Regulation: IFETCE R2019A

Academic Year: 2024-2025

EEH004 – MODELLING AND DESIGN OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES

UNIT III - DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR EV’S
Fundamentals
Design Requirement for Electric Vehicles – Range, Maximum Velocity, Acceleration, Power Requirement,
Vehicle Mass – Various Resistance – Transmission Efficiency – Chassis and Body Design – Recharging and
Refuelling Systems.

INTRODUCTION
Electric vehicle (EV) design considers range, speed, acceleration, power, and weight for optimal
performance. Key resistances include aerodynamic drag, rolling, and grade resistance. Efficient transmission
systems, lightweight chassis, and aerodynamics enhance efficiency.
The major design requirements of an electric vehicle (EV) include an efficient powertrain, high-
energy-density battery, regenerative braking system, and lightweight yet strong chassis. The powertrain must
optimize energy conversion and minimize losses. The battery should have high capacity, fast charging
capability, and long cycle life. Regenerative braking improves energy efficiency by recovering kinetic energy.
The chassis should be aerodynamic and lightweight to enhance range and performance. Thermal management
ensures optimal battery performance and longevity. Additionally, EVs require an intelligent battery
management system (BMS), robust safety features, and seamless integration with charging infrastructure for
reliable operation and user convenience.

Range:
The driving range of an electric vehicle (EV) is a critical design factor and depends on the battery capacity,
vehicle efficiency, and driving conditions. It is typically measured in kilometers per charge and influenced
by:
• Battery energy density (kWh)
• Vehicle aerodynamics
• Regenerative braking effectiveness
• Driving patterns and terrain

Maximum Velocity:
The maximum speed of an EV is governed by:
• Motor power and torque characteristics
• Transmission design
• Aerodynamic drag (higher speeds increase resistance)
• Regulatory and safety constraints
Typical urban EVs have a top speed of 100–150 km/h, while high-performance EVs exceed 200 km/h.

Acceleration:
Acceleration depends on:
• Motor torque and power-to-weight ratio
• Transmission system (direct drive vs. multi-speed gearbox)
• Tire grip and road conditions
For example, a standard EV may achieve 0–100 km/h in 7–10 seconds, while high-performance EVs can
achieve it in under 3 seconds.

Power Requirement
Power demand is determined by:
• Motor efficiency, Desired performance metrics (speed and acceleration)
• Road gradients and load conditions

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EV power ratings vary widely, with typical city EVs requiring 50–150 kW and performance-oriented models
exceeding 300 kW.
Power-to-weight Ratio:
Power-to-weight ratio (PWR) is a ratio of output power of an engine or a power source to the weight of the
vehicle. PWR is used to measure the performance of the vehicle.

Torque Calculation
The torque (𝑇𝖶) required to drive the wheel is obtained by directly mounting a motor on the differential or
by using a gear box or by using a chain drive to magnify the lesser torque to the torque that is needed to drive
the wheel.
𝑇𝖶 = (𝑡) × 𝑟𝖶 × sin (𝜃)
Where 𝜃 is the angle between road and the point of contact of tyre and is assumed to be 900
𝑇𝖶 = 𝐹𝖶(𝑡) × 𝑟𝖶
Vehicle Mass
Mass significantly impacts efficiency and performance. Major factors influencing EV weight include:
• Battery pack weight (can constitute 30-40% of total mass)
• Lightweight chassis materials (e.g., aluminum, carbon fiber)
• Passenger and cargo load capacity
Reducing vehicle mass improves range and efficiency but must be balanced with structural integrity and
safety considerations.

Various Resistances
EV performance is affected by different resistive forces:
• Aerodynamic drag (Fd): Proportional to speed squared, minimized through streamlined body
design.
• Rolling resistance (Fr): Depends on tire type, pressure, and road surface.
The rolling resistance force 𝐹𝑅 is expressed as 𝑅 (𝑡) = (𝛼)
Where 𝐶𝑟 - 0.007- 0.015 ; 𝑚 is mass of the vehicle in 𝑘𝑔 ; 𝑔 is gravitational constant in 9.807 𝑚/𝑠2
𝛼 is road inclination angle in 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
• Grade resistance (Fg): Significant on inclines, countered by sufficient motor torque.
• Inertial resistance (Fi): Arises from vehicle mass during acceleration and deceleration.

Transmission Efficiency
EVs typically use single-speed or multi-speed transmissions. Efficiency factors include:
• Direct-drive systems (common in EVs) minimize losses.
• Multi-speed gearboxes improve efficiency at varying speeds.
• Regenerative braking improves energy recovery and efficiency.
Chassis and Body Design
The chassis and body design must balance weight, safety, and aerodynamics:
• Lightweight materials (aluminum, composites) reduce weight.
• Aerodynamic shaping enhances range and efficiency.
• Structural integrity ensures crash safety and durability.
• Battery placement (low center of gravity) improves stability.
Recharging and Refueling Systems:
EVs require efficient charging solutions:
• Slow Charging (AC): 6–12 hours (Level 1 and Level 2, 3–22 kW)
• Fast Charging (DC): 30 minutes to 80% (Level 3, 50–350 kW)
• Battery swapping: An alternative for reduced downtime.
• Wireless charging: Emerging technology for convenience.

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 Regulation – IFETCER 2019A
Academic year – 2024 - 25
EEH004 – MODELLING AND DESIGN OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES
UNIT III - DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR EV’S

Design Requirement for Electric Vehicles – Range, Maximum Velocity, Acceleration, Power Requirement,
Vehicle Mass – Various Resistance – Transmission Efficiency – Chassis and Body Design – Recharging and
Refuelling Systems.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Today’s EVs are very different from ICE (internal combustion engine) gasoline-powered vehicles. The new
breed of EVs has benefited from a series of failed attempts to design and build electric vehicles using
traditional methods of production used by manufacturers for decades.

3.1.1 Design Requirement for Electric Vehicles

There are numerous differences in how EVs are manufactured when compared to ICE vehicles. The
focus used to be on protecting the engine, but this focus has now shifted to protecting the batteries in
manufacturing an EV. Automotive designers and engineers are completely rethinking the design of EVs, as
well as creating new production and assembly methods to build them. They are now designing an EV from
the ground up with heavy consideration to aerodynamics, weight and other energy efficiencies.
• The single biggest modification of the car is the underbody. While this structure has been very similar in the
past, with EVs there is no engine and there are no exhaust systems needed. There is an aerodynamically
designed full belly pan under the EV that contains trays where the battery pack is placed. With more and more
variations and shapes of battery packs available for different models, the challenge is to be able to make these
variations on one Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS). Since all EV battery cells are quite heavy, flexible
robotic lines are necessary.
• In addition, FMS production lines must accommodate many new robotically performed joining methods. In
many instances spot welding is being replaced by an increased use of self-piercing rivets, gluing, sealing, flow
drilling, and laser welding — and are specifically chosen depending on the tray used for each particular type
of battery cell.
• The EV’s inner structure is called a “space frame” and is made of strong, lightweight aluminum — and for
additional weight-savings, the wheels are also made of aluminum instead of steel. Using manufacturers molds,
these aluminum parts are poured at a foundry. In addition, the steering wheel and seat frames are made of
magnesium, a strong, lightweight metal. Even the body panels are made of lightweight aluminum, or an
impact-resistant composite plastic. Both materials are recyclable, providing long-term disposal advantages.
• In an effort to reduce weight, the structural frame, seat frames, wheels and body are designed for high-strength,
safety — and the lightest possible weight. New configurations have been developed that provide support for
the components and protection of the vehicle occupants with minimal mass and use of high-tech materials,
including aluminum, magnesium and advanced composite plastics.
• The windshield is solar glass that keeps the interior from overheating in the sun and frost from forming in
winter. Materials that provide thermal conservation reduce the energy drain that heating and air conditioning
impose on the batteries.
• Some features did have to be eliminated or changed while leaving all the comforts drivers find desirable and
adding new considerations as well. One feature that was removed because of space restrictions was the spare
tire. This was possible because the EV tires contain a sealant to repair any leaks automatically. In addition,
the tires are rubber and designed to inflate to higher pressures, so the car rolls with less resistance to conserve
energy.
• An added safety consideration was a pedestrian warning system, because EVs run so quietly that pedestrians
may not hear them approach. Driver activated flashing lights and beeps warn pedestrians that the car is
approaching. This system works automatically when the car is put in reverse as well.
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• The major design requirements of an electric vehicle (EV) include an efficient powertrain, high-energy-
density battery, regenerative braking system, and lightweight yet strong chassis. The powertrain must optimize
energy conversion and minimize losses. The battery should have high capacity, fast charging capability, and
long cycle life. Regenerative braking improves energy efficiency by recovering kinetic energy. The chassis
should be aerodynamic and lightweight to enhance range and performance. Thermal management ensures
optimal battery performance and longevity. Additionally, EVs require an intelligent battery management
system (BMS), robust safety features, and seamless integration with charging infrastructure for reliable
operation and user convenience.
Torque plays a crucial role in an electric vehicle (EV) as it directly affects acceleration, performance, and
efficiency.
• Instant Power Delivery: Unlike internal combustion engines, electric motors provide instant torque from
zero RPM, enabling rapid acceleration.
• Smooth and Efficient Driving: Consistent torque output ensures a seamless and responsive driving
experience without the need for complex transmissions.
• Energy Efficiency: Proper torque management optimizes energy consumption, improving the vehicle’s
range and battery life.
• Hill Climbing Ability: Higher torque enhances hill-climbing performance, making EVs suitable for various
terrains.
• Load Carrying Capacity: Vehicles with higher torque can handle heavier loads efficiently, crucial for
electric trucks and buses.
Selecting the right motor for an electric vehicle (EV) depends on several key factors that influence
performance, efficiency, and overall driving experience.
1. Power and Torque Requirements: The motor should provide sufficient power (kW) and torque
(Nm) for desired acceleration, top speed, and load capacity.
2. Efficiency: A highly efficient motor reduces energy consumption, extending the vehicle's range.
3. Weight and Size: The motor should be compact and lightweight to optimize vehicle performance
without adding excessive weight.
4. Voltage and Compatibility: The motor should match the battery voltage and power electronics for
seamless integration.
5. Cooling Requirements: Proper thermal management ensures longevity and prevents overheating.

