Thermodynamics

Reynaldo P. Roca
At the end of the course , you will be able to:

1. Define basic terms/concepts of Thermodynamics

2. understand concept of energy and its various forms
3. Describe First Law of Thermodynamics for Open and Closed
system
4. have fundamental knowledge on reversible Thermodynamics
Processes
Thermodynamics is a science and, more importantly, an engineering tool
used to describe processes that involve changes in temperature,
transformation of energy, and the relationships between heat and work.

The focus of thermodynamics in aerospace engineering is on the

production of work, often in the form of kinetic energy (for example in the
exhaust of a jet engine) or shaft power, from different sources of heat

The propulsion chain

Definitions

1.Fluid - a working substance that exists , or is regarded as existing , as a

continuum characterized by low resistance to flow and the tendency to
assume the shape of its container.( Steam in steam turbine, air in air
compressor, air and fuel air mixture in ICE).
2. System : a quantity of matter in space chosen for study . It is a
macroscopically identifiable collection of matter on which we focus our
attention.It is a region enclosed by specific boundaries, which may be
imaginary, either fixed or moving.
3. Surroundings: mass or region that surrounds a system –
Surroundings pertain to that part of the universe that is close enough to
have some perceptible effect on the system •

4. Boundary: real or imaginary surface that separates a system from its

surroundings – May be fixed or movable •

5. Universe: system and its surroundings

System:

Closed system: no mass transfer, energy

transfer possible

Open system: also called control volume, mass

and energy transfer possible

Isolated system: neither energy nor mass

transfer possible
6. Two classes of properties

Property -Any characteristic of a system

- Temperature, pressure, density, mass…

Intensive properties- have values that are independent of the size of the mass of
the system
( ex. Pressure, temp., density)

Extensive properties- dependent of upon the mass of the system and are total
values
- if its values for the whole system is the sum of its values for the various
subsystem or parts ( total volume, total internal energy)
State: a set of properties that completely defines the condition of a
system.

• It gives a complete description of the system.

• At a given state, all the properties of a system have fixed values.

State of a System

1
5
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

If two bodies are in contact through a thermally-conducting boundary for a

sufficiently long time, no further observable changes take place; thermal
equilibrium is said to prevail.

Two systems which are individually in thermal equilibrium with a third are in
thermal equilibrium with each other; all three systems have the same value of the
property called temperature

Zeroth Law: There exists for every thermodynamic system in equilibrium a

property called temperature. Equality of temperature is a necessary and
sufficient condition for thermal equilibrium.

States that “if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are
also in thermal equilibrium with each other”.
Newton's second law

Acceleration is produced when a force acts on a mass. The

greater the mass (of the object) being accelerated the greater
the amount of force needed to accelerate the object.

F= MA
K
Where: k is proportionality constant
F = force
m = mass
a = acceleration
Mass and Weight
The mass of a body is the absolute quantity of matter in it.
The weight of a body means the force of gravity FG on the body.

m = F = Fg
k a g

Density( r) - mass of a substance per unit volume.

r= m
V

Specific Volume ( n) - is the volume of a unit mass.

n= V = 1
m r
Specific Weight( g)- the force of gravity of any substance on unit volume

g = Fg
V
g= rg
k
Pressure

The standard reference atmospheric pressure is 760 mm Hg , 101325 Pa, 14.696

psi or 1 atm.

Measuring Pressure

By using Manometers

a. Absolute pressure is greater than atmospheric pressur

e.

P = Po + Pg

b. Absolute pressure is less than atmospheric pressure.

P = Po - Pg

The gage reading is called vacuum pressure or the vacuum.

Gage Pressure
Open to atmosphere

Fg

P = Po + Pg

Pg = rgh
Temperature

t 0F = 9 t 0C + 32
5

t 0C = 5 (t 0F - 32 )
9

Absolute temperature is the temperature measured from absolute zero.

