FORCE AND MOTION

Understanding the impact of force through real-life examples

Many examples in daily life occur due to force, for instance, by applying force
while pressing hands on the sides of a balloon. Therefore, a force can change
the shape of a body. However, it also has other impacts. It can change the
direction of moving objects as well. For example, the direction of a moving ball
varies if someone kicks it. The change is because kicking involves the
application of force.
When a moving object is at rest, we can move it by applying force. For instance,
kicking a ball at rest makes it move. Also, using force stops the movement of
moving objects. For example, the application of brakes contains/changes the
speed of moving bicycles.

Impact and examples of balanced and unbalanced forces

The effect of balanced forces is different from those of unbalanced ones.
Balanced forces can alter the shape of an object. For example, forces applied by
one's palms on balloon sides are proportional and change the shape of the
balloon. If used on both sides of the brick, equal forces balance each other. As a
result, it stays stationary.
On the other hand, if forces of different magnitude or unequal forces are applied
on both sides of a brick, it shifts to the side with a more significant force.
Therefore, unbalanced forces change the state of rest or motion.

Law of conservation of momentum from laws of motion

10.3.1 Inertia
Inertia is defined as the state of constant rest or motion.

10.3.2 Inertia and Mass

Heavier bodies resist with greater resistance as compared to lighter bodies.

10.3.3 Newton's First Law of Motion

It states that a body's state of rest or motion changes only when a force is
applied.

10.3.4 Momentum
It is the impact produced by a body upon experiencing force. It is calculated as
the product of mass and velocity.

10.3.5 Newton's second law of motion

The total momentum of two or more objects remains conserved following and
before the collision, given no external force involved. That is, F= P2-P1/t
(time).
10.3.6 Some Examples of Second Law of Motion from Daily Life
An example of the second law is hitting a ball. The ball's acceleration after
being hit is directly proportional to the force applied during hitting.

10.3.7 Newton's Third Law of Motion

The third law states that every action will have an equal and opposite reaction.

10.3.8 Conservation of Momentum

The law of conservation of momentum holds when external force (F) is absent.
Therefore, F =0, then the equation becomes P1=P2. It shows that initial and new
momentum stays unchanged without external force, which is momentum
conservation law.

The Pros and Cons of Friction

10.4.1 Force of Friction
The frictional force exists between two surfaces. It is an opposing force. Two
types of friction are present: static and kinetic or sliding.

10.4.2 Factors affecting friction

The frictional force varies on different surfaces. For example, it is higher on
regular roads. However, it is weak on surfaces like sand or ice. Therefore,
friction depends on the smoothness of a surface and the normal reaction.

10.4.3 Advantages and disadvantages of friction

Pros:
 Walking on wet floors or ice is troublesome or nearly impossible.
However, the friction force between the feet or soles of shoes and the
ground helps walk.
 It also assists in writing, braking, driving vehicles on the road, etc.
Cons:
 Friction lowers the working efficiency of machine parts. Therefore, extra
energy is used to overcome friction.
 Friction erodes the sole of shoes.
 Thrust and Pressure: Definitions
 Thrust is the perpendicular force that one side of a body experiences. On
the other hand, pressure is the force a body experiences for a unit area. It
has the S.I units of
 N/m2

 . Therefore, the value of pressure depends on the contact area. From the
definition, it is inversely proportional to the area. Hence, as the area
increases, pressure decreases.
 GRAVITATION

 Force of Gravitation
 Objects, thrown upwards or downwards, with or without a speed, fall
eventually. The phenomenon is due to a force of acceleration experienced
by bodies. The force is also known as the force of acceleration. The earth
exerts a universal force of gravity on all the freely falling objects. The
gravitational force pulls all objects towards the earth's centre.
 Newton observed this phenomenon while resting under a tree when an
apple fell from the tree. He concluded that some universal force acts on
the apple in an accelerated motion. Thus, he hypothesized the concept of
gravity.
 Gravitational force in the universe
 The earth exerts a force of gravity on all the freely falling objects.
Newton implicated that the same force is also exerted on the cosmical
matter. For example, the earth exerts the gravitational force on the moon,
resulting in its circular motion around the orbits. The gravitational force
also exists between the planets and the sun. As a result, all the planets
revolve around it in their fixed orbits.

