Life Span Development

Module 1

Lifespan Development: The pattern of change that begins at conception and continues
through the life cycle. Life-span developmental psychology is the field of psychology that
involves the examination of both constancy and change in human behavior across the entire
life span, that is, from conception to death. It studies systematic intra-individual changes from
conception to the end of life of an organism’s behavior, and the systems and processes
underlying those changes and that behavior

Developmental Domains:

● biological (changes in our physical being),

● social (changes in our social relationships),

● emotional (changes in our emotional understanding and experiences),

● cognitive (changes in our thought processes).

The field encompasses the study of several categories of change such as

● ontogenesis (development of the individual across the life span),

● embryogenesis (development of the embryo),

● orthogenesis (normal development),

● pathogenesis (development of psychopathology)

Issues:

● Continuity VS Discontinuity- In continuous change, development is gradual, with

achievements at one level building on those of previous levels. Continuous change is
quantitative in nature; the basic underlying developmental processes that drive change
remain the same over the course of the life span. Changes in height prior to adulthood,
for example, are continuous. In contrast, one can view development as being made up
of primarily discontinuous change, occurring in distinct stages. Each stage or change
brings about behavior that is assumed to be qualitatively different from behavior at
earlier stages. Consider the example of cognitive development again.
 ● Stability VS Change- Stability implies personality traits present during infancy endure
throughout the lifespan. In contrast, change theorists argue that personalities are
modified by interactions with family, experiences at school, and acculturation.

● Nature VS Nurture- Whether the behavior ultimately developed by the child is due to
hereditary factors or environmental factors. This debate concerns the relative degree
to which heredity and learning affect the behavior of the individual. Both genetic
traits and environmental circumstances are involved in an individual’s development,
although the amount of influence the two has is not clearly evident.

Principles:

● Development proceeds from the Head downwards (cephalocaudal) - Development

proceeds in the direction of the longitudinal axis. Development from head to foot or
toe. That is why, before it becomes able to stand, the child first gains control over his
head and arms and then over his legs.

● Development proceeds from the center of the body outwards (proximodistal) -

Development of motor skills to start at central body parts to outwards. That is why, in
the beginning, the child is seen to exercise control over the large fundamental muscles
of the arm and then hand and only afterward over the smaller muscles of the fingers.

● Development depends on maturation and learning - A healthy body tends to develop a

healthy mind and an emotionally stable, physically strong, and socially conscious
personality. Inadequate physical or mental development may, on the other hand, result
in a socially or emotionally maladjusted personality.

● Development proceeds from the simple (Concrete) to the more complex-

Development thus involves a movement from the whole to parts and from parts to the
whole and this way it is the integration of the whole and its parts as well as the
specific and general responses. It enables a child to develop satisfactorily concerning
various aspects or dimensions of his personality.

● Development is a continuous process - The development follows the principle of

continuity which means that development is a continuous process. It starts with
pre-natal and ends with death.

● Development proceeds from the general to the specific - While developing any aspect
of personality. The child first pickup or exhibit a general response and learn how to
show specific and goal-directed responses afterward.

● Individual rates of development - Every organism is a distinct creation in itself. One

of the most important principles of development involves individual differences.
There is no fixed rate of development. That all children will learn to walk is universal,
but the time at which each child takes his or her first step may vary.
Anthropometric Measures:

Parameters of Anthropometry Age-dependent factors:-

Weight

Height

Head circumference

Chest circumference Age independent factors:-

➢ Mid Arm Circumference

➢ Weight for height

➢ Skinfold thickness

➢ Mid upper arm/height ratio

Mid-Arm circumference (1-5 years) Weight for height

Research in Life Span Development:

● Descriptive Research has the purpose of observing and recording behavior. It includes
observation, surveys, interviews, standardized tests, case studies, and life-history
records.

○ Observation- the action or process of closely observing or monitoring

something or someone. Laboratory Observation- controlled setting with many
of the complex factors of the “real world” removed. Naturalistic Observation-
observing behavior in real-world settings

○ Survey and Interview - best and quickest way to get information about people
is to ask them for it. A standard set of questions is used to obtain people’s
self-reported attitudes or beliefs about any specific area/topic. The questions
prepared are unbiased and clear, allowing respondents to answer
unambiguously. It can be conducted over a telephone or internet; questions can
be structured/unstructured, open-ended/close-ended

○ Standardized Test - Has uniform procedures for administration and scoring.

Allows a person’s performance to be compared with the performance of other
individuals. Provide information about individual differences among people.
Based on the belief that a person’s behavior is consistent and stable yet
personality and intelligence may vary with the situation.
 ○ A case study is an in-depth study of a single individual. Mainly performed by
mental health professionals when, for either practical or ethical reasons, the
unique aspects of an individual’s life cannot be duplicated and tested in other
individuals.

● Correlational Research- where the Goal is to describe the strength of the relationship
between two or more events or characteristics. Correlations can be strong or weak, as
well as positive or negative. A correlation coefficient close to +1.00 indicates a strong
positive correlation. A correlation coefficient close to -1.00 indicates a strong
negative. no relationship between the two variables. A correlation coefficient of 0
indicates no correlation.

● Experimental Research- A carefully regulated procedure in which one or more of the

factors believed to influence the behavior being studied are manipulated while all
other factors are held constant. Demonstrate cause and effect. The cause is the factor
that was manipulated. The effect is the behavior that changed because of the
manipulation.

● Time Span

○ Cross-sectional- a research strategy in which individuals of different ages are

compared at one time. Does not require several months to complete. Group
can be compared with respect to a variety of dependent variables: IQ.
Memory, peer relations, and so on. The major drawback is that it gives no
information about how individuals change or about the stability of their
characteristics.

○ Longitudinal- It is a research strategy in which the same individuals are

studied over a period of time, usually several years or more. Provides a wealth
of information about important issues such as Stability and change in
development. It is expensive and time-consuming. The longer the study lasts,
the more chances of drop-outs

○ Sequential- Combine cross-sectional, longitudinal design. More complex,

expensive, and time-consuming

Module 2

Stages of prenatal development

The stages are from the time of conception to that of fertilization. It lasts for 266 days total.
Prenatal development is a time of remarkable change that helps set the stage for future
psychological development. The brain develops over the course of the prenatal period, but it
will continue to go through more changes during the early years of childhood. The process of
prenatal development occurs in three main stages. The first two weeks after conception are
known as the germinal stage, the third through the eighth week is known as the embryonic
period, and the time from the ninth week until birth is known as the fetal period.

1. Germinal Period (1-2 weeks) - The germinal stage begins at conception when the
sperm and egg cells unite in one of the two fallopian tubes. The fertilized egg is called
a zygote. Just a few hours after conception, the single-celled zygote begins making a
journey down the fallopian tube to the uterus. Through the process of mitosis, the
zygote first divides into two cells, then into four, eight, sixteen, and so on. As the cells
multiply, they will also separate into two distinctive masses: the outer cells will
eventually become the placenta, while the inner cells from the embryo. Cell division
continues at a rapid rate during the approximately week-long journey from the
fallopian tube to the uterus wall. The cells develop into what is known as a blastocyst.
The blastocyst is made up of three layers, each of which develops into different
structures in the body. Finally, the blastocyst arrives at the uterus and attaches to the
uterine wall, a process known as implantation. Implantation occurs when the cells
nestle into the uterine lining and rupture tiny blood vessels. The trophoblast is also
formed which is the outer layer of cells that become part of the placenta.

2. Embryonic Period (2-8 weeks) - The beginning of the third week after conception
marks the start of the embryonic period, a time when the mass of cells becomes
distinct from a human. The embryonic stage plays an important role in the
development of the brain. Approximately four weeks after conception, the neural tube
forms. This tube will later develop into the central nervous system including the
spinal cord and brain. The tube begins to close and brain vesicles form. These vesicles
will eventually develop into parts of the brain, including the structures of the
forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.​Around the fourth week, the head begins to form,
quickly followed by the eyes, nose, ears, and mouth. The blood vessel that will
become the heart starts to pulse. During the fifth week, buds that will form the arms
and legs appear. By the eighth week of development, the embryo has all of the basic
organs and parts except those of the sex organs. At this point, the embryo weighs just
one gram and is about one inch in length. By the end of the embryonic period, the
basic structures of the brain and central nervous system have been established. At this
point, the basic structure of the peripheral nervous system is also defined.

