UNIT-1

1. Define Data Communication

Data communication refers to the exchange of data between two or more devices via a
transmission medium such as wire cables or wireless systems. It involves the transfer of digital
or analog data using various protocols.

2. Write down the seven layers of computer network

The seven layers of the OSI model are:

1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer

3. Define a socket
A socket is an endpoint for sending or receiving data across a computer network. It acts as an
interface between the application and the transport layer, using IP address and port number.

4. Mention the types of HTTP messages

The two main types of HTTP messages are:

1. Request Message – sent by the client to initiate a transaction.

2. Response Message – sent by the server as a reply to the request.

5. How would you discover MIME types and subtypes?

MIME types and subtypes can be discovered through:

1. File extension analysis

2. Server configuration or headers in HTTP
3. Using MIME database or system commands like file or mime.types

6. Why do we need the POP3 protocol?

POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3) is used to retrieve emails from a mail server. It allows
users to download emails to their local devices and read them offline. It simplifies mail
management for users with limited storage on the server.

7. Mention the different levels in domain name space

Domain name space consists of:

1. Root Level – Represented by a dot (.)

2. Top-Level Domain (TLD) – e.g., .com, .org, .edu
3. Second-Level Domain – e.g., example in example.com
 4. Subdomain – e.g., www in www.example.com

8. Write down the uses of FTP and SMTP protocol

• FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is used to transfer files between a client and server.
• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is used to send and relay email messages
between mail servers.

9. Draw the diagram for ring and bus topology

10. Identify the three basic pieces of MIME with example

The three pieces of MIME are:

1. Content-Type: Specifies the data type, e.g., text/html

2. Content-Transfer-Encoding: Specifies encoding method, e.g., base64
3. Content-Disposition: Indicates how the content should be displayed, e.g., attachment;
filename="file.pdf"

11. What does the Protocol suite mean?

A protocol suite is a set of communication protocols used together to provide network services.
The most common suite is the TCP/IP protocol suite, which includes protocols like IP, TCP,
UDP, HTTP, FTP, etc.

12. Write down the advantages and disadvantages of layering of computer network
Advantages:

• Simplifies design and implementation

• Modular approach enables troubleshooting
• Interoperability across vendors

Disadvantages:

• Overhead due to additional layers

• Duplication of services in different layers

13. Are there any security breaches present in the application layer?
Yes, the application layer is vulnerable to several security breaches such as:

• Phishing
• Cross-site scripting (XSS)
• SQL Injection
• Malware through file transfers

14. List out the protocols available in the application layer

Some common application layer protocols are:
 • HTTP
• FTP
• SMTP
• POP3
• DNS
• SNMP
• Telnet

15. Outline the need of DNS

DNS (Domain Name System) translates human-readable domain names (e.g., google.com) into IP
addresses. It simplifies access to websites without needing to remember numeric IP addresses, ensuring
efficient and user-friendly internet navigation.

16. Differentiate IMAP and POP

• IMAP stores emails on the server and allows access from multiple devices.
• POP downloads emails to one device and usually deletes them from the server.

17. What are the types of communication modes available?

1. Simplex – One-way communication

2. Half-Duplex – Two-way communication but one at a time
3. Full-Duplex – Two-way communication simultaneously

18. What is the difference between MAC address and IP address?

• MAC Address is a hardware identifier assigned to network interfaces.

• IP Address is a logical address used to identify devices on a network.

19. What are the functions of SNMP protocol?

SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) is used to monitor, manage, and configure
network devices like routers, switches, and servers.

20. What are the different types of network topology?

21. Which layer implements the node-to-node channel connection in OSI architecture?

The Data Link Layer establishes and manages node-to-node channel connections in the OSI
model.

22. What is the similarity between transport layer and data link layer?
Both layers ensure reliable data transfer:

• Data Link Layer does it between directly connected nodes.

• Transport Layer does it between end systems across the network.
23. Differentiate IMAP and SMTP

• IMAP is used by clients to read and manage emails stored on the server.
• SMTP is used to send emails from clients to servers or between servers.

24. What is the use of SNMP protocol in a network?

SNMP helps in monitoring and managing network devices by collecting performance data and
configuring settings remotely.

UNIT-2

1. List the functions of Transport protocol

• Reliable data transfer

• Flow control
• Congestion control
• Multiplexing/demultiplexing
• Error detection and correction

2. Summarize IP addresses versus port numbers

• IP Address identifies a host in a network.