Absolute zero temperature is the temperature at which all molecular motion ceases, and will be
denoted by T, thus

T (0R) = t 0F + 460, degrees Rankine

T (K) = t 0C + 273, Kelvin
Conservation of Mass

The mass per unit time of fluid crossing an area A

perpendicular to velocity V is given by the formula:
m = rAn

The quantity of fluid passing through a given section is :

V = An
Where:
V = volume flow rate
m = mass flow rate

The law of conservation of mass states that mass is

indestructible. Hence

m1 = m 2
r1A1n1 = r2A2n2
Example

A body which has a mass of 7.0 kg is accelerated at a

rate of 3.0 m/s². What total force is required if a) the
body is moving along a horizontal frictionless plane? B)
the body is moving vertically upward at a location where
local gravity is 9.45 m/s²?
1. Given:

m= 7 kg a= 3m/s2

Required:

a. F if body moving horizontally

b. F if body moving vertically

Soln.

a) F= ma/K = 7kg(30m/s2)/ 1 Kg-m/N.s2

a. F= 21N

b. By moving vertically
Fr= resultant force

F= required force

F-Fg= Fr

F= Fg + Fr= 21N + 66.15N

F= 87.15N
Conservation of Energy

Gravitational Potential Energy(P)

The gravitational potential energy of a body is its energy due to its position or
elevation.

Fg
Z
P = FgZ = m g z
K
P = P2 – P1 = mg(Z2 – Z1)
K

Kinetic Energy (K)

The energy or stored capacity for performing work possessed by moving body, by virtue of its
momentum.

K = mv2
2k

k = m(v2 2 – v1 2)
2k
Internal Energy ( U,u)

Internal energy is stored within a body or substance by virtue

of the activity and configuration of its molecules and of the vibration
of the atoms within the molecules.

u = specific internal energy ( unit mass)

u = u2 - u2

U = total internal energy

U = U2 – U1

For Ideal gas

dU =Cv dT Always for ideal gas ;U(T) only depends on T
The internal energy of an ideal gas depends only on temperature

Work (Wn)

Work is the product of the displacement of the body and the

component of the force in the direction of the displacement.
Cylinder Final Position of Piston

Piston

Area=A

Piston Rod

P V2
1

V1 dw

c f

dW 2
P
dV

m nV

dw = Fd = (pA) = pdV

W = ∫1 pdV work done during a nonflow reversible process.

Work done by the system is positive ( outflow of energy).

Work done on the system is negative (inflow of energy).
Flow work (Wf)

Flow work or flow energy is work done in pushing a fluid across a boundary, usually into or out of
a system.

Boundary
A= Area of Surface System
p
F V

c L

Heat (Q)

Heat is energy in transit (on the move) from one body or system to another solely because of a
temperature difference between the bodies or system.
That quantity flowing between the system and the surroundings that can be used to change the
temperature of the system and/or the surroundings .
Heat (q), like w, is a function of path. Not a state function .It is possible to have a change of state

(p1, V1, T1) = (p2, V2, T2)

adiabatically (without heat transferred)

Q is positive when heat is added to the body or system.

Q is negative when heat is rejected by the body or system.
Example :
A hydraulic cylinder has a piston of cross sectional area 30 cm²
and a fluid pressure of 3 MPa. If the piston is moved 0.5 m,how
much work is done?

Given:

A= 30cm²
P= 3MPa
d= 0.5 m 30cm² 3 MPa

Solution:

W= ∫ F dx = ∫PA dx

W= 3000KPa(30 x 10^-4m² ) (0.5m) = 4.5KJ

First Law of Thermodynamics
“Energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can only be changed
from one form into another.”

Rudolf Clausius 1850

Mayer (1842)

(courtesy F. Remer)
Energy Balance

The net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of a

system during a process is equal to the difference between the
total energy entering and total energy leaving the system.

Energy change of a system

Energy change = Energy at the final state –Energy at the initial state

In the absence of electrical, magnetic or surface tension effects,

ΔE = ΔU + ΔKE + ΔPE

Thus, for stationary systems,

ΔE = ΔU
First law for a cycle

For a closed system undergoing a cycle, the initial and final states
are identical.