3. Period of the Foetus (2-7 months) - Once cell differentiation is mostly complete, the
embryo enters the next stage and becomes known as a fetus. The fetal period of
prenatal development marks more important changes in the brain. This period of
development begins during the ninth week and lasts until birth. This stage is marked
by amazing change and growth. Between the ninth and twelfth week of gestation (at
the earliest), reflexes begin to emerge. The fetus begins to make reflexive motions
with its arms and legs. By the end of the month, all parts of the body will be formed.
At this point, the fetus weighs around three ounces. The fetus continues to grow in
both weight and length, although the majority of the physical growth occurs in the
later stages of pregnancy. During the second trimester, or months four through six, the
 heartbeat grows stronger, and other body systems become further developed.
Fingernails, hair, eyelashes, and toenails form. Around 28 weeks, the brain starts to
mature faster, with an activity that greatly resembles that of a sleeping newborn.
During the period from seven months until birth, the fetus continues to develop, put
on weight, and prepare for life outside the womb. The lungs begin to expand and
contract, preparing the muscles for breathing.

Teratogens: monster producing (teratogens- any agent that results in structural or functional
abnormalities (malformation ) in the fetus, or in the child after birth, as a consequence of
maternal exposure during pregnancy)

1. Prescription and Non-prescription Drugs

● Use of Thalidomide (tranquilizer) was taken by pregnant women in 1961 which

caused a devastating impact on the fetus

● Non- Prescription drugs- like diet pills, aspirin, and caffeine increase the risk of
abortion or low birth weight.

2. Psychoactive Drugs

a. Alcohol- Foetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) causes facial deformities and

defective limbs, face, etc.; below-average intelligence or mentally retarded

b. Tobacco- Aversely influences prenatal; postnatal development; higher

incidences of preterm birth and low birth weights. studies revealed it is related
to poorer language and cognitive skills at 4 years of age; ADHD

3. Illegal Drugs

a. Cocaine- Harms developing embryo and fetus; reduced birth weight; length
and head circumference. Impaired motor- development at 2 years; lower
quality of reflexes

b. Marijuana-Related learning and memory difficulties at age 11

c. Heroin- Addiction leads to severe behavioral difficulties, tremors, irritability,

disturbed sleep, and impaired motor control.

4. Incompatible blood type- Rh factor, the pregnant mother is Rh-negative and father is
Rh-positive, the fetus may be Rh-positive, the mother’s immune system may produce
antibodies that might attack the fetus leading to miscarriage, stillbirth, anemia, heart
defects, brain damage’ jaundice, etc.

5. Environmental Hazards

● Radiation can cause a gene mutation (permanent change in DNA); mental retardation;
leukemia; microcephaly
 ● Environmental Pollutants (lead, mercury, carbon monoxide, etc) and toxic wastes can
cause mental retardation

6. Other Maternal Factors

a. Infectious Diseases- Rubella causes mental retardation, blindness, deafness,

and heart problem.

b. Syphilis (sexually transmitted disease)- More damaging later in prenatal

development- four months or more after conception. Damage includes eye
lesions, which can cause blindness, and skin lesions

c. AIDS- is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) destroying the

human immune system. It can affect offspring in three ways- during
gestational across the placenta; during delivery contact with maternal blood or
fluids; postpartum (after birth) through breastfeeding. Offspring can be
infected and symptomatic (showing AIDS symptoms). Infected but not
asymptomatic • not infected at all.

d. Nutrition- Folic acid, and B-complex vitamins are important micronutrients

during prenatal development. Lack of folic acid linked with neural tube
defects such as spina bifida in offspring

7. Emotional States and Stress- Women under stress are about four times more likely
than their low-stress counterparts to deliver infants prematurely. An emotionally
distraught mother might have irregular contractions and more difficult labor which
can cause an irregular supply of oxygen to the fetus

8. Maternal Age- the age at the time of pregnancy plays an important role in the smooth
development of the fetus

Stages of Birth

1. Cervix Dilated - The first stage of labor is typically the longest. During this stage, the
cervix or opening to the uterus dilates to 10 centimeters or just under 4 inches. This
may take around 12-16 hours for first children or about 6-9 hours for women who
have previously given birth. It takes one woman in 9 over 24 hours to dilate
completely. Labor may also begin with a discharge of blood or amniotic fluid. If the
amniotic sack breaks, labor will be induced if necessary to reduce the risk of
infection.

2. Delivery - The second stage also known as parturition involves the passage of the
baby through the birth canal. This stage takes about 10-40 minutes. Contractions
usually come about every 2-3 minutes. The mother pushes and relaxes as directed by
the medical staff. Normally the head is delivered first. The baby is then rotated so that
one shoulder can come through and then the other shoulder. The rest of the baby
 quickly passes through. At this stage, an episiotomy may be performed to avoid
tearing the tissue on the back of the vaginal opening. The baby’s mouth and nose are
suctioned out. The umbilical cord is clamped and cut.

3. Placenta delivery - The third stage is relatively painless. During this stage, the
placenta or afterbirth is delivered. This is typically within 20 minutes after delivery. If
an episiotomy was performed it is stitched up during this stage.

APGAR Score

It is used to assess newborns one minute and five minutes after they’re born. Dr. Virginia
Apgar created the system in 1952. A score of 7 to 10 after five minutes is “reassuring.” and a
score of 4 to 6 is “moderately abnormal or developmental difficulties”. A score of 0 to 3 is
concerning or emergency. It indicates a need for increased intervention, usually in assistance
for breathing. A parent may see nurses drying off a child vigorously or delivering oxygen via
a mask. This test is done to determine whether a newborn needs help to breathe or is having
heart trouble.

Scoring and Sign 2 1 0

Heart Rate (Pulse) Normal Below Absent

Breathing (Rate and Good cry Slow, irregular, Absent

Effort) weak cry

Grimace Pulling away, Only facial Absent

(Responsiveness and Sneezing, Coughs movements with
reflex irritability) with stimulation stimulation

Activity (Muscle Active spontaneous Arms and legs None, floppy tone
Tone) movement flexed with little
movement

Appearance (Skin Normal all over, Normal but hand Blueish grey or pale
Colouration) hands and feet pink and feet blueish all over
 Module 3

A newborn infant responds to his or her environment in an involuntary or reflexive way. Over
the first few years of life, through physical growth and learning experiences, the child learns
to actively participate in the world. This development occurs in a step-wise, sequential
manner. These steps along the way are called developmental milestones. An infant's physical
development begins at the head, then moves to other parts of the body. For example, sucking
comes before sitting, which comes before walking.

Physical Growth and Development in Infancy

Child development is a dynamic, interactive process. Every child is unique in interacting with
the world around them, and what they invoke and receive from others and the environment
also shapes how they think and behave. Children growing up in different cultures receive
specific inputs from their environment.

1. Cephalocaudal and Proximodistal Patterns- Sensory and motor development generally

proceed according to the Cephalocaudal principle. Cephalocaudal development refers
to growth and development that occurs from the head down. It consists of
 development starting at the top of the body and working its way down, i.e., from the
head to the feet. For ex- infants see objects before they can control their torso; use
their hands long before they can crawl or walk. Proximodistal development occurs
from the center or core of the body in an outward direction. It consists of the tendency
for growth to start at the center of the body and work its way outward, toward the
extremities. Thus, the spine develops first in the uterus, followed by the extremities,
and finally the fingers and toes.

2. Height and Weight- Height in children who are too young to stand is measured while
children lie on their back on a suitable device, such as a measuring table (called a
stadiometer). Height in children who can stand is measured using a vertical measuring
scale. In general, length in normal-term infants increases about 30% by age 5 months
and more than 50% by age 12 months. Infants typically grow about 10 inches (25
centimeters) during the first year, and height at 5 years is about double the birth
length. In boys, half the adult height is attained by about age 2. In girls, height at 19
months is about half the adult height. Normal-term newborns typically lose 5 to 8% of
their birth weight during the first few days of life. They regain this weight by the end
of the first 2 weeks. After this period of time, newborns typically gain about 1 ounce
per day during the first 2 months, and 1 pound per month after that. This weight gain
typically results in a doubling of birth weight by age 5 months and a tripling by 1
year.

