection transfer

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function has a constant asymptote at low frequencies which is considerably worse than that of the passive
suspension

Fig. 7. Sprung mass acceleration

Using Invariant Points
The constraint equations (1 1.28), (1 1.29) and (1 1.30) can be used to shed light on why the LQR solution
can significantly improve any one of the three transfer functions over a broad frequency band, but typically
only at the cost of deterioration in the other two transfer functions. This is because once one of the three
transfer functions is determined, then the other two are determined by the constraint equations.

Ride quality1 road holding trade-offs

Any change & IA (j w) to the ride quality transfer function results in a change &ITD ( jw) in the tire
deflection transfer function. From equation (1 1.37), the relation between &IA ( j u ) and SHTD ( j w ) can be
written as

Hence, at low frequencies, tire deflection can be improved while the sprung mass acceleration is being
improved. Thus both tire deflection and sprung mass acceleration can be improved at low frequencies

Ride quality1 rattle space trade-offs

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CONCLUSIONS ON ACHIEVABLE ACTIVE SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

➢ The use of tire deflection feedback results in the acceleration transfer function rolling off at 20
dB/decade unlike the passive system which rolls off at 40 dB/decade. This results in high frequency
harshness in the ride.
➢ The active suspension deflection transfer function will have a constant low frequency asymptote
which results in higher suspension deflection values compared to the passive system at very low
frequencies. This constant low frequency asymptote will exist as long as the feedback gains on
sprung and unsprung mass velocity are non-zero.
➢ The suspension deflection transfer function has an invariant point . The suspension deflection cannot
be improved at this frequency by active control.
➢ Improvements in tire deflection at the unsprung mass natural frequency can only be obtained at the
expense of increased sprung mass acceleration.

In order to improve ride quality without deterioration in the suspension deflection and tire deflection
transfer functions, the best one can do is
1) Achieve significant reduction in sprung mass acceleration at the sprung mass frequency.
2) Simultaneously achieve significant reduction in suspension deflection and tire deflection at the
sprung mass natural frequency.
3) Avoid any deterioration in all three transfer functions at the unsprung mass natural frequency.
4) Avoid high frequency harshness by ensuring that the sprung mass acceleration rolls off at 40
dB/decade at high frequencies.
5) If possible, ensure that the suspension deflection transfer function does not have a constant low
frequency asymptote.

CONTROL WITH HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS

Hydraulic actuators are devices that convert hydraulic fluid pressure into mechanical energy, providing
linear, rotary, or oscillatory motion. They are essential components in various machinery and systems,
including construction equipment, industrial presses, and robotic arms.
The control of a electrohydraulic actuator to track a desired force specified by an active suspension
controller of the type discussed
The dynamics of a spool valve controlled hydraulic actuator can be approximated by

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Here F, is the suspension force provided by the actuator while u is the spool valve movement from
equilibrium and constitutes the control input for controlling the hydraulic actuator.
the parameter a is defined a s a = -4P where V, is the total V, hydraulic cylinder volume and is equal to 2V0
where V, is the equilibrium volume of each chamber of the cylinder.
b) Ƞ is the bulk modulus of the hydraulic fluid.
c) discharge coefficient of the spool valve.
d) w is the spool valve width.
e) A, is the piston area.
Assume that the desired suspension force is denoted by F,,, . This is typically a force determined by an LQR
controller or by a sky-hook damping controller of the type discussed in sections 11.2 - 11.7. The goal then is
to determine a control law for the spool valve input u that ensures that the desired suspension force is
tracked. The sliding surface control methodology or other nonlinear control design methods can be used to
ensure tracking of the desired suspension force

Define the surface

Differentiate equation (1 1.52) to obtain

Convergence to the surface s = 0 can be ensured if the closed-loop dynamics for the surface are S = -77s. Set
S = -7s to get

Hence, the following control law can be used to ensure convergence to the surface s = 0

Note that sgn(u) appears in the denominator of equation (1 1 S4). Thus u appears both on the left hand side
and the right hand side of this equation. The value of sgn(u) is determined by the sign of the numerator in
equation Hence the value of the numerator is calculated first. If this value is
negative, then sgn(u) takes on a value of -1. If the value of the numerator is positive then sgn(u) takes on a
value of +I. The denominator of equation (1 1.54) is then calculated using the correct value of sgn(u) .