 Newton's law of gravitation

 Newton defined the law of gravitation as the attraction between every two
particles in the universe. Mathematically, it is stated as: "Each particle of
matter existing in the universe exerts a force of attraction on another
object that is directly proportional to the product of their masses." It is
inversely proportional to the square of the distance separating the two
objects.
 Therefore, combing both the factors, the mathematical equation for the
force of attraction, F becomes F=Gm1m2/r2.
 Here, m1 and m2 define the masses of the matter particle, whereas r is the
distance separating the two objects. In addition, G represents the
proportionality constant or gravitational constant. The value of G depends
on the units used. For instance, when the SI system of units is used to
express the mass and distance, i.e., kilograms and metres, respectively,
the value of G becomes 6.67×10−11Nm2kg−2.
 The gravitational pull exists between every two objects irrespective of
their mass. However, this value increases when the objects have
 significant masses. The phenomenon is because it is directly proportional
to the product of the masses.

 Acceleration due to gravity

 The earth's force of attraction is strong enough to alter the velocity of
objects. When there is a freely falling object, the force of gravity
increases the object's velocity and causes a change in the direction of its
motion. The force of gravity is equal on all things irrespective of their
masses, i.e., two objects of different mass will hit the ground
simultaneously when thrown from the same height.
 Mathematical derivation
 At a given space on earth, the acceleration due to gravity is the same for
all the objects. Therefore, the mathematical expression for the
acceleration due to gravity can be derived as:
 The magnitude of force, F, is equal to the product of mass (m) and
acceleration. In this case, the acceleration is the acceleration due to
gravity (g). Therefore, F becomes F=mg.
 Force of attraction exerted by the earth is given by, F=Gm1m2/r2.
 Thus, by combining them, we get, g=GM/R2.
 Here, m1 will be equal to the mass of the earth, which M represents, and
m2 will be equal to the object's mass, m. The distance between the earth
and the object is equal to the radius of the Earth, R. Thus, r= R.
 Therefore, mg=GMm/R2 or g=GM/R2.
 The average value of g, near or on the surface of the earth, is 9.8ms−2.

 Motion of an object under gravity

 When an object moves vertically, it is constantly influenced by the earth's
gravitational force. The gravitational force always acts towards the centre
of the earth. The acceleration due to gravity follows the same laws of
classical mechanics to affect the distance, time, and velocity values of a
moving object.
 Substituting the acceleration with the value of g, we get the following
equations:
 v=u+gt
 s=ut+1/2gt2
 v2=u2+2gs
 Mass, Weight, and Weightlessness
 11.5.1 Mass
 The mass of a body defines the matter in the body. It is constant and does
not change with the place. Additionally, an object's inertia increases with
its mass.
 11.5.2 Weight
 A body's weight defines its force of attraction to the earth. The value
changes from place to place, depending on the value of g. The body's
weight is calculated as W = mg, and it has the unit Newton N, similar to
force.
 11.5.3 Weightlessness
 Weightlessness is a phenomenon experienced due to the changes in g and
the situations surrounding them. For example, an object's weight is
calculated by measuring the reaction R. R is the reaction force opposite
and equal to the object's weight. However, there is no reaction force when
the object and the measuring scale experience the same acceleration. In
such a case, the object's weight is not computed. The phenomenon is
called weightlessness or free fall.

 Buoyancy and Archimedes' Principle

 11.6.1 Buoyancy
 Buoyancy is the upward force experienced by bodies placed in water. For
example, if we push a wooden object into a bucket of water, the thing is
pushed back up. This resistive, upward force is called upthrust, buoyancy,
or buoyant force. Therefore, every object placed in a fluid experiences
buoyancy. Thus, the buoyancy value depends on factors like density,
mass, etc.
 11.6.2 Archimdes' Principle
 Archimedes details that buoyancy is the force experienced on an object
due to the amount of water displaced. For example, if an object is
completely immersed in water, the force depends on its entire volume.
However, this doesn't remain the same if the object is partially
submerged. Therefore, the buoyant force depends on the volume of the
immersed object and the density of the fluid. It is used in designing
submarines, ships, hydrometers, and lactometers.
 WORK AND ENERGY

Work: Definition and Examples

We use the term "work" frequently in our daily conversations. For example, we
classify standing, reading, lying, and other activities like work. On the other
hand, physical work has a very particular meaning in physics; it is done when a
force is applied, and the body travels a certain distance in the direction of the
force. Elaborately, it means that no work is performed if a force is applied to a
body and the body does not move.
Example:
When you try to push a wall, for example, you perform no work because the
distance travelled by the wall is zero. Therefore, no work is done if no force is
applied to a body and the body is at rest or moving with constant velocity.
Additionally, the work done by the force is zero if the force and displacement
are perpendicular to one other.