3.2 Design of EV
The design of electric vehicle includes the dynamics of the vehicle, capacity and weight of the vehicle,
torque and type of motor used, speed required (during up-hill, down-hill and normal road), range of the
vehicle, type of battery and DC/DC or DC/AC power converter used.
Dynamics of the Vehicle
During the design of any EV it is important to know vehicle dynamics which helps us in understanding its
effects on the performance of the vehicle and energy consumption per driven distance.
According to Newton’s second law of mechanics, the force (F) due to movement of the vehicle in any given
direction can be determined by the sum of all the forces acting on it in the same direction given by the equation

where
𝑚 is the mass to be accelerated in kg
𝑎 is the acceleration due to gravity in m/s2
(𝑡)
is the rate of change of vehicle speed in m/s2

(𝑡) is the sum of resistive forces acting to decrease the vehicle speed in Nm
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Tractive Force
The tractive force is the force exerted from the vehicle via wheel shaft, gear and the differential to the
contact area between the wheel and the road. The tractive force is also due to downhill driving gravity.
The resistive force is due to uphill driving gravity, aerodynamic drag, rolling resistance and regenerative
breaking due to conventional friction brakes.

Aerodynamic drag force

Any vehicle is unavoidably exposed to aerodynamic drag during driving due to flow of air around the
vehicle (external flow) and flow of air through the vehicle (internal flow).
The aerodynamic drag force 𝐹𝐴 is expressed as:
(𝑡) = 2 (𝑣𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 − 𝑣w𝑖𝑛𝑑 )

Where 𝜌𝑎 is the density of the air in 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 varies depending on humidity, temperature, pressure and altitude,
at sea level, temperature of 250𝐶 and standard atmospheric pressure of 1013.25 pascal, 𝜌𝑎 is 1.225 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝐶𝑎 is aerodynamic drag co-efficient, it is a dimension less quantity. The typical value of 𝐶𝑎 is 0.25-0.35.
𝐴𝑒 is the effective cross sectional area of the vehicle in 𝑚2 varies depending on the vehicle size and shape
𝑣𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 is the speed of the vehicle in 𝑚/𝑠

𝑣w𝑖𝑛𝑑 is the speed of the wind in 𝑚/𝑠

-ve sign indicates both wind and vehicle are moving in the same direction
3.2 Rolling resistance force
Rolling resistance is caused by vehicle tyre during rolling.
The rolling resistance force 𝐹𝑅 is expressed as
𝐹𝑅 (𝑡) = (𝛼) (3)
Where 𝐶𝑟 is dimensionless rolling resistance with typical value 0.007-0.015
𝑚 is mass of the vehicle in 𝑘𝑔
𝑔 is gravitational constant in 9.807 𝑚/𝑠2
𝛼 is road inclination angle in 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
Grading force
Grading force 𝐹𝐺 which is parallel to road is caused due to road inclination and is expressed as

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𝐹𝐺 (𝑡) = 𝑚𝑔(𝛼)
Where 𝛼 is the angle between level road and horizontal plane of the vehicle in 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 Wheel force
The force on the wheel 𝐹𝖶 that has come from traction force of the vehicle to the wheel in order to
sustain certain speed level and is expressed as
(𝑡) = (𝑡) + 𝐹𝐴(𝑡) + 𝐹𝑅 (𝑡) + 𝐹𝐺 (𝑡)
If (𝑡) is positive then it accelerates the vehicle and if it is negative represents either a regenerative breaking
force or friction braking. The maximum tractive force 𝐹𝖶𝑚𝑎𝑥 on the wheel can be controlled either by
normal force on the wheel 𝐹𝑁 or by friction coefficient 𝐶𝑓 between the tyre and the road is defined as
𝐹𝖶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶𝑓 × 𝐹𝑁

Fig. 2. Wheel speed versus vehicle speed

Wheel power and energy

The wheel power 𝑃𝖶 can be determined by the product of tractive force acting on the wheel 𝐹𝖶 and speed
of the vehicle 𝑣𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒.
𝑃𝖶(𝑡) = 𝐹𝖶(𝑡) × 𝑣𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒(𝑡)
Capacity and Weight calculation

Capacity and weight calculation play an important role in the selection of motor and battery. In capacity
calculation, the calculation of payload in EV includes, number of passengers including driver in the vehicle.
The weight calculation (curb weight) of the vehicle (excluding passengers weight) includes, weight of the
seats, motor weight, weight of the batteries, inverter weight, air conditioner weight, heater weight, weight of
the fastening frame, vehicle body weight and weight of other assemblies. The capacity and weight calculations
are critical in selecting the appropriate motor and battery for an electric vehicle (EV) because they directly
impact performance, efficiency, and range.
1. Battery Capacity: Determines the vehicle’s range and power availability. A higher capacity battery
(measured in kWh) provides longer range but increases weight and cost.
2. Motor Selection: Must be matched to the required power output and torque. A heavier vehicle needs
a more powerful motor, which consumes more energy.
3. Weight Considerations: Excessive weight reduces efficiency, increases energy consumption, and
affects acceleration, braking, and handling. Optimizing weight ensures better performance and range.
4. Balance Between Capacity and Weight: A trade-off is necessary—choosing a battery with sufficient
capacity while keeping weight manageable ensures optimal vehicle performance and efficiency.
5. Structural and Load Constraints: The chassis and suspension must support the battery and motor
weight without compromising stability and safety

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EV chargers can be either AC (Alternating Current) or DC (Direct Current), depending on the charging method
and speed. AC chargers supply power to the EV’s onboard charger, which converts AC to DC before storing
it in the battery. These chargers are typically used in homes and workplaces, offering slower charging speeds.
In contrast, DC chargers bypass the onboard charger, directly supplying DC power to the battery, enabling
much faster charging. DC fast chargers are usually found in public charging stations along highways. The
choice between AC and DC charging depends on factors such as charging speed, infrastructure, and vehicle
compatibility.
DC technology is used for greater efficiency over longer distances, typically hundreds of miles. High-
voltage direct current (HVDC) technology is also used in submarine power cables (typically longer than 30
miles (50 km)), and in the interchange of power between grids that are not mutually synchronized. Power loss
during transmission is more in direct current as compared to alternating current. For the same value of voltage
DC is more dangerous than AC. It will more troublesome if touched because the voltage does not go through
zero.

Planetary, inline helical and bevel helical gearboxes are the most efficient, whereas worm gearboxes are
usually the least efficient. Vehicle dynamics refers to the study of forces and motions acting on a vehicle
during movement. It involves analysing how a vehicle responds to inputs such as acceleration, braking, and
steering under various road and environmental conditions.