Motor Development

Motor development occurs in an orderly sequence as infants move from reflexive reactions
(e.g., sucking and rooting) to more advanced motor functioning. This development proceeds
in a cephalocaudal (from head-down) and proximodistal (from center-out) direction. For
instance, babies first learn to hold their heads up, then sit with assistance, then sit unassisted,
followed later by crawling, pulling up, cruising, and then walking. As motor skills develop,
there are certain developmental milestones that young children should achieve. For each
milestone, there is an average age, as well as a range of ages in which the milestone should be
reached. Early development leads the infant to master four major types of skills: gross motor,
fine motor, language, and social skills. Gross motor skills require the use of large muscles to
achieve sitting, crawling, and walking in the first year of life. Fine motor skills involve the
use of small muscles in the hands and fingers, in tasks such as picking up small objects, and
later for feeding and dressing

Gross Motor skills

They are voluntary movements that involve the use of large muscle groups and are typically
large movements of the arms, legs, head, and torso. These skills begin to develop first.
Examples include moving to bring the chin up when lying on the stomach, moving the chest
up, and rocking back and forth on hands and knees.

0-6 months

● Holds head steadily

● Moves arms and legs equally to reach at dangling object Rolls over

● Bounces when held standing, briefly bearing weight on legs Sits with support

● Stating to crawl but not yet very good at this

7-12 months

● Sits steadily without support

● Creeps or crawls with ease as a primary means of moving around

● Stands without support

● Stands from a sitting position without any help

● Squats from standing position with ease

● Stands from standing position with ease

● Bends over easily without falling

● Stands from a bent position without falling

● Walks sideways by holding onto the sides of the crib or furniture (cruises)

● Walks with one handheld

13-18 months

● Walks without support

● Walks backward

● Walks up the stairs with handheld, 2 feet on each step

● Walks downstairs with handheld, 2 feet on each step

● Jumps in place

● Climbs onto a steady elevated surface (e.g. bed, adult chair or Bangko, etc.)

● Kicks a ball but with little control of direction

● Throws a ball but with little control of speed

 ● Runs without tripping or falling

● Maintains balance (walking on a low, narrow ledge, between 2 lines without

19-24 months

● Walks up the stairs with alternating feet, without help Walks down the stairs with
alternating feet without help

● Kicks a ball with control of direction

● Throws a ball with control of direction and speed

Fine Motor Skills

They are more exact movements of the hands and fingers and include the ability to reach and
grasp an object. These skills focus on the muscles in the fingers, toes, and eyes, and enable
coordination of small actions (e.g., grasping a toy, writing with a pencil, and using a spoon).
Newborns cannot grasp objects voluntarily but do wave their arms toward objects of interest.
At about 4 months of age, the infant is able to reach for an object, first with both arms and
within a few weeks, with only one arm.

0-6 months

● Hands open most of the time

● Bring both hands together towards dangling object/toy

● Uses either hand interchangeably to grasp objects

● Uses all 5 fingers in a ranking motion to get food/toy placed on a flat surface

● Grasps objects with the same hand most of the time (hand preference emerging

7-12 months

● Pulls toys by string

● Bangs 2 large blocks together

● Picks up objects with thumb and index fingers

● Grasps and transfer objects from hand to hand

● Grasps objects with the same hand all the time (definite hand preference established)

13-18 months

● Puts small objects in/out of container

 ● Unscrew lids

● Unwraps candy/food

● Holds thick pencil or crayon with palmar grip (e. g. all 5 fingers wrapped

● around a pencil)

19- 24 months

● Colors with strokes going out of the lines

Cognitive Development- Piaget’s Theory

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four
different stages of learning. His theory focuses not only on understanding how children
acquire knowledge but also on understanding the nature of intelligence. Piaget believed that
children take an active role in the learning process, acting much like little scientists as they
perform experiments, make observations, and learn about the world. As kids interact with the
world around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon existing knowledge,
and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new information.

Piaget was born in Switzerland in the late 1800s and published his first scientific paper when
he was just 11 years old. His early exposure to the intellectual development of children came
when he worked as an assistant to Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon as they worked to
standardize their famous IQ test. Piaget's theory differs in important ways from those of Lev
Vygotsky, another influential figure in the field of child development. Vygotsky
acknowledged the roles that curiosity and active involvement play in learning but placed
greater emphasis on society and culture.

Piaget felt that development is largely fueled from within, while Vygotsky believed that
external factors (such as culture) and people (such as parents, caregivers, and peers) play a
more significant role. Much of Piaget's interest in the cognitive development of children was
inspired by his observations of his own nephew and daughter. These observations reinforced
his budding hypothesis that children's minds were not merely smaller versions of adult minds.
Until this point in history, children were largely treated simply as smaller versions of adults.
Piaget was one of the first to identify that the way that children think is different from the
way adults think.

Piaget proposed that intelligence grows and develops through a series of stages. Older
children do not just think more quickly than younger children. Instead, there are both
qualitative and quantitative differences between the thinking of young children versus older
children. Based on his observations, he concluded that children were not less intelligent than
adults, they simply think differently. Albert Einstein called Piaget's discovery "so simple only
a genius could have thought of it."
Piaget's stage theory describes the cognitive development of children. Cognitive development
involves changes in cognitive processes and abilities. In Piaget's view, early cognitive
development involves processes based upon actions and later progresses to changes in mental
operations.

Cognitive Processes

● Assimilation- The process of taking in new information into our already existing
schemas is known as assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective because we
tend to modify experiences and information slightly to fit in with our preexisting
beliefs. In the example above, seeing a dog and labeling it "dog" is a case of
assimilating the animal into the child's dog schema.

● Accommodation- Another part of adaptation is the ability to change existing schemas

in light of new information; this process is known as accommodation.5 New schemas
may also be developed during this process.

● Equilibration - As children progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is

important to maintain a balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation)
and changing behavior to account for new knowledge (accommodation). Piaget
believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and
accommodation using a mechanism he called equilibration. Equilibration helps
explain how children can move from one stage of thought to the next.

● Schemas- A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in
understanding and knowing. Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to
interpret and understand the world. In Piaget's view, a schema includes both a
category of knowledge and the process of obtaining that knowledge.3 As experiences
happen, this new information is used to modify, add to, or change previously existing
schemas. For example, a child may have a schema about a type of animal, such as a
dog. If the child's sole experience has been with small dogs, a child might believe that
all dogs are small, furry, and have four legs. Suppose then that the child encounters an
enormous dog. The child will take in this new information, modifying the previously
existing schema to include these new observations.

1. Sensory Motor

During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge
through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. A child's entire experience at the
earliest period of this stage occurs through basic reflexes, senses, and motor responses. This
period is from Birth to 2 Years.

Major characteristics and developmental changes during this stage:

● Know the world through movements and sensations

 ● Learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and
listening

● Learn that things continue to exist even when they cannot be seen (object
permanence)

● Realise that they are separate beings from the people and objects around them

They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them. During
the sensorimotor stage, children go through a period of dramatic growth and learning. As kids
interact with their environment, they continually make new discoveries about how the world
works. The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes place over a relatively
short time and involves a great deal of growth. Children not only learn how to perform
physical actions such as crawling and walking; they also learn a great deal about language
from the people with whom they interact. Piaget also broke this stage down into substages.
Early representational thought emerges during the final part of the sensorimotor stage.

Piaget believed that developing object permanence or object constancy, the understanding
that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, was an important element at this
point of development. By learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and that they
have an existence of their own outside of individual perception, children are then able to
begin to attach names and words to objects.

In the Sensorimotor Stage of Development (0 to 2 years)

Infant constructs an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences such as

hearing and seeing with physical motor action. At the end of 2 years, olds have complex
sensorimotor patterns and begin to operate with primitive symbols.

Sub stages

1. Simple Reflexes sensation and perception are coordinated primarily through reflexive
behaviors.

2. Primary Circular Reaction (1 to 4 months) - Scheme based on the attempt to

reproduce an event that initially occurred by chance. Coordinating sensation and new
schemas

3. Secondary Circular Reaction (4 to 8 months)- Infant becomes more object-oriented,

moving beyond preoccupation with the self. Infant imitates simple actions such as the
baby talk, burbling of adults, and some physical gestures.

4. Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions (8 to 12 months)- Infant progresses

his/her eye-hand coordination; actions more outwardly directed. Look at an object and
grasp it simultaneously

5. Tertiary Circular Reaction (12 to 18 months)- Children begin a period of

trial-and-error experimentation. Explores new possibilities with objects, continues
 doing new things to them, and explore the results. The starting point of human
curiosity and interest.