Definition of work
Work is the product of force and displacement in the force's direction.
i.e., work = force * displacement in the force's direction.
Determining their product is simple if force and displacement are in one
direction. When the force and displacement are in opposite directions, the work
done is calculated by taking the product of the force and the displacement
projection in the direction of the force.
Example:
A person moving on a level road while carrying a heavy load on his head does
not work against gravity since there is no displacement component in the
direction of gravity's pull.
Units of work
The newton-meter (Nm) or Joule is the S.I. unit of work (J). When a body
moves a distance of 1m under a force of 1 N in the direction of force, 1 J work
is done.

Definition of energy
A physical system's ability to accomplish work is measured in energy. We can
transform energy into several forms but cannot be created or destroyed. Solar,
wind, hydro, nuclear, thermal, sound, and chemical energy are some of the
several types of energy.
Understanding the energy with daily work, when you play for an extended
period or do a lot of physical activity at home or outside, your body becomes
exhausted, indicating an unwillingness or reluctance to continue playing or
working. You may also be hungry at this time. You may be ready to return to
work after resting for a while or eating something.
When you work, you expend energy, and doing more work requires more
energy. Hence, as mentioned above, a body's energy determines its ability to
perform tasks. In other words, a body's total work capacity equals its total
energy.
The unit of energy is Joule, represented by J. However, converting 100 per cent
of energy to work may not always be possible since some energy may be lost or
left unused throughout the conversion process.

Types of energy
13.4 Different Forms of Energy
Energy is nothing but a result of a body's work. Following are some forms of
energy.
1. Mechanical energy:
It is the ability to perform a body's work due to its position (potential energy) or
motion (kinetic energy). Hence, it further has two forms;
 (a) Potential energy:
 Potential energy is the energy of an elevated body. When identical bodies
are dropped from various heights, those thrown from a higher height
penetrate more and have more potential energy.
 (b) Kinetic energy
 Kinetic energy is a body's capacity to accomplish work due to its motion.
A moving body's kinetic energy is ½*mv^2.
2. Thermal energy
This energy goes into our bodies to give us a feeling of warmth and coldness
when it leaves.
3. Light energy
Light energy allows us to perceive things.
4. Electrical energy
The energy that powers our lights, fans, pumps, heaters, T.V.s, radios, and
refrigerators in our houses is electrical.
5. Magnetic Energy
It is produced when magnets function.
6. Sound Energy
It is produced due to the vibration of particles in a medium and enables us to
hear.
7. Nuclear energy
Nuclear energy is non-conventional energy produced by converting mass to
energy in atomic processes.

Energy Transformation: Definition and Examples

Energy transformation is the process of turning one form of energy into another.
The following instances will demonstrate the point.
 As the water falls from a height, potential energy in a dam is converted to
kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of flowing water converts into the
kinetic energy of turbine rotation. The coil attached to the turbine's shaft
rotates in a magnetic field, converting the kinetic energy of the turbine's
rotation into electrical energy.
 Electric bulbs (or tube lights) turn electrical energy into light, electric
ovens (or heaters, irons, or soldering irons) translate electrical energy into
heat, and electric pumps (or motors) convert electrical energy into
mechanical energy in our homes.
 A microphone converts sound energy into electrical energy. Electrical
energy is converted into sound energy by a loudspeaker.
 Work done against friction transforms heat by a heat engine, turning heat
energy into work (mechanical energy).
 An electric cell converts chemical energy into electrical energy, a solar
cell converts light energy into electrical energy, and a thermocouple
converts heat energy into electrical energy.
 Power
 Power is a metric that indicates how quickly work is completed.
Therefore, the temporal rate of accomplishing work, or the quantity of
work done per unit of time, is defined as power.
 Units of power
 Watt is the S.I unit of power. One watt is the energy expended when 1 J
of work is completed in 1 second. A horsepower is also a unit of
measurement. It is calculated as 746 watts = 1 horsepower (H.P.).
 LIGHT ENERGY

