CHAPTER 1 - CLASSIFYING LIVING THINGS

1.1 Concept and use of a classification system

OBJECTIVES:

1. To state that organisms can be classified into groups by the features that they share.

2. To define species as a group of organisms that can reproduce to produce fertile offspring.

3. To define and describe the binomial system of naming species as an internationally agreed system in
which the scientific name of an organism is made up of two parts showing the genus and species

Classification can be defined as grouping organisms according to their structural similarities. This means that or
ganisms that share similar features are placed in one group. These groups are arranged from the largest group of
organisms to the smallest group of organisms.
The groups, from largest to smallest, are arranged as follows:
kingdom, phylum (plural phyla), class, order, family, genus (plural genera) and species.

A species can be defined as a group of organisms with similar features, and these organisms are capable of bree
ding and produce fertile offspring.
Horses and donkeys belong to the same kingdom, phylum, class, order, family as well as genus but they are from
different species. Therefore, if a donkey and the horse happen to breed, they produce an offspring called a mule.
The mule is infertile, meaning that it cannot reproduce offspring because it is a product of organisms of different
species.

Binomial system of naming species

The binomial system of naming species is an internationally agreed system in which the scientific name of an org
anism is made up of two parts showing the genus and the species. Binomial means ‘two names’; the first name gi
ves the genus and the second gives the species.
For example, a wolf belongs to the genus Canis and the species lupus. Its binomial is Canis lupus.

The name of the genus (the generic name) is always given a capital letter and the name of the species (the specif
ic name) always starts with a small letter.
These names are printed in italics. When you write a Latin name, you cannot write in italics, so you should
underline it instead.
The genus name can be abbreviated like this: C. lupus.
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1.2 - Features of organisms

OBJECTIVES:

1. To classify objects into living and non-living things

2. To classify living things into the five kingdoms:

a. bacteria: one celled and no nucleus
b. algae (including plankton): one celled or many celled with nuclei
c. fungi: many celled with cell walls and nuclei
d. plants: many celled with cell walls, cell membranes, chlorophyll and nuclei
e. animals: many celled with cell membranes and nuclei

Kingdom Multicellular or Cell Structure Mode of Nutrition Other Key

Unicellular Features
Animal Multicellular Cells have a nucleus, Feed on organic
but no cell walls or substances made
chloroplast by other living
organisms
Plant Multicellular Cells have a nucleus, Feed by May have roots,
cell walls made of photosynthesis stems and leaves
cellulose and often
contain chloroplasts.

Bacteria Unicellular Have no nucleus, cell Some bacteria can

(single-celled) walls not made of carry out
cellulose photosynthesis

Algae Unicellular or Have a nucleus Have chlorophyll for Have no roots,

multicellular carrying out stems, or leaves
photosynthesis.
Fungus Multicellular Have nuclei. Do not have Feed by
Have cell walls not chlorophyll. saprophytic or
made of cellulose. parasitic nutrition.

The features in the cells of all living organisms, limited to cytoplasm, cell membrane and DNA as genetic
material

All living organisms are made of cells. Some contain only one cell. Others are multicellular and contain many
cells.

Eukaryotes and prokaryotes:

Bacteria are amongst the simplest of organisms - they are made of single cells. Their cell structure is simpler than
the cells of animals, plants and fungi.

Cells of animals, plants and fungi are called eukaryotic cells.

Cells of bacteria are called prokaryotic cells.

The cells of all living organisms contain the following:
Cytoplasm
Cell membrane
DNA as genetic material (either found in the nucleus or free in the cytoplasm)
OBJECTIVES:

3. List the main features used to place organisms into groups within the animal kingdom, limited to:
- the main groups of vertebrates: mammals, birds, reptiles, Amphibians, fish.

4. List the main features used to place organisms into groups within the animal kingdom, limited to:
- the main groups of arthropods: myriapods, insects, arachnids, crustaceans
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1.3 Dichotomous keys

OBJECTIVE:
1. Construct and use simple dichotomous keys based on easily identifiable features

Keys are used to identify organisms based on a series of questions about their features.
– Dichotomous means ‘branching into two’ and it leads the user through to the name of the organism by
giving two descriptions at a time and asking them to choose
– Each choice leads the user onto another two descriptions
– In order to successfully navigate a key, you need to pick a single organism to start with and follow the
statements from the beginning until you find the name
– You then pick another organism and start at the beginning of the key again, repeating until all organisms
are named
 CHAPTER 2 – CELL STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION

2.1 Structure of a simple animal cell and a simple plant cell

OBJECTIVES:

1. To describe and compare the structure of a plant cell with an animal cell, as seen under a light
microscope, limited to cell wall, nucleus, cytoplasm, chloroplasts, vacuoles and location of the cell
membrane
2. To state the functions of the structures seen under the light microscope in the plant cell and in the animal
cell
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2.2 - Levels of organization

OBJECTIVE:

1. To relate the structure of the following to their functions:

– root hair cells – absorption
– xylem vessels – conduction and support
– palisade mesophyll cells – photosynthesis
– ciliated cells – movement of mucus in the trachea and bronchi nerve cells – conduction of impulses
– red blood cells – transport of oxygen
– sperm and egg cells – reproduction
OBJECTIVE:

2. The hierarchical organization of multicellular organisms: from cells to tissues to organs to systems to
organisms
 CHAPTER 3 – Plant Nutrition

3.1 Photosynthesis

OBJECTIVES:

1. To define photosynthesis as the process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates from raw materials
using energy from light.
2. To state the word equation for photosynthesis:

– Green plants make the carbohydrate glucose from the raw materials carbon dioxide and water
– At the same time oxygen is made and released as a waste product
– The reaction requires energy which is obtained by the pigment chlorophyll trapping light from the Sun
– So photosynthesis can be defined as the process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates from raw
materials using energy from light
– It can be summed up in the following equation:

OBJECTIVE:

3. To investigate the necessity for chlorophyll, light and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, using appropriate
controls

A) Is chlorophyll necessary for photosynthesis?

Leaves can be tested for starch using the following procedure:
A leaf is dropped in boiling water to kill and break down the cell walls
The leaf is left for 5-10 minutes in hot ethanol in a boiling tube. This removes the chlorophyll so colour
changes from iodine can be seen more clearly
The leaf is dipped in boiling water to soften it
The leaf is spread out on a white tile and covered with iodine solution
In a green leaf, the entire leaf will turn blue-black as photosynthesis is occuring in all areas of the leaf
This method can also be used to test whether chlorophyll is needed for photosynthesis by using a variegated
leaf (one that is partially green and partially white)
The white areas of the leaf contain no chlorophyll and when the leaf is tested only the areas that contain
chlorophyll stain blue-black
The areas that had no chlorophyll remain orange-brown as no photosynthesis is occurring here and so no
starch is stored
Care must be taken when carrying out this practical as ethanol is extremely flammable, so at that stage of
the experiment the Bunsen burner should be turned off.
The safest way to heat the ethanol is in an electric water bath rather than using a beaker over a Bunsen
burner with an open flame
B) Is light necessary for photosynthesis?
The same procedure as above can be used to investigate if light is needed for photosynthesis
Before starting the experiment the plant needs to be destarched by placing in a dark cupboard for 24 hours
This ensures that any starch already present in the leaves will be used up and will not affect the results of
the experiment
Following destarching, a leave of the plant can be partially covered with aluminium foil and the plant placed
in sunlight for a day
The leaf can then be removed and tested for starch using iodine
The area of the leaf that was covered with aluminium foil will remain orange-brown as it did not receive any
sunlight and could not photosynthesise, while the area exposed to sunlight will turn blue-black
This proves that light is necessary for photosynthesis and the production of starch

C) Is carbon dioxide needed for photosynthesis?

Destarch a plant
Tie a clear bag containing sodium hydroxide, which will absorb carbon dioxide from the surrounding air,
around one leaf
Tie a clear bag containing water (control experiment), which will not absorb carbon dioxide from the
surrounding air, around another leaf
Place the plant in bright light for several hours.
Test both leaves for starch using iodine
The leaf from the bag containing sodium hydroxide will remain orange-brown as it could not photosynthesise
due to lack of carbon dioxide
The leaf from the control bag containing water should turn blue-black as it had all necessary requirements for
photosynthesis
OBJECTIVE:

4. To investigate and describe the effects of varying light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and
temperature on the rate of photosynthesis e.g. in submerged aquatic plants

A) What is the effect of changing light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis?