Skyhook Control of an SDOF System

➢ A Sky-Hook Damping Controller is a control system used in suspension engineering to enhance ride
comfort and handling by dynamically adjusting damping forces based on relative velocity between
the vehicle body and the suspension.
➢ Passive Suspension for an SDOF Base-Excited System. The seat suspension system that is typically
used on heavy vehicles is a passive singledegree-of-freedom suspension system, which can be
modeled as shown in Fig. 2.1. We can derive the transmissibility of the passive seat suspension as

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Fig. Passive Based Excited System

where ζP is the passive damping ratio. We can then plot the transmissibility as a function of the quantity ω ω
n , resulting in Fig. 2.2 for various damping ratios. Notice that at low passive damping ratios, the resonant
transmissibility (around ω = ωn) is relatively large, while the transmissibility at frequencies above the
resonant peak is quite low. The opposite is true for relatively high damping ratios. Figure 2.2 demonstrates
the inherent tradeoff of passive seat suspension systems. If we choose a low damping ratio, we gain superior
high frequency isolation but poor resonant frequency control. However, as we increase the damping ratio,
we begin to trade off the high frequency isolation for resonance control. Most seat manufacturers tend to
favor resonance control over the high frequency isolation, and the resulting ride that the driver experiences
is often deemed harsh. Some independent drivers remove the seat damper in favor of a smoother ride while
risking the possibility that the seat will eventually hit the physical limits of suspension travel

Ideal Skyhook Control

Ideal skyhook control is a theoretical approach in active and semi-active suspension systems aiming to
provide perfect isolation from road disturbances. It involves a virtual damper connecting the vehicle body
(sprung mass) to an imaginary "sky," effectively damping vibrations and improving ride comfort.
One method to eliminate the tradeoff between resonance control and high frequency isolation is to
reconsider the configuration of the suspension system. For instance, consider moving the damper from
between the suspended mass and the base to the position shown in Fig. 2.3. The damper is now connected to
an inertial reference in the sky (i.e., a ceiling that remains vertically fixed relative to a ground reference).
Notice that this is a purely fictional configuration, since for this to actually happen, the damper must be
attached to a reference in the sky that remains fixed in the vertical direction, but is able to translate in the
horizontal direction. Ignoring this problem at the moment, we will focus on the performance of this
configuration

The transmissibility of this configuration can be derived to be

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where, in this case, ζSKY is the ideal skyhook damping ratio. Once again, if we plot the transmissibility for
various values of ζSKY, we find the results shown in Fig. 2.4. As in the passive case, as the skyhook
damping ratio increases, the resonant transmissibility decreases. Increasing the skyhook damping ratio,
however, does not increase the transmissibility above the resonant frequency. For sufficiently large skyhook
damping ratios (i.e., above ζ>0.707), we can isolate even at the resonance frequency. This is encouraging
since we have removed the tradeoff associated with passive dampers. There exist a large number of studies
on the effectiveness of the skyhook control policy along with other optimal control techniques. Most of
these studies indicate that
One method of generating the skyhook damping force is to remove the passive suspension (i.e., both
the damper and the spring) and replace it with an active force generator. This can be achieved by using a
hydraulic actuator, however, the resulting system is rather complex and requires a significant amount of
power. Another approach to achieving skyhook damping is to use semiactive dampers. Semiactive dampers
allow for the damping coefficient, and therefore the damping force, to be varied between high and low levels
of damping. Early semiactive dampers were mechanically adjustable by opening or closing a bypass valve.
The only power required for the damper is the relatively small power to actuate the valve. For this research,
we are using a magnetorheological damper which varies the damping by electrically changing the magnetic
field applied to the magnetorheological fluid.

Semiactive Realization of Skyhook Control Once we have decided that we will use a semiactive damper, we
must determine how to modulate the damper such that it emulates a skyhook damper. We first define the
velocity of the suspended mass relative to the base, V12, to be positive when the base and mass are
separating (i.e., when V1 is greater than V2) for both systems. Now assume that for both systems, the
suspended mass is moving upwards with a positive velocity V1. If we consider the force that is applied by
the skyhook damper to the suspended mass, we notice that it is in the negative X1 direction.