Reflection of Light
A person sees an object due to the light hitting the object. Any object capable of
emitting light like the sun, lamp, and burning candles, is known as a luminous
object.
The partial or complete bouncing back of light from a luminous object
incident on any object is known as a reflection of light.
The reflection rate of light is high in smooth objects like plane mirrors
compared to others.
The light ray falling on the reflecting surface is known as an incident ray,
whereas the light ray that bounces back is the reflected ray.
The normal line is drawn on a point at which the incident ray reaches the
reflecting surface. The angle between the incident ray and normal- angle of
incidence (i). The angle between the normal and the reflected ray- the angle of
reflection (r).
15.1.1 Laws of reflection of light
There are two laws of reflection laws;
 The incident ray, normal, and reflected ray lies on the same plane.
 The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection, i.e., <i = <r.
 Light's speed, frequency, and wavelength remain the same during
reflection.
15.1.2 Regular reflection
The reflection occurs on a smooth surface, and the reflected rays remain parallel
and follow the same direction.
15.1.2 Diffused reflection
This reflection occurs on a rough surface. Unlike the reflected rays in the
regular reflection, the light rays appear non-parallel and do not follow the same
direction.
Formation of Images due to Reflection
A person can only see an object if the light rays fall on the object and reach the
retina. This is because the optic nerves on the eye must sense the image
formed in the retina and should inform the centre of vision in the brain.
One can locate the image formation point by considering the point of
intersection of the reflected rays. The image formed by the actual intersection
of the reflected rays is the real image. Virtual image formation occurs when the
reflected rays appear to intersect but not actually. Real images can be shown
on screen, whereas virtual images cannot.
Characteristic features of the image formed on the plane mirror
Some characteristics of mirror images are
 The reflected rays on the plane mirror are not converging. But it appears
to be intersecting. So, the image formed on it is not real.
  The virtual image exhibits the same size as the object and appears erect.
 The distance between the object and the mirror and the image from the
mirror is the same.
15.3.1 A few facts about reflection
When a person looks into the mirror, the left side appears right in the mirror and
vice versa. The phenomenon of the appearance of left-handedness as the right
one due to reflection in the plane mirror is known as vertical inversion. Thus,
the image in the plane mirror is not turned upside down. The reason for this is
the mirror reverses only in the z-direction.
Let us consider v as the velocity of the object towards the mirror. Then the
velocity of the image toward the mirror is also v because it exhibits the same
distance from the mirror. But, the velocity of the image toward objects is 2v.

Types of spherical mirrors

The mirrors which form a section of hollow spheres are spherical mirrors. Its
inner or outer surface remains polished. There are two types of spherical mirrors
and includes;
 Concave mirrors: The reflecting surface of concave mirrors is curved
inwardly or bulges inside.
 Convex mirrors: Unlike the concave mirror, the reflecting surface of
convex mirrors curved outwards or bulged out.
Significant terms related to spherical mirrors
It is necessary to understand the terminologies of spherical mirrors for easy
handling. Some of the terms for spherical mirrors are as follows;
 Pole (P): The spherical mirror's centre point.
 Centre of curvature (C): The centre of the whole hollow sphere where the
spherical mirror is a part of it.
 The radius of curvature (R) is the distance between the spherical mirror's
pole and the centre of curvature.
 The principal axis is an imaginary line drawn from the pole to the centre
of curvature.
 The principal focus (F) is the point of intersection of the reflected light
rays on the principal axis. A concave mirror has a definite or actual
principal focus, whereas the light rays from a convex mirror only appear
to intersect.
 Focal length (f): The distance between the pole and principal focus is the
focal length.
Relationship Between Focal Length and Radius of Curvature
Consider the following figure.

Here,
 I- incident ray that reaches point M on the concave mirror.
 CM- normal
 i= angle of incidence
 r= angle of reflection
 PF- Focal length
 PC- Radius of curvature.
Consider the triangle CFM,
Here CF=MF (i=r laws of reflection of light)
MF= PF (Small aperture of the mirror)
So, PC= PF + CF = PF + PF = 2PF
Therefore, R = 2f.
From this, it is understood that the radius of curvature is twice the focal
length.
Rules for image formation by spherical mirrors
Some laws are
 Rays passing through the pole: The incident ray that hits the pole reflects
the principal axis's other side with the same angle measure.
 Parallel rays: The parallel incident rays pass through the principal focus
after the reflection in the concave mirror and appear in the convex mirror
to reach the principal focus.
 Ray passing through the centre of curvature: The ray passes through the
centre of curvature and returns to the same position after reflection.
 Ray that strikes through focus: The ray incident on the focus passes
through it and then reflects parallel to the principal axis.
15.6.1 Formation of the image by the concave mirror
A concave mirror can form images with different characteristics according to
the object's position.
15.6.2 Formation of the image by a convex mirror
The convex mirror has two possibilities for image formation compared to
concave mirrors.