6. Mental Representation (18 to 24 months)- Infant develops the ability to use primitive
symbols and form enduring mental representation

2. Pre-operational

The foundations of language development may have been laid during the previous stage, but
the emergence of language is one of the major hallmarks of the preoperational stage of
development. This period is from 2 to 7 Years.

Major characteristics and developmental changes during this stage:

● Begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects

● Tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others

● Getting better with language and thinking, but still tend to think in very concrete
terms

At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and taking the point
of view of other people. They also often struggle with understanding the idea of constancy.
Children become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of development, yet
they continue to think very concretely about the world around them. For example, a
researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal pieces, and then give a child the
choice between two pieces of clay to play with. One piece of clay is rolled into a compact
ball while the other is smashed into a flat pancake shape. Because the flat shape looks larger,
the preoperational child will likely choose that piece, even though the two pieces are exactly
the same size.

Cognitive Changes during Early Childhood Years (3-6 years) Piaget’s Preoperational
Stage

● Stretches from approximately 2 to 7 years of age.

● Stable concepts are formed, mental reasoning emerges, egocentrism begins strongly
and then weakens

● Magical beliefs are constructed

Divide into two substages:

a) Symbolic Function- occurs roughly between 2 and 4 years of age. the young child
gains the ability to mentally represent an object that is not present which expands the
child’s mental world. Egocentrism emerges as well. Animism is the belief that
inanimate objects have lifelike qualities an are capable of action
 b) Intuitive Thought- occurs between approximately 4 and 7 years. start using primitive
reasoning and want to know the answers to all sorts of questions.

Centration is focusing attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others.

Conservation is the awareness that altering an object’s or a substance’s appearance does not
change its quantitative properties

3. Concrete Operational

While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in development,
they become much more adept at using logic.2The egocentrism of the previous stage begins
to disappear as kids become better at thinking about how other people might view a situation.
This is from 7 to 11 Years.

Major characteristics and developmental changes during this stage:

● Begin to think logically about concrete events

● Begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short,
wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example

● Thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete

● Begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general

principle

While thinking becomes much more logical during the concrete operational state, it can also
be very rigid. Kids at this point in development tend to struggle with abstract and
hypothetical concepts. During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to
think about how other people might think and feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also
begin to understand that their thoughts are unique to them and that not everyone else
necessarily shares their thoughts, feelings, and opinions.

Classification can include new ways of arranging information, categorizing information, or

creating classes of information. Many psychological theorists, including Piaget, believe that
classification involves a hierarchical structure, such that information is organized from very
broad categories to very specific items. During middle childhood, children also understand
the concept of reversibility, or that some things that have been changed can be returned to
their original state. Water can be frozen and then thawed to become liquid again.

Concrete operational children can understand the concept of reciprocity which means that
changing one quality (in this example, height or water level) can be compensated for by
changes in another quality (width). So there is the same amount of water in each container
although one is taller and narrower and the other is shorter and wider. Seriation, serial
ordering- arranging objects into a hierarchy of classes. They learn that different objects may
be grouped by size, or by alphabetical order. Decentration involves the ability to pay attention
to multiple attributes of an object or situation rather than being locked into attending to only a
single attribute
 4. Formal Operational

The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use deductive
reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas.3 At this point, adolescents and young
adults become capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to problems and think more
scientifically about the world around them. This is from Age 12 and Up.

Major characteristics and developmental changes during this time:

Begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems

● Begins to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues
that require theoretical and abstract reasoning

● Begins to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific

information

The ability to thinking about abstract ideas and situations is the key hallmark of the formal
operational stage of cognitive development. The ability to systematically plan for the future
and reason about hypothetical situations are also critical abilities that emerge during this
stage.

It is important to note that Piaget did not view children's intellectual development as a
quantitative process. That is, kids do not just add more information and knowledge to their
existing knowledge as they get older. Instead, Piaget suggested that there is a qualitative
change in how children think as they gradually process through these four stages. At age 7,
children don't just have more information about the world than they did at age 2; there is a
fundamental change in how they think about the world. Piaget suggested several factors that
influence how children learn and grow. Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning is the ability to
develop hypotheses, about ways to solve problems.

(Mainly for Module 4- Middle Adolescents)

Information Processing

Children's memory capacity and the ability to use their memory also increases and improves
during middle childhood. Children's improved memory skills allow them to store increasing
amounts of information and to reliably retrieve this information later on when they need it in
order to complete homework, tests, and other academic activities. For example, at this age
children become better able to use memorization strategies (e.g., heuristics or shortcuts for
remembering, for instance, learning the first letter of each word in a list that you are trying to
remember. The nonsense word "ROYGBIV" is an example of such a mnemonic strategy for
remembering the colors in the rainbow: Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, and
Violet.
Metacognition

It describes children's growing ability to pay attention to their own mental state and to use
this information to more efficiently solve problems. With the growth of their knowledge base,
children's meta-cognitive abilities also mature.

Language Development in Infancy

Language is a form of communication- whether spoken, written, or signed-that is based on a

system of symbols. Babies learn language by taking in information through their senses of
hearing and sight as they learn to process the meanings behind those sights and sounds. They
use their mouths, tongues, and ears as they learn to mimic the sights and sounds of other
people in order to create their own sounds and communications.

How does Language develop?

Infants actively produce sounds from birth onwards which helps them get the caregivers'
attention and others in the environment. While every child learns to speak at his or her own
pace, general milestones can serve as a guide to normal speech and language development.
These milestones help doctors and other health care providers determine when a child might
need extra help. An infant’s sounds and gestures go through a sequence during the first year:

1. Crying

a. Basic cry: a rhythmic pattern that usually consists of a cry, followed by briefer
silence then somewhat a higher-pitched cry, this may be due to hunger

b. Anger cry: a basic cry in which more excess air is forced through the vocal
cords.

c. Pain cry: sudden long, initial loud cry followed by breath-holding, this may be
stimulated by a high-intensity stimulus

2. Cooing - First coo at about 1 to 2 months. Gurgling sounds were made in the back of
the throat. Expressing pleasure during interaction with caregiver

3. Babbling- First occurs in the middle of the first year and includes a string of
consonant-vowel combinations such as “ba-ba; ma-ma”

4. Gestures- Showing and pointing, at about 8 to 12 months. They may wave bye-bye; a
nod to “yes”, show an empty cup to want more water or milk, and point to a dog to
draw attention

5. First Word- Occur between 10 and 15 months. A child’s first words include those that
name important people (Papa); familiar animals (kitty); vehicles (car); toys (ball);
body parts (eye) etc. On average, infants understand about 50 words at about 13
months; At 18 months, infants can speak, about 50 words, their receptive vocabulary
 (words infant understand) and spoken vocabulary (words infant uses) At 2 years
infants can speak about 200 words.

6. Two-Word Utterances- By 18 to 24 months utter two words; this is also telegraphic

speech (use of short and precise words without grammatical markers) like mommy
giving Tommy ice cream

Emotional Development

They are Characterized by behavior that expresses the pleasantness and unpleasantness of the
state a person is in. They Can be specific and take the form of joy, fear, anger, and so on
depending upon how a transaction affects the person. Emotions are linked with early
developing regions of the human nervous system. Emotions are the first language with which
parents and infants communicate before the infant acquires speech. Sensitive, responsive
parents help their infants grow emotionally, whether the infants respond in distressed or
happy ways. The initial aspects of infant attachment to parents are based on emotion-linked
interchanges, such as when cries and the caregiver sensitively responds.

Developmental Changes in Emotion

1. Crying- is important mechanism newborns have for communicating with their world.
The first cry verifies that the infant’s lungs have filled with air.

2. Smiling- Another important communication effective behavior of the infant.

Reflexive Smile: does not occur in response to external stimuli and appears during the
first month after birth, usually during sleep. Social Smile occurs in response to
external stimuli and appears after 2 to 3 months

3. Fear- Involves stranger anxiety in which an infant shows fear and wariness of
strangers. Emerges gradually; appears 6 months of age in the form of wary reactions.
By 9 months, the fear of strangers is often more intense and continues to escalate
through the infant’s first birthday. Separation Anxiety: an infant’s distressed reaction
when the caregiver leaves. Typically expressed by crying, tends to peak at about 15
months; they exhibit show less strange anxiety when they are in familiar settings.

4. Social Referencing- involves “reading” emotional cues in others to help determine

how to act in a particular situation. They become better in the second year of life; they
tend to “check” with their mother before they act; look at her to see if she is happy,
angry, etc.