Therefore, ΔEsystem= E2-E1= 0

•The energy balance for a cycle simplifies to

Ein-Eout= 0 orEin= Eout

• A closed system does not involve any mass flow across its
boundaries, the energy balance for a cycle can be expressed in
terms of heat and work interactions as

Wnet= Qnet
That is, the net work output during a cycle is equal to net heat
input
First law for a system undergoing a
change of state
The energy balance would be:

First law for closed systems

General : Q-W= ∆E

Stationary Systems : ∆U = Q-W

• The change in energy of a system is equal to the difference
between the heat added to the system and the work done by the
system,

E = Q - W (units are Joules, J)},

where : E is the energy of the system,

Q is the heat input to the system, and
W is the work done by the system.
E = U (thermal energy) + E_{kinetic} + E_{potential} + …

The equation can also be written on a per unit mass basis

∆ e = q - w (units are J/kg)}.

In many situations the potential energy, kinetic energy, and

chemical energy of the system are constant or not important. Then

∆E=∆U

∆ U = Q - W or. ∆ u = q – w
First Law of Thermodynamics: (Energy Conservation)
The change in a stationary object’s internal energy
is equal to the heat transferred into that object minus the work
that object did on its surroundings. Work
U=Q-W
done W

piston
U

Gas
Molecules
at temp T

Q
candle

Internal Energy U – measure of thermal energy of system

Heat in – heat added to system
Work done – work done by the system
The energy of a closed system can only be changed through heat and
work interactions.

Conservation of Energy

The law of conservation of energy states that energy is neither

created nor destroyed.

The first law of thermodynamics states that one form of energy

maybe converted into another.

The total energy of the universe is constant .Heat, work, and

other energy transfers in an event equal the total energy content both
before and after the event has occurred
Example Applications of the First Law

Below shows the configuration to motivate the use of Property

called ënthalpy. We wish to know the relation between properties
upstream of the valve, denoted by ``1'' and those downstream,
denoted by ``2''.

Fig A .Adiabatic flow through a valve, a generic throttling process

Fig B. Equivalence of actual system and piston model

Initially the gas is upstream of the valve and just through the valve. In
the final state the gas is downstream of the valve plus just before the
valve. The figures on the left of Figure B show the actual configuration
just described. In terms of the system behavior, however, we could
replace the fluid external to the system by pistons which exert the
same pressure that the external fluid exerts, as indicated schematically
on the right side of Figure B.

The process is adiabatic, with changes in potential energy and kinetic

energy assumed to be negligible. The first law for the system is
therefore

∆ U = -W

The work done by the system is

W = P2 V2 - P1 V1 .

Use of the first law leads to

U2 + P2 V2 = U1 + P1 V1 .
Steady flow energy Equation

P1 1 W

System

K1 1
p1 V1 Q P2

U1 P2

z1 p2V2
U2 z2

Datum Level 6

Energy Entering System = Energy Leaving the System

P1 + K1 + Wf1 + U1 + Q = P2 + K2 + Wf2 + U2 + Wsf

Q = ∆P + ∆K + ∆Wf +∆U+ Wsf

Enthalpy(H,h)

Enthalpy is a composite property applicable to all fluids.

H = u + pv and H = mh = U + PV

Steady flow energy equations becomes:

P1 + K1 + H1 + Q = P2 + K2 + H 2 + Wsf

Q = ∆P + ∆K + ∆H + Wsf
Example.
An airplane whose mass is 5000Kg is flying with a velocity
of 150m/s at an altitude of 10,000m,both ,measured
relative to the surface of the earth.
g= 9.78m/ s2 .

a. calculate the kinetic and potential energies of the

airplane,both in KJ.
b. If the kinetic energy increased by 10,000KJ with no
change in elevation , what would be the final velocity in
m/s?
Ideal Gas

An ideal gas is ideal only in the sense that it conforms to the simple perfect gas laws
Boyle’s Law

If the temperature of a given quantity of gas is held constant, the volume of the gas varies
inversely with the absolute pressure during a change of state.

V α 1 or V = 1
p P

PV = C or P1V1 = P2V2

Charles

1. If the pressure on a particular quantity of gas is held constant then, with any change in state, the
volume will vary directly as the absolute temperature.