15.6.3 Uses of mirrors.

The plane, concave, and convex mirrors are the three basic types of mirrors
useful in everyday life.

Plane mirror:
 As a deflector of light
 To see the reflection of objects
Concave mirror:
 Used as reflectors in searchlights, the headlight of motor cars, and
projectors
Convex mirror:
 Useful as the rearview mirror in motor vehicles
 Used as safety viewers that help to avoid complications at dangerous
corners
Sign convention
Some of the guidelines of sign convention are as follows;
 Measurement can start only from the pole of the mirror
 The distance covered in the direction of the incident ray is always
positive
 The distance covered opposite to the incident ray is negative
 The distance above the principal axis stays positive, whereas the distance
below the principal axis is negative.
Linear magnification of the image
Spherical mirrors can magnify the image. Magnification compares the object
size and image size. Therefore, magnification in spherical mirrors can be
positive or negative depending on the heights.
 Linear magnification is the ratio of the size of the image to the object. It
can be compared using the object and image distances.
Refraction of light
Any object under water appears to be present at a smaller depth than the actual
depth. It is due to the phenomenon called the refraction of light. The speed of
light varies according to the media. Therefore, a person looking at an object
under the water from land (medium-air) appears to bend. The bending of light
when obliquely travels from one medium to another is known as the refraction
of light.
15.9.1 Refractive index of the medium
The speed of light is not the same when it travels through different mediums. It
also influences the degree of the bending ability of the light.
Some facts related to the refraction of light are as follows;
 When light travels from a rarer medium to a denser medium- the speed of
light decreases and bends toward normal
 When light travels from a denser medium to a rarer one- the speed of
light increases and bends away from the normal.
 Two laws of refraction of light
 The first law of refraction of light:
 According to the first law of refraction, the incident ray, normal, and
refracted ray lie on the same plane.
 The second law of refraction of light:
 The second law is also known as Snell's law. It states that the rate of
refraction depends on the medium. The ratio of the sine of the incident
ray to the sine of the refracted ray remains constant and equal to the
refractive index.
Types of lenses
There are six types of lenses
 Convex or double convex
 Concave or double concave
 Plano-convex
 Plano concave
 Convexo-concave
 Concavo-convex
Actions of convex and concave lenses during refraction
(i) Convex lens
The middle portion of the convex lens bulges out, and terminal points are thin.
As a result, the parallel light rays strike the convex lens, and refracted rays
converge at a point. So, a concave lens is also known as a converging lens. The
point of convergence is the focus.
(ii) Concave lens
Unlike the convex lens, the middle portion of the concave lens is thinner than its
terminal edges. The parallel rays diverge without actually intersecting at a point.
So, the concave lens is also known as a diverging lens. The point at which the
parallel rays appear to diverge is the focus of the concave lens.
Image formation in lenses
Two rays are necessary to generate images through the refraction of lenses and
include;
 A ray parallel to the principal axis converges at the principal axis after
refraction in the convex lens while diverging in the convex lens.
 A ray passing through the optic centre falls symmetrically on the lens and
won't deviate after refraction.
  The position of the lens plays a vital role in the formation of images.
Image formation in the convex lens;

The nature, size, and position of the image vary according to the position of the
objects and include;
 Position of the image
Position of the object formed Nature of image Size of image

Between F and pole In Front of the lens Virtual and erect Enlarged
At F At infinity Real and inverted Highly enlarged
Between F and 2F Beyond 2F Real and inverted Enlarged
At 2F At 2F Real and inverted Same size
Beyond 2F Between F and 2F Real and inverted Smaller size
At infinity At F Real and inverted Highly diminished

Sign convention of lenses

The four guidelines of the sign convention of lenses are as follows;
 Measurement of all distances in the lens should start from its optical
lenses.
 The distance towards the direction of incident rays is positive.
 The distance opposite to the direction of incident rays is always negative.
 The measurement of the height of the object or image above the principal
axis is positive, whereas below the principal axis is negative.
Magnification of image
 Like mirrors, the size of the image formed by lenses depends on the
object's position. Therefore, it may enlarge or diminish. Similar to
mirrors, the magnification in a lens compares the image and object
height. Additionally, magnification can be computed by observing the
image and object distance from the lens.
Dispersion through a prism
 A prism is a transparent medium with two triangular bases and three
rectangular lateral surfaces. Prism exhibits different refractive indices
for distinct colours. So, if light or sunlight passes through the prism, the
white separates into its constituent colours due to dispersion. It can
differentiate colours due to different refractive indices of colours. The
splitting of light into its constituent colours is known as the
dispersion of light. The rainbow is a natural example of the dispersion
of light. When the sunlight passes through the raindrops, constituent
colours separate and deviate from different angles.