The plants usually used are Elodea or Camboba – types of pondweed

As photosynthesis occurs, oxygen gas produced is released
As the plant is in water, the oxygen released can be seen as bubbles leaving the cut end of the pondweed
The number of bubbles produced over a minute can be counted to record the rate
The more bubbles produced per minute, the faster the rate of photosynthesis
A more accurate version of this experiment is to collect the oxygen released in a test tube inverted over the top of
the pondweed over a longer period of time and then measure the volume of oxygen collected

Prepare a beaker of water or a boiling tube, into which a spatula end of sodium hydrogencarbonate has been
stirred (this dissolves rapidly and saturates the water with carbon dioxide, so CO2 is not a limiting factor).
Collect a fresh piece of Canadian pondweed and cut one end of the stem, using a scalpel blade.
Attach a piece of modelling clay or paperclip to the stem and put it into the beaker (or boiling tube).
Set up a light source 10 cm away from the beaker and switch on the lamp (Figure 6.7). Bubbles should start
appearing from the cut end of the plant stem. Count the number of bubbles over a fixed time e.g. 1 minute
and record the result. Repeat the count.
Now move the light source so that it is 20 cm from the beaker. Switch on the lamp and leave it for a few
minutes, to allow the plant to adjust to the new light intensity. Count the bubbles as before and record the
results.
Repeat the procedure so that the numbers of bubbles for at least fi ve different distances have been
recorded. Also, try switching off the bench lamp and observe any change in the production of bubbles.
There is a relationship between the distance of the lamp from the plant and the light intensity received by the
plant. Light intensity = 1/D2 where D = distance.
B) What is the effect of changing carbon dioxide concentration on the rate of photosynthesis?

Care must be taken when investigating a condition to keep all other variables constant in order to ensure a
fair test
For example, when investigating changing light intensity, a glass tank should be placed in between the lamp
and the beaker to absorb heat from the lamp and so avoid changing the temperature of the water as well as
the light intensity

C) What is the effect of changing temperature on the rate of photosynthesis?

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3.2 Leaf structure
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OBJECTIVES:

5. Leaf structure: To identify chloroplasts, cuticle, guard cells and stomata, upper and lower epidermis,
palisade mesophyll, spongy mesophyll, vascular bundles, xylem and phloem in leaves of a
dicotyledonous plant

6. Project: Glasshouse Systems: Identify the use of carbon dioxide enrichment, optimum light and optimum
temperatures in greenhouse systems
 CHAPTER 4 – INTERDEPENDENCE OF ORGANISMS

4.1 Food chains and food webs

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OBJECTIVES:

1. To define a food chain as showing the transfer of energy from one organism to the next, beginning with a
producer
2. State that energy is transferred between organisms in a food chain by ingestion
3. Construct simple food chains and food webs
4. Use food chains and food webs to describe the impacts humans have through over-harvesting of food
species and through introducing foreign species to a habitat

Key definitions:

A food chain shows the transfer of energy from one organism to the next, beginning with a producer.
A food web is a network of interconnected food chains.
A producer is an organism that makes its own organic nutrients, usually using energy from sunlight, through
photosynthesis.
A consumer is an organism that gets its energy from feeding on other organisms.
A herbivore is an animal that gets its energy by eating plants.
A carnivore is an animal that gets its energy by eating other animals.
A decomposer is an organism that gets its energy from dead or waste organic material.

Food chains
One important way in which organisms depend on each other is for their food.
Many animals, such as rabbits, feed on plants. Such animals are called
herbivores. Animals that eat other animals are called carnivores. A predator is
a carnivore that kills and eats other animals. A fox is a predator that preys on
rabbits. Scavengers are carnivores that eat the dead remains of animals killed
by predators. These are not hard and fast definitions. Predators will
sometimes scavenge for their food and scavengers may occasionally kill living
animals. Animals obtain their energy by ingestion.

Basically, all animals depend on plants for their food. Foxes may eat rabbits,
but rabbits feed on grass. A hawk eats a lizard, the lizard has just eaten a
grasshopper but the grasshopper was feeding on a grass blade. This
relationship is called a food chain.

Food Webs
A food web is a network of interconnected food chains
Food webs are more realistic ways of showing connections between organisms within an ecosystem as animals
rarely exist on just one type of food source
Food webs give us a lot more information about the transfer of energy in an ecosystem
They also show interdependence – how the change in one population can affect others within the food web
For example, in the food web above, if the population of insects decreased:
The population of grass plants would increase as there are now less species feeding off them
The populations of frogs and voles would decrease significantly as insects are their only food source
The population of thrushes would decrease slightly as they eat insects but also have another food source to rely
on (slugs)
Most of the changes in populations of animals and plants happen as a result of human impact – either by
overharvesting of food species or by introduction of foreign species to a habitat
Due to interdependence, these can have long-lasting knock-on effects to organisms throughout a food chain or
web.
OBJECTIVES:

5. Draw, describe and interpret pyramids of Numbers

6. Draw, describe and interpret pyramids of Biomass

Pyramid of Numbers
– A pyramid of numbers shows how many organisms we are talking about at each level of a food chain.
– The width of the box indicates the number of organisms at that trophic level
– For example, consider the following food chain:

Despite the name (and the example above), a pyramid of numbers doesn’t always have to be pyramid-shaped,
for example:

This is because the size of the organism is also important – one large organism, like the oak tree in the pyramid
above, contains enough energy to support many smaller organisms (the insects)
Rules to remember when drawing a pyramid of numbers:
You cannot change the trophic level of the organisms – they must stay in the same order as in the food chain with
producers on the bottom, followed by primary consumers, then secondary consumers, then tertiary consumers
Generally, the larger an individual organism is, the less of them there are

Pyramid of Biomass
A pyramid of biomass shows how much mass the creatures at each level would have without including all the
water that is in the organisms (their ‘dry mass’)
Pyramids of biomass are ALWAYS pyramid-shaped, regardless of what the pyramid of numbers for that food
chain looks like
This is because the mass of organisms has to decrease as you go up a food chain – if we take our first food chain
as an example, it’s impossible to have 10kg of grass feeding 50kg of voles feeding 100kg of barn owls
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4.2 Nutrient cycle
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OBJECTIVES:

1. To describe the role of Carbon cycle, in the cycling of nutrients in the ecosystem.
2. To describe the role of Nitrogen cycle in the cycling of nutrients in the ecosystem
3. To describe the role of water cycle in the cycling of nutrients in the ecosystem.

The Carbon Cycle:

Nutrients such as carbon and nitrogen are not endless resources
There is a finite amount of each element on the planet and as such, they need to be recycled in order to allow
new organisms to be made and grow
Carbon is taken out of the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide by plants to be used for photosynthesis
It is passed on to animals (and microorganisms) by feeding
It is returned to the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide by plants, animals and microorganisms as a result of
respiration
If animals and plants die in conditions where decomposing microorganisms are not present the carbon in their
bodies can be converted, over millions of years and significant pressure, into fossil fuels
When fossil fuels are burned (the process is known as combustion), the carbon combines with oxygen and carbon
dioxide is released into the atmosphere
Increased use of fossil fuels is contributing to an increase in the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere
In addition, mass deforestation is reducing the amount of producers available to take carbon dioxide out of the
atmosphere by photosynthesis
This problem is exacerbated by the fact that in many areas of the world, deforestation is taking place for land
rather than for the trees themselves, and as such they are burnt down, releasing yet more carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere
The Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen as an element is required to make proteins
Neither plants nor animals can absorb it from the air as N2 gas is very stable and the bonds holding the nitrogen
atoms together would need massive amounts of energy to break (the two nitrogen atoms in a nitrogen molecule
are held together by a triple covalent bond)
However, there are two ways it can be taken out of the air and converted into something easier to absorb:
Nitrogen fixing bacteria found ‘free living’ in soil and also in the root nodules of certain plants (peas, beans, clover
– we call them leguminous plants) take N2 gas and change it into nitrates in the soil
Lightning can ‘fix’ N2 gas, splitting the bond between the two atoms and turning them into nitrous oxides like N2O
and NO2 that dissolve in rainwater and ‘leach’ into the soil
Plants absorb the nitrates they find in the soil and use the nitrogen in them to make proteins
Animals eat the plants (or other animals) and get the nitrogen they need from the proteins in the plant or animal
Waste (urine and faeces) from animals sends nitrogen back into the soil as ammonium compounds (the urea in
urine contains nitrogen)
When the animals and plants die, they decay and all the proteins inside them are broken down into ammonium
compounds and put back into the soil by decomposers
The plants can’t absorb ammonium compounds though, so a second type of soil bacteria, nitrifying bacteria,
convert the ammonium compounds to nitrites and then to nitrates, which can then be absorbed by plants – and so
the cycle goes on
Finally, there is a third, unhelpful type of (anaerobic) bacteria called denitrifying bacteria found in poorly aerated
soil (ie not much oxygen)
These bacteria take the nitrates out of the soil and convert them back into N2 gas
Farmers can help reduce the amount of these unhelpful bacteria by ploughing and turning over soil
The Water Cycle
Water molecules move between various locations – such as rivers, oceans and the atmosphere – by specific
processes
This is possible because water changes state at a relatively low temperature
Water enters the atmosphere as water vapour in one of two processes:
Energy from the Sun heats the Earth’s surface and water evaporates from oceans, rivers and lakes
Transpiration from plants releases water vapour into the air
The warmer air of the lower atmosphere rises, taking the water vapour with it
The moist air cools down as it rises
Water vapour condenses back into liquid water, forming clouds
Water returns to Earth in the form of precipitation
As the water droplets in the cloud get bigger and heavier, they begin to fall as rain, snow and sleet
This is called
precipitation

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4.3 Population size
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OBJECTIVES:

1. Identify and explain the phases of a sigmoid population growth curve

2. Describe the factors affecting the rate of population growth for a population of an organism.
3. Describe and interpret Age Pyramids.
4. State the reasons for the increase in size of the human population.