V α T or V = CT

V =C
T

2. If the volume of particular quantity of gas is held constant, then, with any change of state , the pressure
will vary directly as the absolute temperature.

P α T or P = CT

P =C
T
 Equation of State

P1 V 1 = P2 V 2
T1 T2

PV = C
T

PV = R
T

Where: P= absolute pressure

V = volume
m = mass
T = absolute temperature
R = specific gas constant

Example:

A piston-cylinder assembly contains 2lbs of air at a temperature of

540o R and a pressure of 1 atm. The air is compressed to a state
where the temperature is 840o R and the pressure is 6atm.During the
compression, there is a heat transfer from the air to the surroundings
equal to 20Btu. Using ideal gas , determine the work during the
process.(ans.-122.84Btu)
Example

A balloon is filled with methane (CH4) at 20 deg Celsius and 1

bar until the volume is 26.5 m3 .
a. Calculate the mass of gas, in Kg , in the balloon
b. Determine the volume , in cubic meters, if the balloon rises
to a height where the state is 0.84 bar and 00 C.
Processes of Ideal Gases

Reversible and Irreversible Process

A process commencing from an initial equilibrium state is called

totally reversible if at any time during the process both the system and the
environment with which it interacts can be returned to their initial states.

An overall process is irreversible if either the system or its surroundings

cannot be returned to their initial states.

Irreversibilities
Commonly encountered causes of irreversibilities:

friction, unrestrained expansion, mixing of two fluids, heat transfer

across a finite temperature difference, electric resistance, inelastic
deformation of solids, and chemical reactions.
• Identify the direction of a process. (ex: Heat can only transfer from a hot
object to a cold object, not the other around)

• Can be used to determine the “Quality” of the energy. (ex: A high-

temperature energy source has a higher quality since it is easier to extract
energy from it to deliver useable work.)

• Can be used to exclude the possibilities of constructing 100% efficient heat

engine and any perpetual-motion machines. (Kevin-Planck statement and
Clausius statement)

• Reversible processes and irreversibilities.

• Determine the theoretical limits for the performance of engineering systems.

(ex: A Carnot engine is theoretically the most efficient heat engine and its
performance can be used to set as a standard for other practical machines)
 Disorder vs Order – the meaning of entropy
Entropy – a measure of the disorder of a system

ORDER
(small entropy)

DISORDER
(large entropy)

ORDER to DISORDER: Statistically Likely to happen

Reverse….. Very rarely happens
Converting Thermal Energy to Ordered Energy is rare
 Second Law of Thermodynamics
The entropy of a thermally isolated system of objects
never decreases.

What does this mean ?

Let represent molecules of a COLD gas
and represent molecules of a HOT gas

Which of the following events are likely to happen ?

A.

B.

Natural Flow of Heat is from HOT to COLD !

• A process can not happen unless it satisfies both the first and second laws of
thermodynamics. The first law characterizes the balance of energy which defines the
“quantity” of energy. The second law defines the direction which the process can take
place and its “quality”.

• Define a “Heat Engine”: A device that converts heat energy into work while operating in
a cycle. Ex: A steam power plant.

Q-Wnet=U, U=0 for a cycle

Wnet=QH-QL
Thermal efficiency
th=Wnet/QH=(QH-QL)/QH
TH =1-(QL/QH)

QH Question: Can we produce an 100% heat engine?

QL=0?

Heat engine Wnet

QL
TL
• It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat from a single
reservoir and produces a net amount of work.
• This is a statement without proof, but has not been disproved yet.
• Therefore, the question from previous slide is “NO”. It is not possible to built a heat
engine that is 100%.

• A heat engine has to reject some energy

into a lower temperature sink in order to
complete the cycle.
• TH>TL in order to operate the engine.
TH Therefore, the higher the temperature, the
higher the quality of the energy source since it
can produce useable work to more lower-
QH temperature energy sinks.

Heat engine

Wnet
• A “heat pump” is defined as a device that transfers heat from a low-temperature source
to a high-temperature one. Ex: a heat pump to extract energy from outside cold outdoor air
into the warm indoors.