Power of accommodation of the eye

Usually, people see distant objects as small and nearby objects as larger sizes.
So, it depends on its visual angle. The eye can adjust the focal length according
to the distance of the objects.
The ability of the eye to see the objects clearly from an infinite distance of
25cm is known as the power of accommodation of the eye.
Defects of the eye
Some of the defects of the eye are as follows;
  Myopia: People with myopia cannot see farther objects clearly. So, it is
also short-sightedness or near-sightedness. It is due to the formation of
the image before the retina. A concave lens can solve the problem of
myopia.
 Hypermetropia: People with hypermetropia cannot see the nearby objects
clearly due to the formation of the image beyond the retina. So, it is also
called long or far-sightedness. A converging lens can solve this issue.
 Presbyopia: People with presbyopia cannot see both distant and nearby
objects. It is an old age disease that gradually loses the power of
accommodation of the eye due to the loss of elasticity of ciliary muscles.
Concave and convex lenses for each eye or bifocal lens can rectify this
defect to a certain extent.
 Astigmatism: Imperfect spherical nature of the eye lens causes
astigmatism. It is due to the focal length exhibiting two orthogonal
directions and cannot concentrate on it simultaneously. A cylindrical lens
in a particular direction can solve this issue to a certain extent.

MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

Magnets, their properties, and shapes

Since the ancient civilizations, magnets have been a subject of interest for many
people. People in the olden times discovered a stone that was able to attract
other small iron particles to themselves and termed them lodestones. They are
an oxide of iron (Fe3O4). The attraction of tiny iron particles toward a
lodestone is magnetism. These naturally occurring magnets are not as powerful
as artificial magnets. The artificial ones are made of iron, nickel, and lead and
are used for practical purposes. Hence, a magnet is an object that produces a
magnetic field and attracts small iron particles towards itself with a force of
attraction. When set in a random position, a magnet always rests in a north-
south (N and S) direction. They return to their original state when they are
displaced in a motion.

The bar, rectangular, cylindrical, circular, and horseshoe magnets are the
different shapes magnets. They are essential for various applications like
elevators, controllers, doorbells, radios, headphones, tape recorders, etc.

17.1.1 Properties of Magnets

The properties of magnets include:
 The N and S pole cannot be separated.
 The like poles repel while the unlike poles attract.
  If two iron pieces are brought nearby, they act as magnets.
 Freely suspended magnets always rest in a north-south direction.
 They attract iron towards themselves.