• Port Number identifies a specific process or service on a host.

3. List the different phases used in TCP connection

1. Connection Establishment
2. Data Transfer
3. Connection Termination

4. Identify when an application can make use of UDP

Applications use UDP when low latency and speed are more important than reliability, e.g., video
streaming, VoIP, online gaming.

5. Difference between UDP & TCP protocol

• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is connection-oriented, ensures reliable data

transfer, uses error-checking and flow control.
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is connectionless, faster, but does not guarantee
delivery, order, or error correction.
• TCP is used for reliable applications (e.g., HTTP, FTP); UDP is used for time-sensitive
apps (e.g., VoIP, DNS).

6. List the various congestion control techniques in TCP

• Slow Start – Begins with a small congestion window and increases it exponentially.
 • Congestion Avoidance – Gradually increases window to avoid congestion.
• Fast Retransmit – Resends a lost packet without waiting for timeout.
• Fast Recovery – Adjusts window size after packet loss to quickly resume transmission.

7. Classify the advantages of connection-oriented services over connectionless services

• Reliable delivery – Ensures data is received correctly and in order.

• Flow control – Prevents overwhelming the receiver.
• Error checking & correction – Detects and recovers from transmission errors.

8. Justify that TCP is a reliable byte stream protocol

• TCP ensures data integrity using checksums, retransmits lost packets, and
acknowledges received data.
• It uses sequence numbers and flow control to ensure ordered, complete, and error-free
delivery.

9. What is the meaning of congestion avoidance?

• Congestion avoidance is a TCP mechanism to prevent network congestion by

gradually increasing the transmission rate and detecting early signs of congestion.

10. How can we measure the Quality of Service in Transport Layer?

• QoS is measured using parameters like throughput (data rate), latency (delay), packet
loss rate, and jitter (variation in delay).

11. What is the meaning of handshake process in transport layer?

• Handshake refers to the initial setup of a connection. In TCP, it is a three-way

handshake (SYN, SYN-ACK, ACK) to establish reliable communication.

12. Write down the devices/software used in transport layer

• Devices: Computers, routers (with transport layer functions).

• Software: Protocols like TCP, UDP, and tools like Netcat, Wireshark, socket APIs.

13. Are there any security breaches present in the transport layer?

• Yes, attacks like TCP spoofing, session hijacking, port scanning, and SYN flooding
exploit transport layer vulnerabilities.

14. What do you mean by slow start in TCP congestion?

• Slow Start is a TCP congestion control algorithm that begins with a small congestion
window (cwnd) and doubles cwnd each round-trip time (RTT).
 • It helps probe the network capacity gradually to avoid sudden congestion.
• It continues until a threshold is reached or packet loss occurs.

15. Identify how a well-known port differs from an ephemeral port

• Well-known ports (0–1023) are reserved for standard services (e.g., HTTP - 80, FTP -
21).
• Ephemeral ports (1024–65535) are temporary ports assigned to client processes for
communication.
• Well-known ports are assigned by IANA; ephemeral ports are dynamically assigned.

16. What are the uses of DECbit and RED?

• DECbit: A congestion notification mechanism where routers set a bit in packet headers if
congestion is likely, prompting senders to reduce rate.
• RED (Random Early Detection): Proactively drops packets before the queue is full to
signal impending congestion and avoid packet loss bursts.

17. How does UDP address flow control mechanisms?

• UDP does not implement flow control; it sends data without managing the rate or
acknowledging receipt.
• Flow control must be handled by the application layer if required.
• This design keeps UDP lightweight and fast.

18. Classify the services provided by Transport layer protocol

• Reliable data transfer (TCP)

• Error detection (via checksums)
• Flow control (TCP window mechanism)
• Congestion control (in TCP)
• Multiplexing/demultiplexing using ports

19. List the flags used in TCP header

• URG – Urgent pointer field significant

• ACK – Acknowledgment field significant
• PSH – Push function
• RST – Reset connection
• SYN – Synchronize sequence numbers
• FIN – Terminate connection

20. What is a socket address?

• A socket address is the combination of an IP address and a port number.