Stages of Attachment

Attachment is a strong affectionate bond that binds an infant to a specific intimate caregiver,
and from which the infant derives a sense of security. The formation of attachments in
infancy has been the subject of considerable research since attachments are viewed as
foundations for future relationships. Additionally, attachments form the basis for confidence
and curiosity as toddlers and are important influences on self-concept. Freud believed that
infants become attached to the person or object that provides oral satisfaction but Erikson
(1968) believed that the first years of life are the key time for the development of attachment.

A sense of trust requires a feeling of physical comfort and minimal fear or apprehension
about the future. Erikson believed that responsive, sensitive parenting contributes to an
infant’s sense of trust. The developmental task of infancy is trust vs. mistrust, and it is
negotiated in the establishment of a secure attachment relationship with the caregiver.
Erikson maintained that during the first year to year and a half of life the most important goal
is the development of a basic sense of trust in one’s caregivers (Erikson, 1982). Infants are
dependent and must rely on others to meet their basic physical and psychological needs.
Erikson (1982) believed that basic mistrust could interfere with many aspects of psychosocial
development and make it more difficult to build love and fellowship with others.

Freud believed the infant will become attached to a person or object that provides this
pleasure. Consequently, infants were believed to become attached to their mother because she
was the one who satisfied their oral needs and provided pleasure. John Bowlby was a British
Child Psychiatrist & Psychoanalyst. First attachment theorists described attachment as a
“lasting psychological connectedness b/w humans”. He gave the famous theory known as
“John Bowlby Attachment Theory”. Believed that the earliest bonds formed by children with
their caregivers have a tremendous impact that continues throughout life. According to him,
the attachment tends to keep the infant close to the mother ultimately improving the child’s
chances of survival.

1. PRE ATTACHMENT PHASE (BIRTH -6 WEEKS)

● The innate signals attract the caregiver (grasping, gazing, crying, smiling while
looking into the adult’s eyes).

● When the baby responds in a positive manner, the caregivers remain close by.

● The infants get encouraged by the adults to remain close as it comforts them.

● Babies recognize the mother’s fragrance, voice, and face.

● They are not yet attached to the mother and don’t mind being left with unfamiliar
adults as they have no fear of strangers.

2. “ATTACHMENT IN MAKING” PHASE (6 Weeks – 6 to 8 Months)

● Infants respond differently to familiar caregivers than to strangers. The baby

would smile more to the mother and babble to her and will become quiet more
quickly, whenever picked up by the mother.

● The infant learns that his/her actions affect the behavior of those around him.
 ● They tend to develop a “Sense of Trust” where they expect the response of the
caregiver when signaled.

● They do not protest when they get separated from their caregiver.

3. “CLEAR CUT” ATTACHMENT PHASE (6-8 Months to 18 Months -2 Years)

● The attachment to a familiar caregiver becomes evident.

● Babies show “separation anxiety”, and get upset when an adult on whom they
rely, leaves them.

● This anxiety increases b/w 6 -15 months, and its occurrence depends on the
temperament and the context of the infant and the behavior of the adult.

● The child would show signs of distress, in case the mother leaves, but with the
supportive and sensitive nature of the caretaker, this anxiety could be reduced.

4. FORMATION OF RECIPROCAL RELATIONSHIP (18 Months – 2 Years and on)

With the rapid growth in representation and language by 2 years, the toddler is able to
understand a few factors that influence a parent’s coming and going and can predict their
return. Thus leading to a decline in separation protests.

● The child can negotiate with the caregiver to alter his/her goals via requests and
persuasions.

● The child depends less on the caregiver along with the age.

Play and its importance

Extensive amount of peer interaction during childhood involves playing. Mildred Parten’s
classic study of play, based on observation of children in free play at nursery school, Parten
arrives at the following play categories:

1. Unoccupied Play: stand in one spot or perform random movements that do not seem
to have a goal.

2. Solitary Play: play alone and independently of others; does not care much of anything
else that is happening.

3. Onlooker Play: child watches other children play; they might talk with other children
and ask a question but does not involve themselves in their activity.

4. Parallel Play: child plays separately from others but with toys like those the others or
using or in a manner that mimics their play.
 5. Associative Play: little social interaction or no organization like borrowing or lending
toys

6. Cooperative Play: involves social interaction in a group with a sense of group identity
and organized activity.

Importance of Play

According to Freud and Erikson, play is an especially useful form of human adjustment,
helping the child master anxieties and conflicts. Play permits the child to work off excess
physical energy and release pent-up tensions. Piaget (1962) maintained that play advances
children’s cognitive development; permits children to practice their competencies and
acquired skills in a relaxed manner. The importance of play in early childhood education
cannot be underestimated because playing is essential to a child’s growth.

1. Develop physical skills: Gross motor skills are developed as a child learns to reach,
grasp, crawl, run, climb, and balance. Fine motor skills are developed as children
handle some toys. (Control of the hands and fingers improve)

2. Cognitive Development: Learn to solve problems through play. Learn colors,

numbers, sizes, and shapes. Have the ability to enhance their memory skills as well as
their attention span. Able to move on to higher levels of thought as they play in a
more stimulating environment.

3. Develop Language Skills: Language develops as a child plays and interacts with
others. Begins with: Parents playing cooing games with their children and advances to
practical levels such as telling make-believe stories and jokes.

4. Develop Social Skills: Natural way for children to interact. Opportunities for
cooperating, taking turns, sharing, listening, and negotiating to exist within the play
context/rules.

Moral Development

It involves the development of thoughts, feelings, and behavior regarding rules and
conventions about what people should do in their interaction with other people. Moral
development refers to the process through which children develop the standards of right and
wrong within their society, based on social and cultural norms, and laws.

Piaget’s View of Moral Reasoning

From 4 to 7 years of age, children display heteronomous morality, Children think of justice
and rules as unchangeable properties of the world. Reinforcement, punishment, and imitation
are used to explain children’s moral behavior. Children are rewarded for behavior that is
consistent with laws and social conventions, they are likely to repeat that behavior. When a
model who behaves morally is provided, children are likely to adopt their actions.

Kohlberg’s Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg (1958) agreed with Piaget's (1932) theory of moral development in
principle but wanted to develop his ideas further. He used Piaget’s storytelling technique to
tell people stories involving moral dilemmas. In each case, he presented a choice to be
considered, for example, between the rights of some authority and the needs of some
deserving individual who is being unfairly treated. Kohlberg's theory is broken down into
three primary levels. At each level of moral development, there are two stages. Similar to
how Piaget believed that not all people reach the highest levels of cognitive development,
Kohlberg believed not everyone progresses to the highest stages of moral development.

1. Level 1: Pre Conventional Morality

Preconventional morality is the earliest period of moral development. It lasts until around the
age of 9. At this age, children's decisions are primarily shaped by the expectations of adults
and the consequences of breaking the rules. There are two stages within this level:

● Stage 1 (Obedience and Punishment): The earliest stages of moral development,

obedience and punishment are especially common in young children, but adults are
also capable of expressing this type of reasoning. According to Kohlberg, people at
this stage see rules as fixed and absolute.7 Obeying the rules is important because it is
a way to avoid punishment.

● Stage 2 (Individualism and Exchange): At the individualism and exchange stage of

moral development, children account for individual points of view and judge actions
based on how they serve individual needs. In the Heinz dilemma, children argued that
the best course of action was the choice that best served Heinz’s needs. Reciprocity is
possible at this point in moral development, but only if it serves one's own interests.

2. Level 2: Conventional Morality

The next period of moral development is marked by the acceptance of social rules regarding
what is good and moral. During this time, adolescents and adults internalize the moral
standards they have learned from their role models and from society. This period also focuses
on the acceptance of authority and conforming to the norms of the group. There are two
stages at this level of morality:

● Stage 3 (Developing Good Interpersonal Relationships): Often referred to as the

"good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of the interpersonal relationship of moral
development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles.7 There is an
emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices influence
relationships.
 ● Stage 4 (Maintaining Social Order): This stage is focused on ensuring that social
order is maintained. At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider
society as a whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and
order by following the rules, doing one’s duty, and respecting authority.

3. Level 3: Post Conventional Morality

At this level of moral development, people develop an understanding of abstract principles of

morality. The two stages at this level are

● Stage 5 (Social Contract and Individual Rights): The ideas of a social contract and
individual rights cause people in the next stage to begin to account for the differing
values, opinions, and beliefs of other people. Rules of law are important for
maintaining a society, but members of society should agree upon these standards.