Gearbox efficiency is a measure of the power transmitted by a gearbox, or put another way, the power lost in
a gearbox. The difference between input and output power (loss) is due primarily to gear, bearing, and seal
friction. Lubrication: This is one of the most important factors that help improve gearbox efficiency and
performance. Gearbox lubrication serves several purposes, including reducing friction, preventing wear, and
dissipating heat. Lack of lubrication or using the wrong lubricant can lead to premature wear and even failure.

Gearbox efficiency equals power out divided by power input. Torque of the output depends on gear ratio. A
reduction gear runs the output shaft slower than the input. The torque on the output is increased by efficiency
times gear ratio.

Usually, a 7 kW fast charger can efficiently recharge a 40 kW EV battery from 0 to 100% in 4 to 6 hours. A
22 kW fast charger can do the same charge in just 1 to 2 hours. Making sure your electric car's battery
compatibility with a 22 kW or 7 kW charging station is important for good performance. A 7kW home charger
will charge a typical 60kWh electric car battery from empty-to-full in just under 8 hours. The perfect amount
of time to fully recharge your EV battery while you sleep. A slower home charger rated at 3.7kW would take
around 16 hours to do the same.

Electric cars will be quite a bit heavier than those powered by an internal combustion engine. It is important
to note that the majority of electric cars available on the market today weigh more than 1500 kg,
ranging between 1500 and 2000 kg, with a few exceptions.

Home charger will charge a typical 60kWh electric car battery from empty-to-full in just under 8 hours. The
perfect amount of time to fully recharge your EV battery while you sleep. A slower home charger rated at
3.7kW would take around 16 hours to do the same. 22kW home chargers are available but they’re rarely used
for this purpose. While they offer faster charging than lower rated chargers, their installation and operation
requires three-phase power - something that isn’t common in residential properties and expensive to
implement.

Transmission efficiency in an electric vehicle (EV) refers to the effectiveness of power transfer from the motor
to the wheels while minimizing energy losses. Unlike internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, EVs often
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use a single-speed transmission or direct drive due to the high torque availability from electric motors.
Transmission efficiency depends on factors such as gear design, friction losses, and drivetrain configuration.
Higher efficiency ensures better vehicle performance, extended range, and reduced energy consumption.
Optimized transmission systems, such as direct drive or multi-speed gearboxes in some EVs, help improve
power delivery while maintaining smooth acceleration and minimal energy wastage.

The optimal range for an electric vehicle (EV) is determined by factors such as battery capacity, energy
consumption, driving conditions, and intended usage. Larger battery packs provide longer range but increase
weight and cost. Driving habits, terrain, and weather also impact efficiency. Urban commuters may need a
shorter range, while long-distance travelers require extended range. Charging infrastructure availability is
crucial. Balancing cost, efficiency, and user needs ensures the best range selection for an EV.

3.3 Power requirements

Power-to-weight Ratio:
Power-to-weight ratio (PWR) is a ratio of output power of an engine or a power source to the weight of the
vehicle. PWR is used to measure the performance of the vehicle.
Torque Calculation
The torque (𝑇𝖶) required to drive the wheel is obtained by directly mounting a motor on the differential or
by using a gear box or by using a chain drive to magnify the lesser torque to the torque that is needed to drive
the wheel.

𝑇𝖶 = (𝑡) × 𝑟𝖶 × sin (𝜃)

Where 𝜃 is the angle between road and the point of contact of tyre and is assumed to be 900
𝑇𝖶 = 𝐹𝖶(𝑡) × 𝑟𝖶
Selection of the Motor

Three different types of electric motors are available in automotive industries (i) Brushless DC motor
(BLDC) (ii) Brushed DC motor (iii) Induction motor. In most of EVs three phase induction motor is used
due to its advantages such as easy maintenance, simple construction, change of direction and speed control
is easy.
The torque (𝑇𝑀) needs to be generated by the motor can be calculated using the relation
𝑇𝖶 × 𝜔𝖶 = 𝑇𝑀 × 𝜔𝑀 (12)

Where wheel torque 𝑇𝖶 and motor torque 𝑇𝑀 are measured in 𝑁𝑚

Angular velocity of the wheel 𝜔𝖶 and angular velocity of the motor 𝜔𝑀 are measured in 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
Speed and Range Calculation

The factors responsible for limiting the speed (𝑉𝑆) and range (𝑅𝑉) of the vehicle are discussed in this section:
To achieve higher range, keeping battery voltage and Ampere-Hour constant, if we increase the speed, current
drawn from the battery will increase to supply more power to the motor. This proves that the range of the
vehicle is dependent on capacity of the battery, current drawn from the battery and speed. But for a given
battery pack specifications and range, the speed of the vehicle is also dependent on the speed of the motor,
radius of the wheel

Gear ratio
𝐺𝑅 is gear ratio, it is the ratio of number of teeth on the wheel shaft to the number of teeth on the

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motor shaft and
𝐺𝑅 = 1, if motor shaft is directly connected to wheel shaft.
1 𝑟𝑎𝑑/ sec = 9.5493 𝑅𝑃𝑀
Battery
A battery is made up of one or more battery cells (electrochemical cells), each cell consists of anode
electrode, cathode electrode, separator, electrolyte, terminals and an enclosure or case.
The conventional way of charging the battery from AC supply consists of two stages. The first stage comprises
of diode bridge rectifier (AC-DC converter) and an isolated DC- DC converter. The function of DC-DC
converter is to convert higher DC voltage into the DC voltage suitable for charging the battery. The second
stage comprises of bidirectional DC-DC converter including boost operation and DC-AC converter. The
function of bidirectional converter is to convert the battery voltage into higher DC voltage through boost
operation and during regenerative breaking it converts higher DC voltage into the voltage required by the
battery through buck operation. The DC-AC converter is commonly known as inverter which converts DC
voltage into AC voltage required by the induction motor.
Inverter selection
The purpose of inverter in EV is to convert DC power stored in batteries into AC power required by the electric
motor to drive propulsion system. In addition to this it converts AC power from the motor during regenerative
breaking into DC power and feeding it back to charge batteries. Since inverters are operated by power
electronic devices, they do not produce noise and requires no maintenance. Inverter controls the speed of AC
electric motor by changing the magnitude of the voltage and frequency
For a given motor number of poles are fixed and hence the only variable to change the speed of the motor is
to change the frequency. In variable frequency drive to keep the magnetic flux constant it is required to keep
voltage/frequency (𝑣/𝑓) ratio constant. This is achieved by varying switching frequency (𝑓𝑐) of the inverter
keeping input voltage constant. The relation between the number of pulses (P), output frequency (f) and 𝑓𝑐
are related = 5 per half cycle. The typical switching pulses and the waveforms of battery voltage and inverter
output voltage are given in 𝑐Fig. 10 and Fig. 11 respectively.
Presently, the efficiency of silicon carbide (SiC) based inverters used in electric vehicles is around 97%. The
selection of right inverter is based on (i) efficiency (ii) size (iii) pure sine wave output.

3.5 Range
It is well known that the range of electric vehicles is a major problem. There are two types of calculation or
test that can be performed with regard to the range of a vehicle. The energy flows in a classical battery electric
vehicle are shown .To predict the range, the energy required to move the vehicle for each second of the driving
cycle is calculated, and the effects of this energy drain are calculated. The process is repeated until the battery
is flat. It is important to remember that if we use time intervals of 1 second, then the power and the energy
consumed are equal.
The starting point in these calculations is to find the tractive effort, which is found from Equation (8.9) The
power is equal to the tractive effort multiplied by the velocity. Using the various efficiencies in the energy
flow diagram, the energy required to move the vehicle for 1 second is calculated.

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Energy flows in the ‘classic’ battery-powered electric vehicle, which has regenerative braking
➢ To find the energy taken from the battery to provide this energy at the road we clearly need to be able to
find the various efficiencies at all operating points.
➢ The efficiency of the gear system ηg is normally assumed to be constant, as in electric vehicles there is
usually only one gear. The efficiency is normally high, as the gear system will be very simple.
➢ The efficiencies of the motor and its controller are usually considered together, as it is more convenient to
measure the efficiency of the whole system. The motor efficiency varies considerably with power, torque
and also motor size.

Steps in Battery range calculations

1. Calculate the open-circuit battery voltage, which depends on the state of charge of the battery.
2. Calculate the battery current5 unless Pbat is negative
3. Update the record of charge removed from the battery, correcting high currents using the Peukert
coefficient.
4. The level of discharge of the battery should then be updated.