• Coefficient of Performance (COP): COP=QH/Wnet=QH/(QH-QL)

= 1/(1-QL/QH)

TH • COP>1, ex: a typical heat pump has a COP in the order of 3

QH • Question: can we built a heat pump operating at , that is Wnet=0? QH=QL?

Heat pump Wnet

QL
TL
• It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces no effect
other than the transfer of heat from a lower-temperature body to a higher-temperature
body.
• Also can not be proved, rather depends on experimental observations.
• Heat can not transfer from low temperature to higher temperature unless external work
is added.

• Therefore, it is not possible to built a heat

TH pump without external work input.
QH

Heat pump

QL
TL
 • It can be shown that the violation of the one statement means the violation of the other statement.
They are equivalent.

100% heat engine: against K-P Statement

TH
QL
TH

QH QH+QL
Heat pump

QL
Heat engine Heat pump
TL
Wnet
=QH
QL

Heat transfer from low-temp body to high-

temp body without work- violation of the C-
TL
statement
• A reversible process means there are no irreversibilities exist when a system is
undergoing interaction with its surroundings. Therefore, the process can be
reversed without leaving any trace on its surroundings. Both system and the
surroundings are returned to their initial states. It is an ideal process that can not
happen in reality. However, if the irreversibilities are small enough, some
processes can be approximated as reversible. Ex: a frictionless pendulum, quasi-
equilibrium expansion and compression of gas in a cylinder/piston assembly (in
an idealized Carnot cycle)

• Irreversibilities: friction, sudden expansion and compression, heat transfer

between two bodies with finite temperature difference.
Other statements of the 2nd law include
• No heat pump can transfer thermal energy from a low temperature
to a higher temperature reservoir without work being done on it
(Clausius)
• The entropy of the universe can never decrease

• Entropy
» This is a measure of the disorder of a system
» Most systems, when left, tend towards more disorder
» This is why heat spreads from hot to cold.
» Entropy can decrease in a small part of a system

51
» The 2nd Law was “discovered” by Clausius from numerous observations showing
that if a process is reversible, is path-independent.

 Qrev 
2

1  T 
d

» Any quantity whose change is independent of the path must be a

thermodynamic property .
» Clausius called the property entropy, with the symbol S:


Q 
S 2 − S1 = d  rev 
 T 
1

52
» For irreversible processes, the equality no longer holds. Instead:
2


Q
S 2 − S1  d 
T
1

In irreversible processes, entropy is created!

53
 Changes that happen during a thermodynamic process can
usefully be shown on a pV diagram

54

V
 The area under the graph represents the work done

This area represents the work

done by the gas (on the
surroundings) when it
expands from state A to state
B
B

V 55

What happens if the gas is going from state B to A?

 These take place at constant volume
1.V = constant, so p/T = constant
2. Non-flow work = ʃpdv =0
3. The change in internal energy ,∆U = mCv(T2 –T1 )
p 4. The heat transferred ,Q = mCv(T2 –T1 )
A
5. The Change in Enthalpy, ,∆H= mCp(T2 –T1 )
5. The change of entropy, ∆S= mCvln( T2/T1)
6. Reversible steady flow consttant volume,Wsf
Wsf = _(∆Wf + ∆K+ ∆P)
B

56
Example:
A pound of air at 15psia,300⁰F is heated(V=C) reversibly until its
temperature becomes 600⁰F . Find P2,Q ,W and ∆h and ∆s if a) if the
process is nonflow
b) If the process is steady state ,steady flow with ∆P,=0 ∆K=0.
Given:

V=C
P1= 15psia
T1= 300+460 = 760⁰R
T2= 600+460= 1060⁰R

Solution:

P2= P1(T2/T1) = 15psia(1060/760)= 20.92 psia

a) Q= ∆U + Wn
Wn= 0

Q = ∆u= mCv(T2-T1)= 0.1714Btu/lbm.R( 1060R-760)=51.42 Btu/lbm

∆h= mcp(T2-T1)= 0.24Btu/lbm.R( 1060R-760R)= 72 Btu/lbm

∆s= mCv ln T2/T1 = 0.1714Btu/lbm.R (Ln 1060/760) =0.057Btu/lbm

b) Steady flow

Q = ∆P + ∆K + ∆u + ∆wf + Wsf
51.42 Btu/lbm= 0 + 0 + 51.42 Btu/lbm + p2v2-p1v1 + Wsf
Wsf= -(p2V2-P1V1)