● Stage 6 (Universal Principles): Kohlberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based on

universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these
internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.

Kohlberg believed that only a relatively small percentage of people ever reach the
post-conventional stages (around 10 to 15%).7 One analysis found that while stages one to
four could be seen as universal in populations throughout the world, the fifth and sixth stages
were extremely rare in all populations.

Criticism

Kohlberg's theory played an important role in the development of moral psychology. While
the theory has been highly influential, aspects of the theory have been critiqued for a number
of reasons:

● Moral reasoning does not equal moral behavior: Kohlberg's theory is concerned with
moral thinking, but there is a big difference between knowing what we ought to do
versus our actual actions. Moral reasoning, therefore, may not lead to moral behavior.

● Overemphasizes justice: Critics have pointed out that Kohlberg's theory of moral
development overemphasizes the concept of justice when making moral choices.
Factors such as compassion, caring, and other interpersonal feelings may play an
important part in moral reasoning.

● Cultural bias: Individualist cultures emphasize personal rights, while collectivist

cultures stress the importance of society and community. Eastern, collectivist cultures
may have different moral outlooks that Kohlberg's theory does not take into account.

● Age bias: Most of his subjects were children under the age of 16 who obviously had
no experience with marriage. The Heinz dilemma may have been too abstract for
these children to understand, and a scenario more applicable to their everyday
concerns might have led to different results.
 ● Gender bias: Kohlberg's critics, including Carol Gilligan, have suggested that
Kohlberg's theory was gender-biased since all of the subjects in his sample were
male.10 Kohlberg believed that women tended to remain at the third level of moral
development because they place a stronger emphasis on things such as social
relationships and the welfare of others.

Module 4

Cognitive Development in Middle Adolescent

Same as module 3

Social Development in Middle Childhood

Self-concept and self-esteem

Children form more accurate and complex pictures of physical, intellectual, and personality
characteristics of themselves and of others. Children compare themselves with their age
mates; the emerging self-concept provides a “filter” through which children evaluate their
own social behavior and that of others

Erikson’s Psychosocial Developmental Theory

Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular and influential
theories of development. While his theory was impacted by psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud's
work, Erikson's theory centered on psychosocial development rather than psychosexual
development. Erikson's fourth psychosocial stage of development, involving industry
(competence) vs. inferiority occurs during childhood between the ages of six and twelve.
They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social
activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate because they feel that they
don’t measure up. If children do not learn to get along with others or have negative
experiences at home or with peers, an inferiority complex might develop into adolescence
and adulthood. It is at this stage that the child’s peer group will gain greater significance and
will become a major source of the child’s self-esteem. The child now feels the need to win
approval by demonstrating specific competencies that are valued by society and begin to
develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments.

Development of Friendship

Gottman & Parker(1987): 6 functions of friendship

 1. Companionship- Friends normally enjoy spending time together and sharing in similar
activities.

2. Stimulation- Friends have fun together; share information, and promote excitement
and amusement.

3. Physical Support- Friends genuinely care about each other. They physically try to
support each other when going through hard or challenging times. For example, a
friend will be there to listen and lean on when another friend is going through a
breakup.

4. Ego Support- Friends try to encourage each other. This helps maintain a healthy
self-image.

5. Social Comparison- Friends provide each other with information about where they
stand among other adolescents.

6. Intimacy and Affection- Friends trust each other and are genuinely kind to one
another.

Selman (1981): 5 stages of friendship

The 5 stages of children’s friendships. Children’s friendship needs and skills change as they
grow. Their ideas about friendship actually also changes as they develop. There are 5 stages
that children go through as they learn to make and keep friends. Kids First’s Child
Psychologists often refer parents to this 5 step framework by Robert Selman that helps
families understand developmental trends in children’s friendships.

1. Momentary Playmates: Stage 0 (Approximate ages: 3-7 years)- Children at this stage
view friends as momentary playmates, and their friendships are all about having fun
together. Their friends are kids who are conveniently nearby, and who do the same
things they like to do. Children at this stage have very limited ability to see other
perspectives. They assume that other children think the same way they do, so they
tend to get very upset when they find out that a playmate has a different opinion. Kids
this age typically make comments like “she doesn’t want to be my friend anymore”
when their friend wants to do something different to them.

2. One Way Assistance: Stage 1 (Approximate ages: 4-9 years)- At this level, children
understand that friendship goes beyond whatever their current activity is, but they still
think in very pragmatic terms. They define friends as children who do nice things for
them—such as sharing a treat, saving them a seat on the bus, or giving them nice
presents—but they don’t really think about what they themselves contribute to the
friendship. Children at this level care a lot about friendship. They may even put up
with a not-so-nice friend, just so they can have a friend. They also may try to use
 friendship as a bargaining tool, saying things like “I’ll be your friend if you do this!”
or “I won’t be your friend if you do that!“

3. Two Way; Fair Weather Relationship: Stage 2 (Approximate ages: 6-12 years)- These
children are able to consider a friend’s perspective in addition to their own, but not at
the same time. So what this means is that they understand turn-taking, but they can’t
really step back and get an observer’s perspective that would allow them to see
patterns of interaction in their relationships. At this stage, children are very concerned
about fairness and reciprocity, but they think about these in a very rigid way. So, if
they do something nice for a friend, they expect that friend to do something nice for
them at the next opportunity. If this doesn’t happen, the friendship may fall apart.
Children in this stage tend to be very judgmental of both themselves and others. They
evaluate themselves harshly, the way they think other people do. So, they say things
like, “No one will like me because of my stupid haircut!” They tend to be jealous, and
they’re very concerned with fitting in by being exactly the same as everyone else.
Children at this stage often form small friendship groups based on similar interests.
Sometimes these are known as “secret clubs” which involve elaborate rules and lots
of discussion about who is or isn’t included as a member. Setting rules and learning to
negotiate them is important for helping children to develop their understanding of
social relationships. However, when children lack cooperative relationship skills it
can lead to friendship groups being dominated by some children and excluding others.

4. Intimate, Mutually Shared Relationship: Stage 3 (Approximate ages: 11-15 years)- At

this stage, friends help each other solve problems and confide thoughts and feelings
that they don’t share with anyone else. They know how to compromise, and they do
kind things for each other without “keeping score,” because they genuinely care about
each other’s happiness. For some children, this is also the “Joined at the Hip” stage.
Girls, more often than boys, maybe best friends and expect each other to do
everything together. They may feel deeply betrayed if a best friend chooses to be with
another child.

5. Mature Friendship: Stage 4 (Approximate ages: 12 years to adulthood)- At this stage,

children place a high value on emotional closeness with friends. They can accept and
even appreciate differences between themselves and their friends. Young people who
develop mature friendships are not as possessive as they might once have been, so
they’re less likely to feel threatened if their friends have other relationships. Mature
friendship emphasizes trust and support and remaining close over time, despite
separations.

Families

During early childhood years parents focus on matters such as modesty, bedtime regularities,
control of temper, eating behavior, and manners. But during middle childhood school-related
matters or difficulties emerges; the child must learn to relate to adults outside the family on a
regular basis which requires more formal control and achievement orientation. Parents might
likely use deprivation of privileges, comments designed to increase the child’s sense of guilts,
or statements that he/she is responsible for his/her actions.

Societal Changes in Families Stepfamilies

Parents are divorcing in greater numbers than ever before, but many of them remarry. The
number of remarriages involving children has grown steadily in recent years. Three common
types of stepfamilies structure:

1. Stepfather

2. Stepmother

3. blended or complex

Children in stepfamilies show more adjustment problems; academic problems; lower

self-esteem

Families/Parental Role in Identity Formation

Autonomy and Attachment - Adolescents’ push for autonomy and responsibility puzzles and
anger many parents, who might urge them to take stronger control as the adolescents seek
autonomy and responsibility. As adolescents push for autonomy, wise adults withdraw
control in those areas in which adolescents can make a reasonable decision but continue
guiding in areas in which adolescents have limited knowledge

Self-Care/Latchkey Children

Children typically do not see their parents from the time they leave school in the morning
until about 5 or 6 PM. Children are called “Latchkey” because they are given the key to their
home, take the key to school and then use it to let themselves into the home while their
parents are still at work. They remain unsupervised for two to four hours a day during each
school week; sometimes remain unsupervised during summer vacations. Some latchkeys
might grow fast, hurried by the responsibilities placed on them. Without limits and parental
supervision, latchkey children find their way into trouble more easily, possibly stealing,
vandalizing, or abusing a sibling. Practitioners and policymakers recommend that
after-school programs have warm and supportive staff; flexible and relaxed schedules,
multiple activities, and opportunities for positive interaction with peers.