3.6 Constant Velocity Range Modelling

Compared with the modelling of the driving cycles we have just achieved, constant velocity simulation is
much easier. However, the basic round of calculations is the same as those outlined in the previous section.
The system is simpler since the values of speed and torque are never negative or zero.
It should be possible to write a new and much shorter MATLAB script file for such simulation. However, a
quicker and easier solution, which makes use of the programs already written, is to create a ‘driving cycle’ in
which the velocity is constant. This can be done in one line in MATLAB. This may not be the most elegant
method, but it is probably the quickest. Constant velocity simulations are clearly very unrealistic, and so are
of limited use.

Other uses of Simulations

• Tractive Effort
• Motor Power
• Motor Torque
• Motor Angular Speed
• Motor Power
• Motor Efficiency
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• Current Out Of (or Into) the battery

The modelling of such a system is extremely complex, largely because of the fuel processor system. This has
very many sub-processes with highly variable time constants, some quite long. The simulation of such fuel
processing systems is extremely important – but too complex for an introductory text such as this. In addition,
most of the important data is highly confidential to the companies developing these systems. However, the
simulation of a system running directly off onboard stored hydrogen is not nearly so complex.

Range Modelling of Hybrid Electric Vehicles

All the modelling we have done so far has involved equations which the system followed in a more or
less predetermined way. However, when we come to a hybrid electric vehicle, then this is no longer so. Hybrid
electric vehicles involve a controller, which monitors the various power in the system and the state of charge
of the battery, and makes decisions about the power to be drawn from the engine, battery, and so on. Very
little about the energy flow is inevitable and driven by fixed equations. Furthermore, the strategy will change
with time, depending on issues such as when the vehicle was last used, the temperature, the need to equalise
the charge in the batteries from time to time, and a host of other criteria. The decision making of these
controllers is not at all simple to simulate.

Vehicle Mass
The mass of an electric vehicle has a critical effect on the performance, range and cost of an electric vehicle.
The first effect of the mass on rolling resistance and the power and energy to overcome this has already been
discussed in Section 9.3. There are two other effects of mass. The first concerns a vehicle climbing a hill and
the second is the kinetic energy lost when the vehicle is accelerating and decelerating in an urban cycle.
It follows that the power Phc in watts for a vehicle climbing a slope at a velocity v(ms−1)
is given by

By varying angles up to 10◦ for vehicles of two different weights, but otherwise similar. They are based loosely
on the GM EV1 electric car studied in Chapter 8. They both have a drag coefficient of 0.19 and tyres with a
coefficient of rolling resistance of 0.005, and the frontal area is 1.8m2. We can see that the 1500 kg car, which
is approximately the weight of the real GM EV1, has to provide approximately 12 times as much power at 10◦
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than is needed on the flat. With the 800 kg vehicle the power needed increases greatly, but only by about eight
times. Looking at Figure 9.10 we see why the GM EV1 electric car needs a motor of power
about 100 kW. In the SFUDS simulation we noted that the maximum power needed was only 12 kW, as in
Figure . Taking heavy vehicles up hills requires high power.
The results shown in the graph send a clear message. Considerable power is required for hill climbing, and
such terrain will restrict the range of electric vehicles relying solely on rechargeable batteries. When designing
electric vehicles the effect of hills must be taken into account, though there are no agreed ‘standard hills’ for
doing this. It is not too difficult, after a little experience, to add gradients to the simulation driving cycles
considered in the previous chapter. This is usually done with a specific journey in mind. The effect of the
vehicle mass when accelerating and stopping in town and city conditions is another area where the mass of
the electric vehicle will have considerable influence on vehicle performance. There are a variety of simulated
urban driving vehicle If the vehicle brakes this energy is converted to heat. When regenerative braking is used
a certain amount of the energy is recovered. The maximum practical limit on the recovery of kinetic energy is
about 40%. In light vehicles the losses associated with continually creating and then losing kinetic energy are
much less, and the benefits of regenerative braking are similarly reduced. Apart from the importance of
minimising vehicle weight, it is also important to try to minimise the moment of inertia of rotating
components, as these store rotational kinetic energy. The energy stored Er (joules) of a component with a
moment of inertia I (kgm2) rotating at ω(rad s−1) is given by

In practice most rotating components such as the wheels are purchased as proprietary items, but the energy
lost in rotary energy needs to be considered particularly for urban driving conditions. This was addressed in
Section 8.2 and Equation (8.8). In practice it is often difficult to obtain precise information about the moment
of inertia of the rotating parts, and a reasonable approximation is simply to increase the mass in Equation (9.9)
by 5%, and not use Equation (9.10). Notice that this does not need to be done for the mass in the hill climbing.
In the next section we consider aspects of the chassis and body design, and how it might
be made, and what materials used, in order to achieve this aim of reducing the weight.

Acceleration Performance Parameters

The acceleration of a car or motorcycle is a key performance indicator, though there is no standard
measure used. Typically the time to accelerate from standstill to 60 mph, or 30 or 50 kph, will be given. The
nearest to such a standard for electric vehicles are the 0–30 and 0–50 kph times, though these times are not
given for all vehicles. Such acceleration figures are found from simulation or testing of real vehicles. For IC
engine vehicles this is done at maximum power. Similarly, for electric vehicles performance simulations are
carried out at maximum torque. The maximum torque of an electric motor is a fairly simple function of angular
speed. In most cases, at low speeds, the maximum torque is a constant, until the motor speed reaches a critical
value ωc after which the torque falls.
In the case of a ‘brushed’ shunt or permanent magnet (PM) DC motor the torque falls
linearly with increasing speed. In the case of most other types of motor, the torque falls in
such a way that the power remains constant. The angular velocity of the motor depends on the gear ratio G
and the radius of the drive wheel r as in Equation (8.6) derived above.
Many of these equations may look quite complex, but nearly all the terms are constants, which can be found
or estimated from vehicle or component data.For a vehicle on level ground,
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Modelling the Acceleration of an Electric Scooter
For our first example we will take an electric scooter. No particular model is being considered, but the vehicle
is similar to the electric scooters made by Peugeot and EVS, an example of which is shown.
• The electric scooter has a mass of 115 kg, with a typical passenger of mass 70 kg, so total mass m = 185 kg.
• The moment of inertia of the motor is not known, so we will adopt the expedient suggested at the end of
Section 8.2.5, and increase m by 5% in the linear acceleration term only. A value of 194 kg will thus be used
from m in the final term of Equation
• The drag coefficient Cd is estimated as 0.75, a reasonable value for a small scooter, with a fairly ‘sit-up’
riding style.
• The frontal area of vehicle and rider is 0.6m2.
• The tyres and wheel bearings give a coefficient of rolling resistance, μrr = 0.007.
• The motor is connected to the rear wheel using a 2:1 ratio belt syste. The gear system is very simple, and of
low ratio, so we can assume a good efficiency. A value of ηg of 0.98 is estimated. An effect of this will be to
reduce the torque, and
so this factor will be applied to the torque.

Modelling the Acceleration of a Small Car

For our second example we will use a vehicle that had an important impact on the recent development of
electric cars. The GM EV1 was arguably the first modern electric car from one of the really large motor
companies. It incorporated technologies that were quite novel when it was introduced. Several views of this
vehicle are shown in Figure 14.5. Further details of this car are given in Section 14.3, but as far as simulating
its performance, the main features are:
• An ultra-low drag coefficient Cd of 0.19;
• A very low coefficient of rolling resistance, μrr , of 0.0048;
• The use of variable frequency induction motors, operating at very high speed – nearly 12,000 rpm at
maximum speed.
Rolling Resistance Coefficient μR is defined by μR = F/G, where F is the force necessary to pull the axle of a
tyre horizontally in the direction of travel, and G is the vertical load on the tire which is assumed to roll on a
flat horizontal surface.

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Transmission Efficiency
All vehicles need a transmission that connects the output of the motor to the wheels. In the case of an IC
engine vehicle the engine is connected to a clutch which in turn connects to a gearbox, a prop shaft, a
differential (for equalising the torque on the driving wheels and an axle at different speeds).
All of these have inefficiencies that cause a loss of power and energy. The transmission of electric vehicles is
inherently simpler than that of IC engine vehicles. To start with, no clutch is needed as the motor can provide
torque from zero speed upwards. Similarly, a conventional gearbox is not needed, as a single-ratio gear is
normally all that is needed. The three basic variations of electric vehicle transmission are illustrated in fig.
The most conventional arrangement is to drive a pair of wheels through a differential. This has many
advantages, the differential being a well-tested, reliable, quantity-produced piece of engineering. The
disadvantage is that some power is lost through the differential, and differentials are relatively heavy. It can
also take up space in areas where the space can be usefully utilised.