Now consider the case in which the base and suspended mass are still separating, but the suspended mass is
moving downwards with a negative velocity V1. In the skyhook configuration, the damping force will now
be applied in the upwards, or positive, X1 direction. In the semiactive configuration, however, the
semiactive damper is still in tension, and the damping force will still be applied in the downwards, or
negative, direction. Since the semiactive damping force cannot possibly be applied in the same direction as
the skyhook damping force, the best that can be achieved is to minimize the damping force. Ideally, the
semiactive damper is desired to be set so that there is no damping force, but in reality there is some small
damping force present and it is not in the same direction as the skyhook damping force. Thus, if V12 is
positive and V1 is negative, we need to minimize the semiactive damping force.

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UNIT-5 - Question bank
UNIT V - STABILITY CONTROL OF EV’S
Electronics Stability Control: Vehicle Model, Control Design for Differential Braking Based Systems, Steer-
By-Wire System, Independent All-Wheel Drive Torque Control: Active Automotive Suspensions: H2
Optimal Control, LQR Formulation for Active Suspension Design, Using Invariant Points, Sky-Hook
Damping Controller, Control with Hydraulic Actuators, Simulation Tools.

Electronics Stability Control: Vehicle Model

1. What is vehicle stability control system? K2
2. Define Electronic Stability Control. K1
3. State the function of yaw control system. K1
4. How automobile manufacturers name yaw stability control systems? K2
5. Name the three types of stability control systems. K2
6. What is the purpose of vehicle model? K2
Control Design for Differential Braking Based Systems
7. Write a brief note on differential braking system. K2
8. Draw the block diagram of Yaw stability control system. K1
9. What is lower and upper controller design? K1
Steer-By-Wire System
10. What is a Steer-By-Wire System? K1
11. Draw the Structure of steer-by-wire stability control system. K1
12. Write a brief note on choice of output for decoupling. K1
Independent All-Wheel Drive Torque Control
13. List the advantages of four wheel drive.
14. Write a note on torque transfer between left and right wheels using a differential. K1
15. How is active Control of Torque Transfer to all Wheels? K2
Active Automotive Suspensions: H2 Optimal Control
16. What is the major limitation with feedforward control? K2
17. Write a note on H2 Optimal Control. K1
18. Draw the structure of quarter-car active automotive suspension. K2
LQR Formulation for Active Suspension Design
19. Define Linear Quadratic Regulator. K1
Using Invariant Points
20. Write a note on invariant points. K2
Sky-Hook Damping Controller
21. What is a Sky-Hook Damping Controller? K1
22. Define Ideal Skyhook Control. K1
23. Draw the Sprung mass acceleration characteristics. K1
24. How will you achieve active system performance?
25. State the measures to improve ride quality. K1
26. Write a note on Skyhook Control of an SDOF System. K1
27. What is Passive Suspension for an SDOF Base-Excited System? K1
Control with Hydraulic Actuators, Simulation Tools
28. What are hydraulic actuators? K1
29. Draw the structure of Passive Based Excited System. K1
30. What is Independent All-Wheel Drive Torque Control? K1
PART-B
1. Explain in detail about control with Hydraulic actuators with neat sketch. K2
2. With neat sketch, Describe in detail about Control Design for Differential Braking Based K2
Systems. Also derive its equations.
3. Derive the Control Design for Differential Braking Based Systems of EV with neat sketch. K3
4. Explain in detail about Steer by wire system. Also derive its necessary equations. K2
5. Derive the state space model equation for LQR Formulation for Active Suspension Design. K2
6. Do a case study on Electronic Stability Control for Electric Vehicle with Four In-wheel K4
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Motors
7. Do a case study on Vibration Control of Semi-Active Suspension System using Modified K4
Skyhook systems
8. Illustrate on the salient features available in a modern Electric Vehicle. K4
Academic Year: 2024 - 25 Regulation: IFETCE R2019A
UNIT V - Solved
PART-B
6. Do a case study on Electronic Stability Control for Electric Vehicle with Four In-wheel Motors.
➢ Electronic stability control (ESC) can generate the stabilizing yaw moment based on information of
steering angle, vehicle sideslip angle, wheel speed, yaw rate, and lateral acceleration, such that the
yaw rate following can be achieved while maintaining the reasonable limits of the sideslip angle .For
the conventional vehicle with internal combustion engine, electro-hydraulic brake (EHB) system is
used to generate the yaw moment via differential braking on specific wheels when necessary.
➢ Active front steering (AFS) can also be utilized to generate the yaw moment with less speed
reduction .For the electric vehicle (EV) with traction motor and transmission, ESC can be achieved
using either EHB or AFS.
➢ For the EV with four direct driven in-wheel motors, it is actually an over actuated system. Not only
the braking torque but also the traction torque can be applied to each wheel to generate the yaw
moment.
➢ It is very important to distribute the longitudinal tire forces without saturating the tire for road
surface with low friction or conditions with tires close to lift-off, while satisfying the driver’s intent
for acceleration and deceleration.. The first level generates the control law, i.e. the desired yaw
moment.
➢ The second level is control allocation, which distributes the tire traction/braking forces according to
the upper level command while satisfying the driver’s intent for acceleration and deceleration. The
third level is the slip ratio control (SRC), which controls the slip ratio at each wheel to generate the
distributed longitudinal tire forces based on a combined-slip tire model.
➢ .Acceleration test on low friction road surface The driver’s intent for acceleration on low friction
road surface with µp = 0.3. The trajectory responses and detailed dynamic response are shown in
Figures 9 and 10, respectively. The vehicle without control shows more oscillatory responses and
loses the yaw motion stability.
➢ The control can track the desired yaw rate while maintaining the sideslip angle within a certain
range. Although the baseline control can stabilize the yaw motion, its yaw rate tracking error and
sideslip angle deviation are much larger than those of the proposed control.
➢ In addition, the control can achieve higher final velocity after passing the DLC test track. Thus the
proposed control can achieve not only better handling but also better acceleration at the same time.