• It uniquely identifies a communication endpoint on the network.
21. Explain the responsibility of URG and SYN flag

• URG: Indicates urgent data; instructs the receiver to prioritize data pointed by the
urgent pointer.
• SYN: Used during connection establishment to synchronize sequence numbers (part of
the 3-way handshake).

22. Analyze how RTT is computed

• Round Trip Time (RTT) is the time between sending a segment and receiving its
acknowledgment.
• Measured using:
RTT = Time ACK received – Time segment sent
• TCP uses RTT to dynamically adjust timeouts for retransmissions.

23. What are the fields on which the UDP checksum is calculated?

• The UDP checksum is calculated over:

1. UDP header and data,
2. Pseudo-header (includes source IP, destination IP, protocol, UDP length)
• This ensures data integrity during transmission.

24. What is meant by segmentation?

• Segmentation is the process of dividing large messages into smaller units (segments) for
transmission.
• Each segment is sent independently and reassembled at the destination.

UNIT-3

1. List the protocols available in the network layer.

• Internet Protocol (IP – IPv4, IPv6)

• ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)
• IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol)
• ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
• RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol)
• IPsec (Internet Protocol Security)

2. List the devices used in the network layer.

• Routers
• Layer 3 Switches
• Gateways
• Firewalls (with Layer 3 functionality)
3. Define subnet.
A subnet is a smaller network within a larger IP network, created by dividing the network into
multiple segments using a subnet mask. It helps improve routing efficiency and enhances
network security.

4. Compare IPv4 and IPv6 addressing.

Feature IPv4 IPv6

Address Size 32 bits 128 bits
Address Format Decimal (e.g., 192.168.1.1) Hexadecimal (e.g., 2001:db8::1)
Address Space ~4.3 billion addresses Vast (2^128) addresses

5. Define datagram and virtual circuit packet switching.

• Datagram Packet Switching: Each packet is treated independently and may take
different paths to the destination.
• Virtual Circuit Packet Switching: A pre-defined path is established before packets are
sent, and all packets follow this path.

6. What is the advantage of NAT?

NAT (Network Address Translation) allows multiple devices on a private network to share a
single public IP address. It conserves IP addresses, adds a layer of security, and hides internal
network structure from external users.

7. Write the process of ARP and RARP protocol.

• ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) maps an IP address to a MAC address. A host

broadcasts an ARP request and receives the MAC address in an ARP reply.
• RARP (Reverse ARP) maps a known MAC address to its IP address. It's used by
diskless systems to find their IP address at startup.

8. What is bit stuffing? Given the sequence of bits 1101011111010111110010111110110,

how would you remove any stuffed bits to obtain the original frame? What errors might
have been introduced into the frame during transmission?

• Bit Stuffing: Inserting a ‘0’ after five consecutive ‘1’s to prevent confusion with frame
delimiters.
• Removing stuffed bits: Delete any ‘0’ that follows five consecutive ‘1’s.
• Errors: Bit errors due to noise, synchronization issues, or incorrect stuffing can lead to
frame misinterpretation.

9. Is the ICMP protocol involved in the ARP process? How?

No, ICMP is not directly involved in the ARP process. ARP operates at the data link and
network layers to resolve MAC addresses. ICMP is used for error reporting and diagnostics
(e.g., ping), not address resolution.
10. What is DHCP and write down the disadvantages of DHCP.

• DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) automatically assigns IP addresses and

other network settings to devices.
• Disadvantages:
o Dependency on a central server
o Potential for IP conflicts if misconfigured
o Less control over static IP assignments

11. What is the function of Internet Protocol?

The Internet Protocol (IP) is responsible for addressing, routing, and delivering packets
from the source host to the destination host across networks. It ensures each packet reaches the
correct address using IP addressing and routing tables.

12. What are the different classes of IP address? Give its range.

• Class A: 1.0.0.0 to 126.255.255.255

• Class B: 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255
• Class C: 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255
• Class D: 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255 (Multicast)
• Class E: 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255 (Experimental)

13. What is the default gateway? Why is it important?

A default gateway is a router that connects a local network to other networks or the internet. It is
important because it allows devices to communicate outside their local subnet, such as accessing external
websites.

14. Find the class of the following IP address:

(a) 110.34.56.45 – Class A
(b) 212.208.63.23 – Class C

• IPs starting with 1–126: Class A

• 128–191: Class B
• 192–223: Class C

15. Write the functions of Router and Switch.

• Router: Connects different networks and routes data based on IP addresses.