The differential can be eliminated by connecting a motor to each wheel via a single ratio gearbox or
even a toothed belt drive. The torque from each wheel can be set by the electronic controller. This system has
the advantage of clearing space within the vehicle, and the disadvantage of needing a more complicated
electronic controller. Also, in terms of cost per kilowatt, two small motors are considerably more expensive
than one larger one. The third method is to connect the motor directly to the wheels via a shaft, or actually to
design the motor as part of the hub assembly. This system has huge potential advantages, including a 100%
transmission efficiency. The trouble with this system is that most electric motors typically run at two to four
times faster than the vehicle’s wheels, and designing a motor to work slowly results in a large heavy motor.

Three different arrangements for electric vehicle transmission: (a) drive using single
motor and differential; (b) geared drive to each wheel; and (c) integral motor

Normally a vehicle’s handling is improved if the mass is kept to a minimum. Placing the motor in the hub has
advantages for space saving in vehicle layout, but will adversely affect handling. Also, the motor is certain to
be considerably more expensive in terms of cost per kilowatt. Whatever the arrangement for the transmission,
the transmission efficiency is important. A percentage increase in transmission efficiency will allow a similar
percentage reduction in battery mass and battery cost, or alternatively an equivalent increase in the vehicle
range.
Steps for Modeling the Acceleration of a Small Car
1. Define Vehicle Parameters:
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o Mass of the car (m)

o Drag coefficient (Cd)

o Frontal area (A)
o Rolling resistance coefficient (Cr)
o Tire radius (r)
o Power and torque characteristics of the motor
2. Identify Forces Acting on the Car:

3. Apply Newton’s Second Law:

4. Determine Power and Torque Relationship:

5. Simulate Acceleration Over Time:

o Use numerical methods (e.g., Euler’s method) to compute velocity over small time steps
o Integrate acceleration to obtain velocity and displacement
6. Validate Model:
o Compare with real-world acceleration tests
o Adjust parameters for accuracy
7. Optimize for Performance:
o Modify motor power, gear ratios, or aerodynamics to enhance acceleration efficiency

Vehicle mass
The mass of an electric vehicle has a critical effect on the performance, range and cost of an electric
vehicle. There are two other effects of mass. The first concerns a vehicle climbing a hill and the second is the
kinetic energy lost when the vehicle is accelerating and decelerating in an urban cycle.
In Equation (8.3) of Chapter 8 it was seen that the force Fhc in newtons along the slope for a car of mass
m(kg) climbing a hill of angle ψ is given by

Figure shows the total power needed to travel at a constant 80 kph up slopes of varying angles up to 10◦ for
vehicles of two different weights, but otherwise similar. They are based loosely on the GM EV1 electric car
studied in Chapter 8. They both have a drag coefficient of 0.19 and tyres with a coefficient of rolling resistance
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of 0.005, and the frontal area is 1.8m2. We can see that the 1500 kg car, which is approximately the weight of
the real GM EV1, has to provide approximately 12 times as much power at 10◦ than is needed on the flat. With
the 800 kg vehicle the power needed increases greatly, but only by about eight times. Looking at Figure 9.10
we see why the GM EV1 electric car needs a motor of power about 100 kW. In the SFUDS simulation we
noted that the maximum power needed was only 12 kW, as in Figure 8.16. Taking heavy vehicles up hills
requires high power. The results shown in the graph send a clear message. Considerable power is required for
hill climbing, and such terrain will restrict the range of electric vehicles relying solely on rechargeable
batteries. When designing electric vehicles the effect of hills must be taken into account, though there are no
agreed ‘standard hills’ for doing this. It is not too difficult, after a little experience, to add gradients to the
simulation driving cycles considered in the previous chapter. This is usually done with a specific journey in
mind.
The effect of the vehicle mass when accelerating and stopping in town and city conditions is another area
where the mass of the electric vehicle will have considerable influence on vehicle performance.
If the vehicle brakes this energy is converted to heat. When regenerative braking is used a certain amount of
the energy is recovered. The maximum practical limit on the recovery of kinetic energy is about 40%. In light
vehicles the losses associated with continually creating and then losing kinetic energy are much less, and the
benefits of regenerative braking are similarly reduced. Apart from the importance of minimising vehicle
weight, it is also important to try to minimise the moment of inertia of rotating components, as these store
rotational kinetic energy.
In practice most rotating components such as the wheels are purchased as proprietary items, but the energy
lost in rotary energy needs to be considered particularly for urban driving conditions. Inpractice it is often
difficult to obtain precise information about the moment of inertia of the rotating parts, and a reasonable
approximation is simply to increase the mass

Body/Chassis Requirements
Chassis design should be carried out in conjunction with other texts on chassis design, not to mention
computer packages that specialise in this area. Nevertheless a basic understanding of what the chassis should
do and other parameters related to electric vehicle
chassis is needed. In the early cars chassis and bodies were separate items. The chassis gave the basic strength
of the vehicle while the body and glazing acted as a cocoon to keep the passengers and luggage protected from
the outside elements. In recent times the body and chassis have been combined as a monocoque so that every
part, including the glazing, adds to the strength and stiffness, resulting in a much lighter vehicle. Either
monocoques or separate chassis/body units are an acceptable basis for design. Despite the popularity of
monocoques several modern electric vehicles use a separate chassis, most notably the advanced new GM ‘Hy-
wire’ fuel cell vehicle, which will be discussed in more detail later. It is worth pausing to think precisely what
the chassis/body does. Ideally a chassis/body should fill the following criteria.
It should be strong, light, rigid, vibration-free, particularly at frequencies and harmonics of rotating parts and
road sourced vibration, aerodynamic, resistant to impact, able to crumple evenly in an accident, minimising
forces on driver/passengers, strong enough to fix components to easily, impact and roll resistant, cheap,
aesthetically pleasing and corrosion proof.
Chassis/body design
There are important differences when designing electric vehicles compared with their IC equivalents.
For example, extra weight is not so important with an IC vehicle, where a little more power can be cheaply
added to compensate for a slightly heavier chassis. The same is true for aerodynamic drag, where a slight
increase in drag can be similarly compensated. Savings in weight as well as increases in efficiency contribute
directly to the size of the batteries and these are both heavy and expensive.

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Body/Chassis Layout
There is plenty of scope for designers of electric vehicles to experiment with different layouts to optimise their
creation. To start with, there is no need for a bonnet housing and engine. In addition, batteries can be placed
virtually anywhere along the bottom (for stability) of the vehicle and motors and gearing can be – if required
– integrated with the wheel hub assemblies. Most batteries can be varied in size. Height can be traded against
length and width, and most batteries (not all) can be split up so that they can be located under seats and
anywhere else required, all of which can help to use every available space and to reduce the vehicle frontal
area. Batteries can also be arranged to ensure that the vehicle is perfectly balanced around the centre of gravity,
giving good handling characteristics. A picture of an interesting experimental drive system assembly,
consisting of one driven wheel, with batteries and controller all built into the unit. The scope for using such a
device on a range of interesting vehicle layouts is considerable. It could be incorporated, for example, to drive
the rear wheel in a tricycle arrangement.

The famous Swiss electric ‘Twike’

However, as it is a low-speed commuter vehicle based on bicycle components the aerodynamic shape is not
as important as those of a high-speed vehicle. The two rear wheels with the passengers sitting side by side
give stability.
The layout for an electric van also has considerable scope for new ideas. Electric motors and gearing can
again, if required, be incorporated into the wheel hub assemblies, avoiding space requirements for motors,
gearing and transmission. Batteries such as lead acid, NiCad or NiMH can be spread as a thin layer over the
base of the vehicle leaving a large flat-floored area above – an essential requirement for vans.

Body/Chassis Strength, Rigidity and Crash Resistance

The days have long past, thankfully, when stress engineers regarded aircraft as hollow cylinders with beams
stuck out of the side and cars as something simpler. Modern predictions
of chassis/body behaviour and virtually every aspect of car design rely ultimately on analysis using complex
computer packages. Nevertheless a basic understanding of the behaviour of beams and hollow cylinders does
give an insight into body/chassis design. Let us look at a hollow cylinder as shown in Figure 9.13 subjected
to both bending and torsion. Bending would be caused by the weight of the vehicle, particularly when coming
down after driving over a bump, and the torsion from cornering. The weight ofthe vehicle will cause stresses
to mount in the tube and will also cause it to deflect. The torsion will likewise result in shear stresses and will
cause the tube to twist.