Friendship

Friends play important role in terms of shaping well-being in terms of social needs including
social acceptance, intimacy, companionship, and reassurance of worth. Develop friendships
who are close to their own age, a common fear. Conformity to peer pressure in adolescence
can be positive and negative. Cliques and Crowds are groups adolescents majorly became
part of; engage in similar activities such as a being in club or sports team.

Moral Development in Middle Childhood

Same as Module 3

Module 5

Developmental Tasks in Early Adulthood

Before we dive into the specific physical changes and experiences of early adulthood, let’s
consider the key developmental tasks during this time—the ages between 18 and 40. The
beginning of early adulthood, ages 18-25, is sometimes considered its own phase, emerging
adulthood, but the developmental tasks that are the focus during emerging adulthood persist
throughout the early adulthood years. Havighurst (1972) describes some of the developmental
tasks of young adults. These include:

● Achieving autonomy: trying to establish oneself as an independent person with a life

of one’s own

● Establishing identity: more firmly establishing likes, dislikes, preferences, and

philosophies

● Developing emotional stability: becoming more stable emotionally which is

considered a sign of maturing

● Establishing a career: deciding on and pursuing a career or at least an initial career

direction and pursuing an education

● Finding intimacy: forming the first close, long-term relationships

● Becoming part of a group or community: young adults may, for the first time, become
involved with various groups in the community. They may begin voting or
volunteering to be part of civic organizations (scouts, church groups, etc.). This is
especially true for those who participate in organizations as parents.

● Establishing a residence and learning how to manage a household: learning how to

budget and keep a home maintained.

● Becoming a parent and rearing children: learning how to manage a household with
children.

● Making marital or relationship adjustments and learning to parent.

Developmental Tasks in Middle Adulthood

Margie Lachman (2004) provides a comprehensive overview of the challenges facing midlife
adults, outlining the roles and responsibilities of those entering the “afternoon of life” (Jung).
These include:

● Losing parents and experiencing associated grief.

● Launching children into their own lives.

● Adjusting to home life without children (often referred to as the empty nest).

● Dealing with adult children who return to live at home (known as boomerang children
in the United States).

● Becoming grandparents.

● Preparing for late adulthood.

● Acting as caregivers for aging parents or spouses.

Erickson Stage of Psychosocial Development in Early Adulthood

Intimacy vs. Isolation- People in early adulthood (the 20s through early 40s) develop a sense
of self in adolescence, we are ready to share our life with others. However, if other stages
have not been successfully resolved, young adults may have trouble developing and
maintaining successful relationships with others. Erikson said that we must have a strong
sense of self before we can develop successful intimate relationships. Adults who do not
develop a positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and
emotional isolation.

Erikson Stage of Psychosocial Development in Middle Adulthood

Generativity vs. Stagnation (the 40s-60s)- Generativity involves finding your life’s work and
contributing to the development of others through activities such as volunteering, mentoring,
and raising children. During this stage, middle-aged adults begin contributing to the next
generation, often through childbirth and caring for others; they also engage in meaningful and
productive work which contributes positively to society. Those who do not master this task
may experience stagnation and feel as though they are not leaving a mark on the world in a
meaningful way; they may have little connection with others and little interest in productivity
and self-improvement.

Erikson Stage of Psychosocial Development in Late Adulthood

Integrity vs. Despair (The mid-60s to the end of life)- Erikson’s task at this stage is called
integrity vs. despair. He said that people in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either
a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure. People who feel proud of their accomplishments
feel a sense of integrity, and they can look back on their lives with few regrets. However,
people who are not successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted. They
focus on what “would have,” “should have,” and “could have” been. They face the end of
their lives with feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair.

Stressors in Middle Adulthood- Empty Nest Syndrome

Empty nest syndrome isn't a clinical diagnosis. Instead, empty nest syndrome is a
phenomenon in which parents experience feelings of sadness and loss when the last child
leaves home. Although you might actively encourage your children to become independent,
the experience of letting go can be painful. You might find it difficult to suddenly have no
children at home who need your care. You might miss being a part of your children's daily
lives — as well as the constant companionship. You might also worry about your children's
safety and whether they'll be able to take care of themselves. You might struggle with the
transition if your last child leaves the nest a little earlier or later than you expected. If you
have only one child or strongly identify with your role as a parent, you might have a
particularly difficult time adjusting to an empty nest.

In the past, research suggested that parents dealing with empty nest syndrome experienced a
profound sense of loss that might make them vulnerable to depression, alcoholism, identity
crisis, and marital conflicts. Recent studies suggest that an empty nest might reduce work and
family conflicts, and can provide parents with many other benefits. When the last child leaves
home, parents have a new opportunity to reconnect with each other, improve the quality of
their marriage and rekindle interests for which they previously might not have had time.

If you're experiencing feelings of loss due to empty nest syndrome, take action. For example:

● Accept the timing. Avoid comparing your child's timetable to your own
experience or expectations. Instead, focus on what you can do to help your child
succeed when he or she does leave home.

● Keep in touch. You can continue to be close to your children even when you live
apart. Make an effort to maintain regular contact through visits, phone calls,
emails, texts or video chats.

● Seek support. Share your feelings with loved ones and friends whose children
have recently left home. If you feel depressed, consult your doctor or a mental
health provider.

● Stay positive. Thinking about the extra time and energy you might have to devote
to your marriage or personal interests after your last child leaves home might help
you adapt to this major life change.
If your last child is about to leave home and you're worried about empty nest syndrome, plan
ahead. Look for new opportunities in your personal and professional life. Keeping busy or
taking on new challenges at work or at home can help ease the sense of loss that your child's
departure might cause.

Psychopathology in Old Age

Psychopathology in older age is characterized by a relatively high prevalence of certain

disorders, ranging from dementia and cognitive, mood, and anxiety disorders, to
schizophrenia and substance abuse (Bernacchio et al., 2009). Aging is a genetically
programmed physiological process that is accompanied by certain age-related changes in the
human psyche. The complex and contradictory nature of human aging is associated with
quantitative and qualitative changes in biological structures. When changes in the personality
of an old person are assessed, more often than not negative features are mentioned; however,
positive changes in his or her intellectual-mental sphere must also be taken into account.
Impaired performance in intellectual tests in the elderly may be linked not to a drop in mental
abilities but to a loss of interest in trivial tasks of a formal-logical nature and a shift to
different semantic content virtually not addressed by conventional tests. In addition, it should
be particularly emphasized that all tests of the intellectual integrity of an elderly person only
include questions related to the cognitive sphere, and do not contain questions from the
creative sphere.

1. Dementia- Refers to the confusion, forgetfulness, and personality changes that are
sometimes associated with old age. It is also called organic brain syndrome; affecting
3-4% over the age of 65. People suffering from dementia have limited ability to grasp
abstractions, repeat the same statements over and over again, lacks idea, think slowly,
and are unable to pay attention. People having dementia might recall their childhood
memories but not what event took place an hour before, Because of these symptoms
of mental deterioration, the person may be unable to cope with the routine task as
keeping clean and well-groomed. Improper nutrition, chronic insufficient sleep related
to physical illness, anxiety, depression, grief, or fear. Heart or Kidney problems that
cause changes in metabolism. If dementia is diagnosed, it is important that patient
receive help. A warm, friendly environment that motivates them to make better use of
their remaining mental capacity should be provided.