➢ The steering pattern and detailed dynamic responses on high friction road surface with µp = 0.85 at
the seventh test are shown. Responses of the first, second, and third cases are denoted as w/o SRC,
TCS/ABS, and SRC, respectively.
➢ Response of the vehicle with no control is not shown due to the loss of directional stability in the
sixth test with smaller magnitude of the steering pattern. The vehicle with baseline control can pass
the sixth test but shows directional instability for the seventh test.
➢ Optimal torque distribution is proposed for designing the ESC of EV with four direct-driven wheel
motors.
➢ A gain-scheduled linear quadratic regulator is used to generate the yaw moment command. Control
allocation is used to distribute the longitudinal tire forces according to the yaw moment command
while satisfying the driver’s intent for acceleration and deceleration

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Academic Year: 2024 - 25 Regulation: IFETCE R2019A
7. Do a case study on Vibration Control of Semi-Active Suspension System using Modified Skyhook
systems.

➢ The main goal of automotive suspensions must achieve are passenger comfort and vehicle stability.
Else goals need to be achieved simultaneously. Therefore, the benchmarks that are going to be done
further herein consider those performance indices.
➢ A brief explanation of both indices is given below and is based on reported work . The comfort index
is the passenger’s perception when traveling in the vehicle. Vibrations generated by the road profile
go through the physical elements of the vehicle’s suspension toward the passengers.
➢ Although the passenger perception is subjective and depends on each person, it is obligatory to come
up with a standardized criterion to determine and measure passenger comfort.
➢ Vehicle stability index is related to the suspension’s ability to hold the tires in contact with the road
profile even in the presence of surface irregularities .

Methodology.
➢ Select the controller to be implemented and determine all the benefits that it incorporates, e.g.,
degree of vibration isolation from road roughness, comfort and handling improvement, and
resonance avoidance of vehicle and human sensibility.
➢ Establish the structural vehicle’s components, e.g., masses, inertias, and degrees of freedom for the
suspension’s representation. From a one-quarter suspension, including more dynamics with a onehalf
vehicle to a more complete analysis by applying the four-wheel vehicle, keeping in mind that having
more degrees of freedom increases the study complexity.
➢ Establish the vehicle’s dynamic model and determine the characteristics of every employed
component, e.g., damper’s attributes (viscoelastic, hysteresis, and saturation), suspension stiffness,
sprung and unsprung masses, suspension stroke, among others.
➢ Design the mathematical representation of the mechanical behavior following Newton’s Laws and
the differential equations that model the phenomena. Furthermore, include the mathematical
formulation to design the selected controller
➢ The physical parameters as the damping, stiffness properties, and masses must be set based on the
vehicle to be analyzed. These physical parameters can be chosen from reported work; however, it is
essential to work with real characterized parameters thinking about a possible future controller
implementation. The vehicle dynamics simulations with the controller should be developed in
specialized software like Simulink , Matlab, or CARSim to have more reliable results and to be
closer to the physical suspension system.