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Buckling can be minimised by using two layers of the material, with foam in the middle effectively creating
a sandwich – hence sandwich materials. Alternatively two thin sheets of aluminium can be joined by a thin
aluminium honeycomb; both of these techniques are widely used in the aircraft industry. To keep both
deflection due to bending and twist due to torque as low as possible it is necessary to use materials which are
as rigid as possible, that is having high E and G values in addition to optimising the design to keep I and J as
large as possible. Due consideration must be given to material rigidity as well as strength. For example, an
infinitely strong rubber would be useless as it would deform and twist far too much. Similarly a rigid but weak
material would be useless. Steel, being relatively cheap, as well as rigid, is a traditional choice for
manufacturing car bodies and chassis, but it is not necessarily a good choice for electric vehicles. Firstly it has
a low strength-to-weight ratio resulting in a relatively heavy structure. Secondly the manufacturing cost is low
when mass produced, but relatively expensive for small-number production, which may be the initial option
for electric vehicles. Materials such as aluminium and modern composites have much better strength-toweight
ratios than steels, and both are widely used in the aircraft and racing car industries.

Both metals and composites absorb energy on impact, metals through plastic deformation and composites
through fragmenting. The behaviour of metals in a crash can now be predicted accurately using large finite
element packages, whereas it is much harder to predict the behaviour of composites. This means that if a metal
structure is used, the car can be designed to deform in the optimum manner to meet legislation; this prediction
would be much harder with composites. Both carbon fibre and aluminium are considerably more expensive
than steel. However, by using these materials not only is the car lighter, but for a given range a considerable
amount of expensive batteries is saved, which must be accounted for in the overall costing of the vehicle.
Designing for Stability
A vehicle should be designed also to be clearly stable. For maximum stability, wheels should be located at the
vehicle extremities and the centre of gravity should be kept as low as possible. This is one area where the
weight of the batteries can be beneficial, as they can be laid along the bottom of the vehicle making it extremely
stable. During a visit to look at an electric van manufacturer, one of the authors was challenged to try to turn
it over while driving round roundabouts. Perhaps regrettably, he declined the offer, but it did give an indication
of the manufacturer’s confidence in the stability of its product.

Suspension for Electric Vehicles

Suspension has the purpose of keeping all of the wheels evenly on the ground, reducing the effects of bumps
and ensuring passenger comfort. Suspension on an electric vehicle should, from the energy efficiency
viewpoint, be fairly hard. As with tyres pumped to a high pressure, the energy loss is reduced but the ride
tends to be less comfortable. Other than this, the suspension design for electric vehicles will not be different
than that for regular vehicles of similar size.

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The Twike chassis

Chassis used in Modern Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles

Chassis bodies for fuel cell vehicles need to house the hydrogen fuel tanks or a hydrogen generator, the fuel
cells, the motor and radiators for getting rid of excess heat. Fuel cells can be used in conventional vehicle
chassis units, and some examples have been seen in earlier chapters, for example Figures 1.15 and 1.16.
However, General Motors has taken the view that a modern power source required a totally new approach to
the design.

GM’s ‘Hy-wire’ chassis and one-body design (Reproduced by kind permission of

General Motors Corp.)

Recharging and Refuelling Systems

In places such as California, and parts of France and Switzerland, where there has been active encouragement
of battery electric vehicles, recharging points have been located around cities. Since battery electric cars are
usually used for short journeys, of a fairly predictable kind, or at least within a limited region, users will know
where charging points are located. Should rechargeable electric vehicles become more widespread, more
thought would be needed as to how and where charging points would be situated, and making this information
widely known. How the electricity would be paid for would then become more of an issue. In addition, where
necessary, suitable electric supply lines would need to be provided and appropriate generating equipment
installed. Plug-in chargers traditionally used conventional transformers containing both primary and
secondary windings. More modern plug-in chargers do not need to use transformers. Alternating current is
rectified to direct current and this is used to charge a large capacitor. Power electronics are used to switch the
current to the capacitor on and off thus maintaining the DC voltage within narrow bands. (Such ‘chopper’
circuits are explained in section. Transformers contain iron cores and are heavy, so eliminating them results
in a considerably lighter charging unit. This opens up the way for small onboard chargers, that battery vehicles
can simply be recharged from the mains if no external chargers are available. The majority of electric vehicles
carry an onboard charger, though this will usually recharge the batteries at a rather slower speed than is
possible with more sophisticated offboard systems.
The problem of battery chargers is one that fuel cell and hybrid electric vehicles do not have at all. However,
the problem of supplying fuel to fuel cells is no less complex, and so we devoted the whole of Chapter 6 to

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this problem. On the other hand, the great majority of hybrid vehicles use the IC engine to recharge the battery,
and so simply fill up with petrol or diesel

Storing of excess energy

Storage of renewable energy is necessary. Otherwise, the power produced must be consumed directly
or fed into the public grid – otherwise, it is lost. Thermal mass and water tanks are the two primary methods
of storing solar energy in solar space heating systems. Wind turbines can use excess power to compress air;
this is usually stored in large above-ground tanks or in underground caverns.
Equipment
In case of solar energy, Solar inverters are an important piece of this puzzle. Before the generated
solar energy can be used by most of the devices and appliances, it must be converted from direct current (DC)
to alternating current (AC). This is also the case for fueling an electric car with solar energy. With increasing
people adopting solar and electric vehicles, certainly the demand for inverters will go up. You can build your
business around providing the inverter at lease, rent or even provide it at subscription!
Lastly, the actual charging port will be installed and connected to the inverter so that it can draw the electricity
and send it into the electric car’s battery. You can also become a provider of complete solution, solar panel
provider, solar inverter provider and charging port provider.
Storage systems bring several benefits apart from storing excess energy. These benefits include:
Frequency Rotation (guiding the grid’s electric frequency on a real-time basis) Providing transmission and
distribution support which in turn smoothens out the energy flows.The easy integration into the smart grid
structures make batteries an invaluable asset. Smart solutions will play a fundamental role. For now, the major
challenge to the expansion of electric vehicles comes from lack of effective charging. However, if electric
vehicles are made part of the grid through a specially modified smart electric vehicle charger, batteries of
electric vehicles can provide ancillary services to the power grid while charging the electric vehicle in the
most optimal way:

• Homes could leverage local photovoltaic (PV) setups paired with storage. When the car isn’t in use,
the energy storage capacity increases by that of the electric vehicle’s battery and can be used for energy
backup or storing from the rooftop solar panel

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• For public, commercial, industrial, or apartment buildings, local PV could be paired with large-scale
energy storage to optimize the building's energy consumption. Every building would also enjoy smart
charging stations for the electric vehicles owners who can decide whether they want to share the excess
energy from their electric vehicle battery with the building and get remunerated (in case they go
straight home and after that charge their electric vehicle) or they are looking to get their own vehicle
charged.
• In the case of electric vehicle charging stations as such, pairing smart chargers with large-scale energy
storage could provide energy for fast charging without creating an unexpected burden to the power
grid.

Virtual Power Plant (VPP)

A VPP is a cloud-based/virtual system that aggregates the capacities of heterogeneous distributed
energy resources (DER) such as solar power equipment, batteries, electric vehicles, wind turbines, etc. Power
utilities, renewable energy operators, energy producers and retailers, VPP operators, and building managers
are some of the key stakeholders involved. This system functions for power generation, intra and inter
electricity trade, sale and purchase of power in the market.

In simple words, VPP is to a traditional energy plant what the internet-connected desktop computers are to the
mainframe computer. Both can perform advanced computing tasks, but VPP can also perform energy
management functions.