2. Alzheimer’s Disease (named after Dr. Alois Alzheimer)- symptoms included memory
loss, language problems, and unpredictable behavior. When she died. On examining
her brain it was that found many abnormal clumps (now called amyloid plaques) and
tangled bundles of fibers (now called neurofibrillary, or tau, tangles) were there.
These plaques and tangles in the brain are still considered some of the main features
of Alzheimer’s disease. Another feature is the loss of connections between nerve cells
(neurons) in the brain. Neurons transmit messages between different parts of the
brain, and from the brain to muscles and organs in the body.
 3. Stroke- A stroke, or a “brain attack,” occurs when blood flow to the brain is
interrupted. If this happens because a blood vessel bursts, it’s known as a hemorrhagic
stroke. Although this type of stroke is less common, it’s more likely to result in death.
There are two main types of stroke, ischemic and hemorrhagic, which have different
pathogenesis:

a. In an Ischemic Stroke, the blood supply to some brain areas is reduced due to
narrowing or complete occlusion of arteries, which leads to dysfunction of this
part of the brain tissue. Include progressive damage of the blood-brain barrier
(BBB) due to loss of integrity, degeneration or death of neurons, glial reaction,
and infiltration of immune cells.

b. Haemorrhagic Stroke may be caused by cerebral and subarachnoid

hemorrhage as a result of damage to the brain’s blood vessels by chronic
hypertension, cerebral arteriovenous malformation

Third age is a part of the life of great importance, as it affects all people. It is important for
any health care provider to have substantial knowledge regarding the diseases with an
increased incidence at this age. Both the doctors and the nurses have to care for the proper
treatment of these diseases, especially for those that affect the individual's mental health. All
these diseases that have a significant impact on the mental health of the elderly give rise to
various disorders in life. The role of health professionals is crucial in the treatment of these
disorders and their evolution. The support of the family in the elderly is important as it
strengthens their treatment.

Kubler Ross Model of Dying

A Swiss psychiatrist, Kübler-Ross first introduced her five-stage grief model in her book On
Death and Dying. Kübler-Ross’ model was based on her work with terminally ill patients.
Mainly, because people studying her model mistakenly believed this is the specific order in
which people grieve and that all people go through all stages. Kübler-Ross now notes that
these stages are not linear and some people may not experience any of them.

1. Denial- Denial is the stage that can initially help you survive the loss. You might think
life makes no sense, has no meaning, and is too overwhelming. You start to deny the
news and, in effect, go numb. It’s common in this stage to wonder how life will go on
in this different state – you are in a state of shock because life as you once knew it,
has changed in an instant. If you were diagnosed with a deadly disease, you might
believe the news is incorrect – a mistake must have occurred somewhere in the
lab–they mixed up your blood work with someone else. If you receive news of the
death of a loved one, perhaps you cling to a false hope that they identified the wrong
person. In the denial stage, you are not living in ‘actual reality,’ rather, you are living
in a ‘preferable’ reality. Interestingly, it is denial and shock that help you cope and
survive the grief event. Denial aids in pacing your feelings of grief. Instead of
 becoming completely overwhelmed with grief, we deny it, do not accept it, and
stagger its full impact on us at one time. Think of it as your body’s natural defense
mechanism saying “hey, there’s only so much I can handle at once.” Once the denial
and shock started to fade, the start of the healing process begins. At this point, those
feelings that you were once suppressing are coming to the surface.

2. Anger- Once you start to live in ‘actual’ reality again and not in ‘preferable’ reality,
anger might start to set in. This is a common stage to think “why me?” and “life’s not
fair!” You might look to blame others for the cause of your grief and also may redirect
your anger to close friends and family. You find it incomprehensible how something
like this could happen to you. If you are strong in faith, you might start to question
your belief in God. “Where is God? Why didn’t he protect me?” Researchers and
mental health professionals agree that this anger is a necessary stage of grief. And
encourage the anger. It’s important to truly feel the anger. It’s thought that even
though you might seem like you are in an endless cycle of anger, it will dissipate –
and the more you truly feel the anger, the more quickly it will dissipate, and the more
quickly you will heal. It is not healthy to suppress your feelings of anger – it is a
natural response – and perhaps, arguably, a necessary one. In everyday life, we are
normally told to control our anger toward situations and toward others. When you
experience a grief event, you might feel disconnected from reality – that you have no
grounding anymore. Your life has shattered and there’s nothing solid to hold onto.
Think of anger as a strength to bind you to reality. You might feel deserted or
abandoned during a grief event. That no one is there. You are alone in this world. The
direction of anger toward something or somebody is what might bridge you back to
reality and connect you to people again. It is a “thing.” It’s something to grasp onto –
a natural step in healing.

3. Bargaining- When something bad happens, have you ever caught yourself making a
deal with God? “Please God, if you heal my husband, I will strive to be the best wife I
can ever be – and never complain again.” This is bargaining. In a way, this stage is
false hope. You might falsely make yourself believe that you can avoid grief through a
type of negotiation. If you change this, I’ll change that. You are so desperate to get
your life back to how it was before the grief event, you are willing to make a major
life change in an attempt toward normality. Guilt is a common wingman of
bargaining. This is when you endure the endless “what if” statements. What if I had
left the house 5 minutes sooner – the accident would have never happened. What if I
encouraged him to go to the doctor six months ago as I first thought – cancer could
have been found sooner and he could have been saved.

4. Depression- Depression is a commonly accepted form of grief. In fact, most people

associate depression immediately with grief – as it is a “present” emotion. It
represents the emptiness we feel when we are living in reality and realize the person
or situation is gone or over. In this stage, you might withdraw from life, feel numb,
live in a fog, and not want to get out of bed. The world might seem too much and too
overwhelming for you to face. You don’t want to be around others, don’t feel like
 talking, and experience feelings of hopelessness. You might even experience suicidal
thoughts – thinking “what’s the point of going on?”

5. Acceptance- The last stage of grief identified by Kübler-Ross is acceptance. Not in

the sense that “it’s okay my husband died” but rather, “my husband died, but I’m
going to be okay.” In this stage, your emotions may begin to stabilize. You re-enter
reality. You come to terms with the fact that the “new” reality is that your partner is
never coming back – or that you are going to succumb to your illness and die soon –
and you’re okay with that. It’s not a “good” thing – but it’s something you can live
with. It is definitely a time of adjustment and readjustment. There are good days, there
are bad days, and then there are good days again. In this stage, it does not mean you’ll
ever have another bad day – where you are uncontrollably sad. But, the good days
tend to outnumber the bad days. In this stage, you may lift from your fog, start to
engage with friends again, and might even make new relationships as time goes on.
You understand your loved one can never be replaced, but you move, grow, and
evolve into your new reality.

Positive Ageing and Application

Positive aging include cultivating a positive mindset, engaging constructively with others,
and remaining as functional as one’s age allows. It uses multimodal interventions to maintain
good physical, mental, and social health in old age. Positive psychology has shown there are
methods to age positively. Positive aging" is a term used to describe the process of
maintaining a positive attitude, feeling good about yourself, keeping fit and healthy, and
engaging fully in life. Aging is often associated with many rewarding experiences but is also
a time when significant changes might occur, such as a diminution of physical vitality and
function, contracting social networks, limited employment opportunities, and loss. Keeping a
positive attitude towards aging is vital as studies indicate that a positive attitude improves
physical and mental health. It also enables people to maintain a sense of control and quality
of life as they face another part of the life cycle. Aging is often associated with many
rewarding experiences. It is, however, also a time when significant changes might occur. For
example, some people experience changes in physical functioning, social networks,
employment, and bereavement can become more common

a) Maintaining a positive attitude- The way you feel about yourself and the aging
process can affect how you view life and the extent to which you are involved in
activities and the opportunities life offers. If you can make choices and have control
over important aspects of your life, and take part in and enjoy activities, you are more
likely to feel good about yourself.

b) Staying connected- Social interaction and relationships with others are associated with
positive ageing and feeling optimistic about life. Maintaining social networks through
membership in clubs, engaging in voluntary work and keeping in touch with family
 encourages interaction with others, prevents isolation and promotes good mental and
physical health.

c) Keep Your Brain Alert, Active, And Flexible- Choose games you have fun playing, as
you will be more likely to play them more often without getting frustrated. If you
never liked chess, then do not start because someone suggested you should.
Remember to vary the types of activities and find balance and flow.

d) Keep Yourself Free From Stress As Much As Possible- High levels of stress can cause
damage to your psychological and physical self. Chronic stress can pull down your
immunity and make you more prone to illnesses. Create environments where you can
feel safe, stay in control, and make choices. Stop overthinking and worrying your
head off. Learn how to practice mindfulness and let life happen.

e) Stay Active. Do 30 Min Of Moderate Exercise Every Day- Physical exercise is a

proven way to increase your productivity and health in your golden years and drive
away your old-age blues. Exercise keeps your mind active and fresh, increases your
mobility and balance, brings a more optimistic outlook toward life, and, of course,
reduces the risks of several illnesses. Strength training can help maintain muscle
mass, which can then reverse frailty and delay dependency on caregivers.