Magnetic field and properties of lines of force

The region present around the magnet where the magnetic needle occurs and
stops due to an exact point is a magnetic field. The direction of the magnetic
needle keeps changing depending on the path it takes from north to south.
Therefore, This curved path is known as the magnetic line of forces.
The direction of the magnetic field is shown with the help of magnetic lines of
force. To indicate a magnetic field at a respective point, draw a tangent in any
lines of force.
Whenever a magnet is in a freely moving direction, it ceases in a particular
position. It shows that the magnetic force acts on the magnetic needle that
causes it to stop in a respective stage and is called torque.
Properties of lines of force:
 The lines of force never intersect.
 The magnetic fields are stronger near the poles.
 The lines of force always begin at the north pole and end at the south
pole.
Concept of the magnetic field around the current-carrying wire
 A magnetic field is created around a current-carrying wire. An
experiment can test the magnetic field. The process is as follows;
 A copper conducting wire is connected to other wires. These wires attach
to the ends of the battery. Then the magnetic needle is made parallel to
the conducting wire. After the circuit is complete, the movement of the
magnetic needle shows deflection. The deflection means that when
electric current flows through a conductor, a magnetic field is produced
within itself. When the end of the battery is changed, the direction of the
magnetic needle is altered. Therefore, this states that the electric current
flowing through the conducting wire is due to the magnetic field.
Concept of electromagnets
An electromagnet has a flow of electric current, producing a magnetic
field. A solenoid converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The
solenoid is a type of device which comprises a coil of wire. Current
carrying solenoid with a soft iron core is for increasing magnetic field
production. The uses of electromagnets include motors, electric bells,
MRI machines, etc.
17.4.1 Difference between a Bar magnet and an electromagnet
 Bar magnets: They are permanent magnets having a constant field. They
are weak, and their poles do not change. Their magnetic strength cannot
be elevated or lowered.
  Electromagnets: They are temporary and strong magnets. The magnetic
strength can be controlled and hence change according to desire.
17.4.2 Electric Bells
The U-shaped electromagnet in electric bells is known as a horseshoe
magnet. They have a core made of soft iron in between the arms of
electromagnets. The poles are connected to a battery. When the button is
pressed, the current starts flowing into it, and the core gets magnetized.
This core pulls the armature towards itself. Hence a sound is produced by
the hammer where the core is attached. Then, this process takes place
continuously.
The concept of the current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field
When the current flows through a conductor, a magnetic field occurs. The
direction of this field depends on the direction of the flow of electric
current. If a magnet is flipped or reversed, the conducting wire becomes
taut downwards, and the force acting on the wire lowers and vice versa.
Micheal Faraday discovered the force acting on a current conducting
wire.
Flemings left-hand rule
John Ambrose Fleming originated this left-hand rule to determine the
direction of an electric current. According to this rule, the area of force
applied is perpendicular to the direction of the current and magnetic field.
Where the first finger shows the direction of the magnetic field and the
middle finger represents the direction of current flow. If all the two
fingers and thumb are placed perpendicular to each other, then the thumb
will show the direction of the force.
Electromagnetic induction
The magnetic field is introduced when a current is entered through a
solenoid. In 1831, Michael Faraday discovered electromagnetic
induction. The changes brought in the magnetic field produce the electric
current, and the magnetic lines of force are associated altered if the coil is
moved between the poles of a magnet. Likewise, if a magnet moves in the
coil, there is a shift in the same manner. Electromagnetic induction
represents an electric current across a conductor through a magnetic field.
The uses of this principle are in generators, transformers, etc.
Structure and Functioning
An electric generator converts mechanical energy into electrical. It has
two prominent types: A.C. and D.C. generators.
1. A.C. Generators generate a current whose direction and amplitude change
with time.
2. D.C. Generators generate a current flowing continuously in a single
direction.
17.1.1 Structure and Function of an A.C. Generator
 The A.C. Generator works on electromagnetic induction. The generation
of the rotating coil in a magnetic field creates alternation voltage. The
voltage depends on the strength of the field, the speed at which the coil or
magnetic field rotates, and the number of turns in the coil. The magnetic
field linked is the highest in the beginning and gradually starts to
decrease. The current direction reverses when the coil further rotates
through which the magnetic field passes. The current becomes zero when
the magnetic lines are perpendicular to the coil.

17.7.2 D.C. Generator

It uses half rectangular rings in the structure. However, the rest of the
functioning is similar to an A.C. Generator. In D.C. Generator, the
current flow in a particular direction and doesn't change.
17.7.3 Alternate Current AC and Direct Current (D.C.)
Applications of A.C. and D.C. are used for a variety of reasons. For
changing A.C. to D.C., a rectifier is required. The electric motor works on
A.C. Electrolysis and electromagnetic production require the usage of
D.C. generators. The A.C. flows through the upper portion of the wire.
Unlike A.C., D.C. does not change its direction of flow of current.
Production of electrical energy
The power plants produce energy by water, wind, or thermal energy.
Generally, the electricity is produced at 11KV. The system by which the
electricity is transmitted can be of:
 Transmission system
 Distribution system
The distribution system is the type of system which supplies power to the
consumer. Generally, these distribution systems can be of two types:
 Tree system
 Ring system (mostly used)
17.8.1 Household Circuits
The electricity in our houses reaches via the distribution system. The two
wires, namely phase containing a 220V and red-coloured insulation and
neutral with 0 V, are used in our homes. Another wire used in our house
is the green-coloured wire called the earth wire. All the day-to-day
appliances are generally connected to the earth by connecting wires.
17.8.2 Precautions to be taken while using Electrical Energy
 Ensuring which type of electricity (AC / DC) is used.
 Touching electrical wires while wearing rubber or non-conductors.
 Always ensure that the main supply button is off.
 Checking if all the switches are off.
 Never use water to extinguish an electrical spark.
17.8.3 Accidents caused by electricity
 Leakage of Current
 Short Circuit
 Overload
17.8.4 Safety Devices used in Electrical Circuits
 An electrical fuse is used, which is generally made of lead and tin alloy. It
saves the circuit from burning.
 Miniature Circuit Breaker is a self-regulatory button that automatically
stops the current from overflowing.
 Earthing of electrical appliances.