PV=mRT
V= mRT/P = [53.34Ft.lb/lbm.R }(760R)/15psia(144)= 18.77 Ft³/lbm

Wsf= - { 18.77 ft³/lbm[(20.92psia(144)-15psia(1440]}= -16,001.05 Ft.lb/lbm

Wsf= -20. 57Btu/lbm
 These take place at constant pressure
p 1.p = constant, so V/T = constant
2. Non-flow work = ʃpdv =p(V2-V1)
3. The change in internal energy ,∆U = mCv(T2 –T1 )
4. The heat transferred ,Q = mCp(T2 –T1 )
5. The Change in Enthalpy, ,∆H= mCp(T2 –T1 )
5. The change of entropy, ∆S= mCpln (T2/T1)
A B
6. Reversible steady flow consttant volume,Wsf
Wsf = _( ∆K+ ∆P)

Isobaric
expansion 59
Example:

A gas is enclosed in a cylinder with a weighted piston as the top boundary.

The gas is heated and expands from a volume of 0.05m³ to 0.15m³ at a
constant pressure of 250KPa. Find the work done on the system.

Given:

P=C
P= 250Kpa
V1= 0.05m³
V2= 0.15m³

Solution:

W= ʅ Pdv
W= P(V2-V1)

W=250KPa(0.15m³- 0.05m³)
W= 25KJ
 These take place at constant temperature
p

A 1.T = constant, so pV = constant

2. Non-flow work = ʃpdv =p1V1lnV2/V1
3. The change in internal energy ,∆U = 0
4. The heat transferred ,Q = p1V1lnV2/V1
5. The Change in Enthalpy, ,∆H= 0
5. The change of entropy, ∆S= Q/T=mRln( P1/P2)
B 6. Reversible steady flow consttant volume,Wsf
Wsf = Q_( ∆K+ ∆P)

V
Isothermal
expansion
61
Example:

I. In the process where the product of pressure and volume is constant, a

gas compression is carried out from an initial pressure of 250KPa to a final
pressure of 800KPa. The initial specific volume is 0.15 m³/Kg.Determine
the work done per kilogram of gas.

Given:

P1= 250KPa
P2= 800KPa
V1=0.15 m³/Kg

Solution:

P1V1=P2V2
250KPa(0.15m³/Kg) = 800KPa(V2)
V2= 0.0469m³/Kg

W = p1V1LnV2/V1
W= 250KPa(0.15m³/Kg)Ln 0.0469/0.15
W=- 43.6KJ/Kg
p No thermal energy transfer with the surroundings
A (approximately a rapid expansion or contraction)
1. P1V1 K = P2V2K
T2/T1 = (V1/V2)K-1
T2/T1 = (P2/P1)K-1/k
2. Non-flow work = ʃpdv =(p2V2-p1V1)/1-k
3. The change in internal energy ,∆U = mCv(T2 –T1 )
4. The heat transferred ,Q = 0
5. The Change in Enthalpy, ,∆H= mCp(T2 –T1 )
B 5. The change of entropy, ∆S= 0
6. Reversible steady flow isentropic ,Wsf
Wsf = Q_( ∆K+ ∆P+∆H)

Adiabatic
expansion 63
Example:

Three pounds of air initially at 75psia and 650 ⁰F expands isentropically unitl the
temperature is 250 ⁰F. Compute the work done by the gas.

Given:

m= 3lbs
P1= 75Psia
t1= 650⁰F
t2 = 250⁰F

Solution:

W= mR(T2-T1)/1-k
W= 3lbs( 53.34 Ft.lbs/lbs.R) ( 710⁰R-1110⁰R)
(1-1.4) (778)
W = -205.7BTU
References:
1. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/101101001/downloads/Intro-Propulsion