. Optimal Controller Design

➢ To determine the best performance, many controllers are implemented as a case of studies: skyhook
controller, groundhook controller, and hybrid controller. We improve these strategies to move
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Academic Year: 2024 - 25 Regulation: IFETCE R2019A
toward an optimal approach to maximize certain performance criteria This controller eliminates the
problem in the passive suspension systems of the trade-off between resonance control and high
frequencies

Groundhook Controller.
The difference from the previous controller is that the damper is connected to the unsprung mass and the
ground. This controller focuses on the unsprung mass isolating it from road disturbances. However, an
increment in the motion of the sprung mass is obtained

Hybrid Controller.
The hybrid controller is an alternative controller when a trade-off between comfort and maneuverability
wants to be achieved. This controller joints the benefits from the skyhook and the groundhook controller.

8. Illustrate on the salient features available in a modern Electric Vehicle.

Smart Safety Features
Safety has always been a paramount concern for drivers and automakers alike. In response, modern vehicles
are equipped with advanced driver assistance technologies that reduce the likelihood of accidents and
safeguard passengers. These features have become indispensable, from adaptive cruise control, which
maintains a safe distance from the vehicle ahead, to lane-keeping assist, which gently guides the vehicle
back into the lane when it veers off course.
Automatic emergency braking is another significant feature, as it prompts timely stops when needed,
potentially preventing collisions. This feature uses sensors and cameras to monitor the road ahead, ensuring
that potential hazards are identified and addressed promptly. These sophisticated systems enhance safety and
provide peace of mind for drivers and passengers alike, enabling enjoyable journeys.

Eco-Friendly Developments
The shift towards sustainability has led to groundbreaking eco-friendly developments in the automotive
industry. Electric and hybrid vehicles are paving the way for reducing carbon footprints, allowing us to drive
with the environment in mind. As automakers continue to innovate, the impact of green vehicle emissions
standards becomes more evident, promising a cleaner tomorrow.
These vehicles offer not only a reduction in harmful emissions but also cost savings at the pump. Moreover,
they provide a glimpse into the future of transportation, fostering a cleaner and greener planet for
generations to come. By integrating advanced battery technology, electric vehicles offer increasingly longer
ranges, which was once a significant deterrent for potential buyers.

Advanced Connectivity
In today’s digitized world, connectivity is key. Vehicles now have state-of-the-art infotainment systems that
connect drivers to their digital lives. Features like real-time navigation updates, hands-free calling, and
seamless smartphone integration make driving convenient and entertaining. With access to everything from
music streaming services to emergency assistance, modern drivers can tailor their vehicles to be as
connected or focused on solitude as they’d prefer.
With these systems, drivers can access their favorite apps, listen to music, and even receive notifications, all
while keeping their hands safely on the wheel. This connectivity level transforms cars into convenience
hubs, ensuring that drivers remain informed and entertained during their travels.

User Experience Enhancements

Beyond performance and safety, modern vehicles’ user experience is a critical focus. Innovations in interior
designs, like personalized ambient lighting, have made journeys more pleasurable. Drivers and passengers
alike can enjoy a tailored atmosphere catering to their preferences.
Climate control systems have also seen enhancements, offering multi-zone temperature adjustments that
ensure comfort for everyone on board. Ergonomic seating further enhances long trips, making them
enjoyable and fatigue-free. The emphasis on user-centric design has invited automakers to explore intuitive
control interfaces, often replacing traditional buttons with responsive touchscreens and voice commands,
making the interaction with vehicle systems more seamless and posing for future advancements.

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Academic Year: 2024 - 25 Regulation: IFETCE R2019A

Performance and Efficiency

Performance doesn’t have to come at the expense of efficiency. Modern vehicles achieve this balance
through advancements in engine technology and materials, resulting in powerful and fuel-efficient cars. This
means drivers can enjoy a thrilling ride without worrying about fuel consumption.
Fuel efficiency is further enhanced through aerodynamic designs and weight-saving materials, illustrating
how innovation in vehicular design continues to elevate the driving experience. Integrating hybrid systems
in performance vehicles exemplifies how the industry is crafting exhilarating driving experiences while
championing sustainability, promising drivers the best of all worlds—a concept that continues to fuel
enthusiasm in global automotive circles.