Major design challenges for electric cars :

• Range Anxiety and Battery Technology.
• Charging Infrastructure.
• Lightweight Design and Material Selection.
• Safety and Crashworthiness.
• Cost and Affordability.
• Size and Space Constraints.
• Thermal Management.
Major trends in designing automotive chassis :
1. Lightweight Materials
2. Integration of Electric Powertrains
3. Advanced Suspension Systems
4. Active Safety Features
5. Connected Chassis
6. Enhanced Structural Rigidity
Recharging an electric vehicle (EV) offers several environmental benefits over refuelling with gasoline or
diesel:

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1. Lower Greenhouse Gas Emissions: EVs produce zero tailpipe emissions, reducing carbon dioxide
(CO2) and other harmful pollutants, contributing to cleaner air.
2. Reduced Air Pollution: EVs eliminate harmful emissions such as nitrogen oxides (NOx) and
particulate matter, improving air quality, especially in urban areas.
3. Energy Efficiency: Electric motors are more efficient than internal combustion engines (ICE),
converting a higher percentage of energy into movement.
4. Renewable Energy Integration: EVs can be charged using renewable energy sources, further reducing
their carbon footprint.
5. Lower Noise Pollution: EVs generate less noise, contributing to quieter, more livable environments.

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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Subject Title : Modelling and Design of Electric Vehicles Title : QB
Subject Code : EEH004 Unit : IV
Year/Semester : III /VI Type: 100% Theory

UNIT III - DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR EV’S

This unit focuses on the design requirements of electric vehicles. It also deals with chassis and body design of
electric vehicle. The recharging and refuelling system of electric vehicle is also discussed.
Part A
Design Requirement for Electric Vehicles – Range, Maximum Velocity, Acceleration,
Power Requirement, Vehicle Mass – Various Resistance – Transmission Efficiency
1. Mention the major design requirements of EV. R
2. Define transmission Efficiency in an EV. R
3. Define dynamics of a vehicle. R
4. What is Tractive Force? R
5. Define Aerodynamic drag force. R
6. Define Rolling resistance force. R
7. Mention the formula for the rolling resistance of a tyre. U
8. Define Grading force. R
9. Write the general expression for Wheel force. U
10. Draw the characteristic curve for Wheel speed versus vehicle speed. U
11. How the capacity and weight calculation play an important role in the selection of motor and U
battery?
12. Mention the role of torque in electric vehicle. R
13. Write some factors responsible for selection of motor in EV. U
14. Define Gear ratio. R
15. How do you determine the optimal range for an electric vehicle? U
16. Draw the block diagram for Energy flows in the battery-powered electric vehicle. U
17. Define vehicle mass. R
Chassis and Body Design – Recharging and Refuelling Systems
18. Write the steps for Modelling the Acceleration of a Small Car. U
19. Justify the major design challenges for electric cars? U
20. Are EV chargers AC or DC? U
21. Which power transmission system is more efficient? U
22. Why is DC charging not used for transmission in EV? U
23. Which gearbox has the highest efficiency? U
24. How to increase gearbox efficiency in EV? U
25. How is a chassis designed? R
26. Interpret the major trends in designing automotive chassis. U
27. How much electricity is required for EV charging? R
28. What are the environmental benefits of recharging an electric vehicle compared to refuelling with U
gasoline or diesel?
29. Is an EV heavier than a normal car? R
30. How long does it take to charge an electric car at home? U

PART B
1 Describe in detail about major design considerations in electric vehicle with neat (16) U
characteristic curve.
2 i) Describe in detail about Range and Maximum Velocity in electric vehicle. (8) U

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ii) Explain in detail about the following terms. (8) U

a) Power Requirement
b) Vehicle Mass
3 With neat sketch, explain in detail about Chassis/body design in electric vehicle. (16) U
4 Explain in detail about the modelling the acceleration of a small car. (16) S
5 Explain in detail about Recharging and Refuelling Systems I EV with neat block diagram. (16) S
6 Do a case study on design and fabrication of electric vehicle. Also show their simulation (16) A
results with neat sketch.
7 Analyze the infrastructure and operational aspects of electric vehicle charging stations (16) A
through a case study.
8 Do a case study on gearbox efficiency in electric vehicle with neat sketch. (16) A

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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Subject Title: Modeling & Design of Electric Vehicle Title : Part B Solved
Subject Code: EEH004 Unit : III
Year/Semester: III/VI Type : 100 % Theory

6. Do a case study on Design and fabrication of Electric vehicle. Also show their simulation results
with neat sketch.
The transition to electric vehicles (EVs) is accelerating as a response to environmental concerns, rising
fuel costs, and technological advancements. The design and fabrication of an EV involves various phases,
including conceptualization, engineering design, system integration, and testing. The EV design aims to
optimize performance, efficiency, and user experience while addressing challenges related to battery
capacity, motor power, aerodynamics, and weight. This case study outlines the design process, key
components, and fabrication of a small electric vehicle, along with its simulation results. The primary
objective of the case study is to design and fabricate an electric vehicle prototype that efficiently meets
performance standards in terms of range, acceleration, and power consumption while being environmentally
friendly and cost-effective.
Design Parameters and Requirements
The EV design begins by defining the following critical parameters:
Vehicle Weight: 800 kg (including the battery and driver)
Battery Capacity: 24 kWh (providing an adequate range of approximately 150 km)
Motor Power: 60 kW (providing a maximum speed of 120 km/h)
Maximum Torque: 220 Nm (sufficient for city and highway driving)
Wheelbase: 2.5 meters
Aerodynamic Drag Coefficient (Cd): 0.32 (typical for small EVs)
Additional requirements include safety features, optimal braking system, efficient energy recovery
(regenerative braking), and low manufacturing costs.
The key components and materials used in the design and fabrication of the EV include:
Battery: A lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery pack is chosen due to its high energy density, long lifespan, and
widespread adoption in the EV industry.
Electric Motor: A permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) is selected because of its efficiency,
torque output, and compact design.
Inverter: The inverter converts DC power from the battery to AC power to drive the motor.
Chassis and Frame: A lightweight aluminum alloy frame is used for better structural integrity while
minimizing the vehicle's overall weight.
Suspension: A McPherson strut suspension system is used to provide stability and comfort.

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Regulation: IFETCE R2019A
Academic Year: 2024-2025
Aerodynamics: The vehicle is designed with a sleek body shape to reduce drag and improve energy
efficiency.
Design Steps
The design process for the electric vehicle can be divided into the following phases:
1. Powertrain Design
The powertrain design includes the selection of the motor, inverter, transmission, and battery. The motor’s
performance is determined by the required torque and power output for optimal vehicle acceleration and
speed. The inverter is designed to handle the power requirements while maintaining efficiency during both
acceleration and deceleration.
2. Battery System Design
The battery pack design focuses on maximizing energy capacity while minimizing weight. The battery
management system (BMS) is essential for monitoring the battery’s state of charge, temperature, and health.
A 24 kWh Li-ion battery is selected, capable of delivering a range of 150 km on a single charge under typical
driving conditions.
3. Vehicle Dynamics and Simulation
Vehicle dynamics simulation is a critical phase to predict the vehicle’s performance under various
conditions. Using software tools such as MATLAB/Simulink, AVL Cruise, or ADAMS, the dynamic
behavior of the EV is simulated to evaluate its acceleration, braking, handling, and energy consumption.
Key factors in the simulation include:
Aerodynamic drag
Rolling resistance
Motor efficiency
Regenerative braking performance
4. Structural Design and Safety
The vehicle’s structural design is created using computer-aided design (CAD) software, ensuring that all
components are integrated securely and safely. Safety features such as crashworthiness, energy absorption
zones, and fireproof battery enclosures are considered. The chassis design also includes mounting points for
suspension, wheels, and motor components.
5. Charging System
The EV is designed to support AC Level 2 charging (240V, 32A) for home use and DC fast charging for
quicker turnaround times. The charging system is integrated with the battery management system for
monitoring charging levels and health.
6. Fabrication Process
Once the design is finalized, the fabrication of the vehicle involves several steps:

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Regulation: IFETCE R2019A
Academic Year: 2024-2025
Frame Construction: The aluminum alloy frame is fabricated using welding and extrusion techniques to
achieve lightweight yet strong support.
Motor and Inverter Installation: The electric motor and inverter are mounted on the frame with proper
integration into the powertrain.
Battery Pack Assembly: The battery cells are arranged and housed in a protective enclosure with a thermal
management system.
Suspension and Wheels: The suspension system is mounted along with tires optimized for low rolling
resistance.
Body Assembly: The outer body panels are fitted, including doors, windows, and aerodynamically optimized
elements like a rear spoiler
The design and fabrication of an electric vehicle require careful consideration of various parameters,
including powertrain design, battery capacity, aerodynamics, and structural integrity. The case study
demonstrates the steps involved in creating an efficient, cost-effective EV prototype, with a focus on optimal
range, performance, and energy consumption.