ELECTRICAL ENERGY

Electrostatics: Definition and Features

Electrostatics refers to the study of static electric charges. For example, a plastic
rod rubbed with fur or a glass rod rubbed with silk attracts small pieces of
paper. As a result, the paper pieces get electrically charged.
The charge on the plastic rod becomes negative after rubbing with fur, and the
charge on the glass becomes positive after rubbing with silk.

Characteristics of electric charge

 Like charges repel, and unlike charges attract.
 The charge is conserved: A neutral substance contains no net charge, and
the charge is a scalar quantity.
 The charge doesn't exist without mass, but mass can exist without
charge.
 The charge is transferrable. It transfers from an uncharged material to a
charged material when placed near.
 Electric charges appear in discrete quantities, and they are quantified.
 The charge is invariant, i.e., it remains unchanged on the body with
speed.
 A charged material at rest produces an electric field. The accelerated
charges radiate energy in electromagnetic waves and form electric and
magnetic fields.
 The Standard unit of charge is Coulomb. Material can get charged by
friction, induction, or radiation.

16.1.1 Nature of Charges

Coulomb's law states that the force of interaction of two stationary point charges
is directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between them."

Electric potential and potential difference

Electric potential is work done per unit charge. It is calculated as work done to
bring the charge from infinity to a point in the electrostatic field against the field
force. It is also called voltage, and its SI unit is voltage or volts.
 If the work done to move the charge from infinity to a point is X, then the
electric potential at X is Vx.
 If the work done to move the charge from infinity to a point is Y, then the
electric potential at Y is Vy.
 If the work is done to move the charge from X to Y, then the potential
difference between x and y is V xy.
 Electric Potential/ Voltage = Work Done / Unit Charge

Electric potential difference:

The electric potential difference equals the work done to move a unit charge
from one point to another in an electric field. It is usually represented as the
voltage difference.
 A charge of higher potential will have higher potential energy, and a
charge of lower potential will have lesser potential energy.
 The current flows from the higher potential to the lower potential, and the
difference in these energies is known as the electric potential difference.
 The voltmeter is essential to measure the electric potential difference.

Electric current, conductor, resistor, and current flow

Electric current results from electric charge movements which may be
negatively charged electrons or positive ions. Ampere is the current unit. It is
the rate of charge flow past a point in an electric circuit. The magnitude of the
electric current can be measured in coulombs per second.
1 ampere = 1 coulomb / 1 second
Current flow has the designation I, and its usage in Ohms law are V=I.R. An
ammeter is used to evaluate the amperes of current flowing in an electric circuit.
Cell and current flow
A cell produces electricity at a fixed voltage, and it has two metallic electrodes
in an acid or alkaline solution. A battery is a DC voltage source for converting
chemical energy to electrical energy. Electron flow from the negative end to the
positive is known as current.
16.3.1 Conductors and Insulators
Conductors: These substances allow free movements of electrons from one
particle to another for generating the electric current. In the human body,
aqueous solutions of salts and metals like iron and silver are examples of
conductors.
Insulators: Substances like rubber and glass, which have infinitely high
electrical resistance, are insulators.
16.3.2 Resistors
Resistors: Substances like nichrome and manganin have higher resistance than
conductors are resistors.

Resistors in Series and Parallel

16.4.1 Series Combination:
Resistors are connected in series from one end to the next end and the current
flowing through them is the same for all. The equivalent total resistance equals
the sum of the number of individual resistances in the combination.
16.4.2 Parallel Combination:
Resistances are connected in parallel when they are connected between two
points, and each has a separate current flow. The current gets divided and
recombined as the branches intersect at a common point.
Heating effect of electric current and electric power
The heating effect of electric current is generally used in daily life situations.
When an electric current passes through a conductor, it produces heat due to the
hindrance made by the conductor to the current flow.
16.5.1 Heat produced in a conductor on passing an electric current
The devices become heated when an electric current passes through them. In an
electric circuit, electrical energy is the heating effect of electric current or
Joules' heating.
Joule's law of heating
The amount of heat produced in a conductor on passing the current I is directly
proportional to the current squared (i2), the resistance of the conductor (R), and
the time (t) for which the current flows through the conductor. It is known as
Joule's law of heating.
16.5.2 Electric power
Electric power: It measures the rate of electrical energy transfer by the electric
circuit per unit of time. P denotes electric power; its SI unit is watt or one Joule
per second.
16.5.3 Electrical appliances based on the thermal effect of electric current
Some appliances are electric iron, electric heater, geyser, cooking oven, tester,
etc.