A population is a group of organisms of one species, living and interacting in the same area at the same time.
A community is all of the populations of different species in an ecosystem.
An ecosystem is a unit containing the community of organisms and their environment, interacting together.
Examples include a decomposing log or a lake.
Growth Curves
If the growth of microorganisms in a fermenter is measured over time, the population growth looks like the graph
below.

A typical growth curve for a population in an enclosed environment

The shape of this curve ( a little like an ‘S’), gives it its name – a sigmoid growth curve
The curve has four distinct phases:
Lag phase – organisms are adapting to the environment before they are able to reproduce; in addition, at this
stage there are very few organisms and so reproduction is not producing larger numbers of offspring.

Log phase (aka exponential phase) – food supply is abundant, birth rate is rapid and death rate is low; growth is
exponential and only limited by the number of new individuals that can be produced.

Stationary phase – population levels out due to a factor in the environment, such as a nutrient, becoming limited
as it is not being replenished; birth rate and death rate are equal and will remain so until either the nutrient is
replenished or becomes severely limited.

Death phase – population decreases as death rate is now greater than birth rate; this is usually because food
supply is short or metabolic wastes produced by the population have built up to toxic levels.

Organisms in a natural environment are unlikely to show population growth like a sigmoid growth curve because
they are affected by Abiotic and biotic limiting factors:
– Plant populations will be affected by abiotic ( non-biological) factors such as rainfall, temperature and light
intensity.
– Biotic (biological) factors affecting plants include their leaves being eaten by browsing and grazing
animals or by caterpillars and other insects, and the spread of fungus disease.
– Animal populations will to be limited by these factors.
– The size of an animal population will also be affected by immigration and emigration.
Age Pyramids:

The population structure of a country is how it is made up of people of different ages, and of different gender.
The common method to show the structure is by a population pyramid.
This diagram is made up by putting two bar graphs (one for male, one for female) side by side.
This depicts:
– The ratio between males and females.
– Age
– Birth and death rate
– Life expectancy.
– % age of old age people.
– Economically/Non-economically dependent people.

Birth rate: number of new born babies per 1000 of population per year. In developing countries birth rate is usually
high whereas in the developed countries it is usually low.

Death rate: Number of deaths per 1000 of population per year. Death rate is usually high in developing countries
and low in developed countries.

Life expectancy: Number of years a person is expected to live is called life expectancy. This is higher in
developed countries and low in developing countries.

Infant mortality rate; Number of newly born babies below 1 Year of age dying per 1000 of population per year.
Infant mortality rate is higher in developing countries.
Human population growth is growing exponentially
There are many reasons for this exponential growth, including:
Improved technology leading to an abundance of food = rapid increase in birth rate
Improved medicine, hygiene and health care = decrease in death rate
 PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS
Aim:
To prepare stained temporary mount of onion peel cells and to record observations.

Materials required:
Onion, plain slides, coverslip, watch glass, needles, forceps, brush, blade, safranin, blotting paper, glycerine and
compound microscope.

Procedure:
1. Take a piece of onion and bend it to remove the transparent membranous structure called onion epidermal
peel. With help of forcep remove the peel from its inner side.
2. Place the peel in water in a watch glass.
3. Add a few drops of stain safranin, to the watch glass containing the peel for staining.
4. Now, wash the leaf peel with water and transfer it on to a clean slide with the help of brush.
5. Remove extra water from the slide surrounding the peel with the help of blotting paper.
6. To this slide, add a drop of glycerine over the peel and place the coverslip in a manner to avoid entry of air
bubbles.
7. Soak away the extra glycerine with blotting paper.
8. Examine slide under the microscope.
 Animal Cell

Aim:
To prepare stained temporary mount of human cheek cells and to record observations.

Materials required:
Slide, coverslip, needle, blotting paper, tooth pick, methylene blue, watch glass, compound microscope.

Procedure:
1. Rinse your mouth to remove any food particles.
2. With the help of the toothpick scrap the inner side of the cheek to get some epithelial cells.
3. Place the scrappings in a drop of water over a clean slide.
4. Spread the scrappings with the help of needle.
5. Add a drop of methylene blue over the slide.
6. Wait for 2 minutes and then remove the extra stain with blotting paper.
7. Add a drop of glycerine on the slide.
8. With the help of needle, gently place the coverslip over the slide to avoid entry of air bubbles.
9. Observe the slide under the microscope.