7. Analyze the infrastructure and operational aspects of electric vehicle charging stations through a
case study.
The transition to electric vehicles (EVs) is a key component of sustainable transportation. As EV
adoption increases, the development of efficient charging infrastructure is critical for seamless operation. This
case study explores the infrastructure and operational aspects of EV charging stations, focusing on their design,
deployment, challenges, and solutions.
Infrastructure of EV Charging Stations
1. Types of Charging Stations
EV charging stations are categorized into three main types based on power delivery:
• Level 1 Charging: Utilizes a standard 120V AC outlet, suitable for home charging with slow charging
times (8-20 hours for a full charge).
• Level 2 Charging: Uses a 240V AC power source, offering significantly faster charging (4-6 hours for a
full charge) and is commonly installed in homes, workplaces, and public locations.
• DC Fast Charging (Level 3): Delivers high-voltage direct current (DC) to charge EVs rapidly (30-60
minutes for 80% charge), making it suitable for highways and commercial areas.
2. Infrastructure Components
EV charging stations consist of various components, including:
• Charging Equipment: Includes connectors, cables, and power converters compatible with different EV
models.

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Regulation: IFETCE R2019A
Academic Year: 2024-2025
• Power Supply System: Integrates with the electrical grid or renewable energy sources (solar/wind) to
provide stable energy supply.
• Communication and Networking: Enables remote monitoring, payments, and usage tracking through
IoT-enabled platforms.
• Safety and Security Measures: Involves surge protection, insulation monitoring, and cybersecurity
measures to prevent unauthorized access.
Operational Aspects of EV Charging Stations
1. Site Selection and Deployment
Effective site selection is crucial for optimizing accessibility and grid integration. Key considerations include:
• Proximity to High-Traffic Areas: Ensures convenience for users, especially in urban centers, shopping
malls, and workplaces.
• Power Grid Availability: Determines feasibility of installation and ensures grid stability.
• Space and Parking Design: Requires designated parking spaces, signage, and compliance with
regulatory requirements.
2. Energy Management and Grid Integration
Managing energy demand is essential for stable operations. Methods include:
• Load Management Strategies: Balances demand to prevent grid overload using demand response
techniques.
• Renewable Energy Integration: Deploying solar panels and energy storage systems to enhance
sustainability and reduce grid dependency.
• Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) Technology: Allows bidirectional energy flow, enabling EVs to return power to
the grid during peak demand.
3. Payment and Revenue Models
EV charging stations adopt various payment models, including:
• Subscription-Based Charging: Users pay a monthly fee for unlimited access.
• Pay-Per-Use Model: Charges users based on energy consumption.
• Advertising and Partnerships: Revenue from advertisements displayed at charging stations or
partnerships with businesses.
4. Maintenance and Reliability
Regular maintenance ensures efficient operation and user satisfaction. This includes:
• Routine Inspections: Checking for wear and tear on charging cables, connectors, and control systems.
• Software Updates: Enhancing cybersecurity and optimizing performance through firmware updates.
• Customer Support Services: Providing real-time assistance through mobile apps or helplines.

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Regulation: IFETCE R2019A
Academic Year: 2024-2025
Case Study: Tesla Supercharger Network
1. Infrastructure Design
Tesla's Supercharger network is designed for high-speed charging using DC fast-charging technology. Key
features include:
• High-Powered Chargers: Capable of delivering up to 250 kW, enabling rapid charging.
• Strategic Locations: Placed along highways, urban centers, and commercial hubs.
• Renewable Energy Usage: Integration of solar panels and battery storage at select locations.
2. Operational Strategies
• Efficient Energy Management: Tesla utilizes smart energy management to balance grid demand and
reduce costs.
• Seamless User Experience: The Tesla app provides real-time charging station availability and payment
integration.
• Predictive Maintenance: AI-driven diagnostics ensure proactive identification and resolution of
technical issues.
Challenges and Solutions
1. Grid Strain and Energy Demand
• Challenge: High power demand from fast-charging stations can stress local grids.
• Solution: Implementing battery storage solutions and demand-side management techniques to balance
load.
2. Infrastructure Costs
• Challenge: High initial capital investment for installation and grid upgrades.
• Solution: Public-private partnerships and government incentives to encourage deployment.
3. Standardization and Compatibility
• Challenge: Different EV manufacturers use varied charging standards (CCS, CHAdeMO, Tesla
Superchargers).
• Solution: Development of universal adapters and regulatory frameworks to ensure interoperability.

8. Do a case study on gearbox efficiency in electric vehicle with neat sketch.

Electric vehicles (EVs) utilize an electric powertrain, which eliminates the need for complex multi-
speed transmissions commonly found in internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles. However, the role of
the gearbox remains crucial in optimizing efficiency, performance, and energy consumption. This case
study explores gearbox efficiency in EVs, examining design considerations, operational performance,
challenges, and potential improvements.

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Regulation: IFETCE R2019A
Academic Year: 2024-2025
Role of Gearbox in Electric Vehicles
Unlike conventional vehicles that require multi-speed transmissions to manage power output, most EVs use a
single-speed gearbox. The primary functions of the gearbox in an EV include:
• Torque Conversion: Adjusts motor output to provide necessary torque to the wheels.
• Efficiency Enhancement: Minimizes energy losses to improve range.
• Load Distribution: Ensures smooth power delivery across various speeds.
• Durability and Reliability: Reduces wear and tear on the motor and drivetrain components.
Gearbox Efficiency in EVs
1. Factors Affecting Gearbox Efficiency
Gearbox efficiency in an EV depends on various factors, including:
• Gear Design and Material: Advanced lightweight materials and precision engineering reduce
frictional losses.
• Lubrication System: Effective lubrication minimizes heat generation and enhances performance.
• Bearing and Sealing Technology: Optimized bearing placement and sealing reduce energy
dissipation.
• Thermal Management: Heat dissipation techniques prevent excessive energy loss due to overheating.
2. Efficiency Comparison: Single-Speed vs. Multi-Speed Gearbox
Most EVs utilize a single-speed gearbox due to the broad torque range of electric motors. However, some
high-performance EVs, such as the Porsche Taycan, implement a multi-speed gearbox to improve
acceleration and efficiency at higher speeds.
Feature Single-Speed Gearbox Multi-Speed Gearbox
Complexity Simple Complex
Efficiency High at low speeds Improved at high speeds
Maintenance Low Higher due to additional components
Cost Lower Higher

Case Study: Tesla Model S Gearbox Design

1. Gearbox Structure and Operation
The Tesla Model S features a single-speed reduction gearbox that ensures high efficiency and smooth
acceleration. Key attributes include:
• Reduction Ratio: 9.73:1, optimizing motor torque delivery.
• Helical Gears: Reduce noise and improve efficiency compared to spur gears.
• Advanced Lubrication: Ensures minimal wear and heat generation.
2. Efficiency Performance Analysis
The efficiency of the Tesla Model S gearbox is analyzed based on:
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Regulation: IFETCE R2019A
Academic Year: 2024-2025
• Energy Losses: Less than 2% in drivetrain transmission.
• Operational Temperature Management: Maintains optimal lubrication at varying speeds.
• Maintenance Requirements: Minimal due to the robust design.
Challenges in Gearbox Efficiency
1. Heat Generation and Lubrication Issues
• Challenge: Frictional losses lead to excess heat, reducing efficiency.
• Solution: Use of advanced synthetic lubricants and thermal coatings.
2. Weight and Material Constraints
• Challenge: Heavier materials impact overall vehicle efficiency.
• Solution: Adoption of carbon-fiber composites and lightweight alloys.
3. Noise, Vibration, and Harshness (NVH) Reduction
• Challenge: Gear whine and vibration affect passenger comfort.
• Solution: Implementation of helical gears and improved damping mechanisms.
Future Trends and Innovations
• Two-Speed Gearbox for High-Speed EVs: Research is ongoing to develop efficient multi-speed
transmissions for extended range and improved acceleration.
• AI-Based Predictive Maintenance: Utilizing AI for real-time monitoring and predictive failure
analysis.
• Advanced Coatings and Lubricants: Nanotechnology-based lubricants to reduce wear and energy
dissipation.
The gearbox plays a vital role in improving the efficiency of EVs by optimizing torque delivery and
reducing power losses. The Tesla Model S serves as a benchmark for highly efficient single-speed
gearboxes, while future innovations may lead to enhanced multi-speed transmission solutions for
performance-oriented EVs. Continuous advancements in materials, lubrication, and thermal management
will further improve gearbox efficiency, contributing to the overall sustainability and performance of
electric vehicles.