• Switch: Connects devices within the same network and forwards data using MAC
addresses.

16. What is the use of a port in a switch?

A port in a switch connects network devices. Each port forwards frames to the correct
destination device by learning and using MAC addresses, thus reducing network collisions.

17. Compare Manual IP addressing and DHCP IP addressing.

 Feature Manual IP DHCP IP
Assignment User-configured Automatic via DHCP server
Flexibility Less flexible Highly flexible
Errors Prone to conflicts Minimizes conflicts

18. What is the importance of Subnet Mask?

A subnet mask determines which portion of an IP address is the network and which is the host.
It is essential for routing packets and organizing IP networks efficiently.

19. What are the metrics used by routing protocols?

• Hop count
• Bandwidth
• Delay
• Reliability
• Load
• Cost
These metrics help select the best path for packet forwarding.

20. Define Classful and Classless IP addressing.

• Classful Addressing: Uses fixed IP address classes (A, B, C) with default subnet masks.
• Classless Addressing (CIDR): Ignores default classes, allowing variable-length subnet
masks for better IP utilization.

21. Describe the importance of the Time-to-Live (TTL) field in an IP packet.

The TTL field limits the lifespan of a packet. Each router decreases TTL by 1; if TTL reaches 0,
the packet is discarded. This prevents infinite loops in the network.

22. What is the purpose of ARP?

ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) resolves an IP address to a MAC address within a local
network. It enables proper delivery of data frames to the correct physical device.

23. Explain the concept of subnetting in IP networks.

Subnetting divides a large IP network into smaller sub-networks (subnets). It improves routing
efficiency, enhances security, and allows better IP address management.

24. Describe whether 192.168.1.10 belongs to the subnet 192.168.1.0/24.

Yes, 192.168.1.10 belongs to 192.168.1.0/24, since the /24 subnet mask (255.255.255.0)
includes IP addresses from 192.168.1.0 to 192.168.1.255.

UNIT-4

1. Compare unicast and multicast addressing.

 Aspect Unicast Addressing Multicast Addressing
Communication One-to-one One-to-many
Use case Sending data to a single destination Sending data to multiple selected
hosts
Efficiency Less efficient for group Efficient for group-based
communication communication

2. What are the metrics used by routing protocols?

• Hop count
• Bandwidth
• Delay
• Load
• Reliability
• MTU (Maximum Transmission Unit)
These metrics help determine the best route for forwarding packets.

3. What is the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)?

BGP is a path-vector routing protocol used to exchange routing information between
autonomous systems (AS) on the internet. It is the main protocol that manages how packets are
routed across the global internet.

4. Write the BGP Message types.

The BGP message types are:

• OPEN – Establishes a session between BGP peers

• UPDATE – Advertises or withdraws routes
• KEEPALIVE – Maintains the connection by preventing timeout
• NOTIFICATION – Signals errors and closes the session

5. Differentiate between forwarding table and routing table.

Feature Routing Table Forwarding Table

Purpose Determines best path to destination Used for actual packet forwarding
Created by Routing protocols Operating system/kernel from routing table
Contains Multiple paths and metrics Final next-hop decisions only

6. Define routing.
Routing is the process of selecting a path in a network along which to send data packets from
source to destination. It involves using routing tables and protocols to determine the best route.

7. Identify all the metrics used by routing protocols.

• Hop Count
• Bandwidth
• Delay
 • Reliability
• Load
• MTU
These are used to evaluate and compare potential paths in routing.

8. How can the routing be classified?

Routing can be classified as:

• Static Routing – Manually configured routes

• Dynamic Routing – Automatically learned routes using protocols like OSPF, RIP, BGP
• Default Routing – Routes packets to a default path when no specific match is found

9. Recommend the benefits of Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) protocol.

• Efficient routing using link-state algorithm

• Faster convergence compared to RIP
• Supports large networks with hierarchical design
• Uses cost metric, allowing more accurate path selection
• Supports authentication, improving security

10. Illustrate about all the metrics used by routing protocols.

Routing metrics are values used to choose the best path:

• Hop Count – Number of intermediate devices.

• Bandwidth – Capacity of the link.
• Delay – Time taken for data to travel.
• Load – Traffic on the link.
• Reliability – Error rate or link stability.
• MTU – Maximum size of a packet supported.

11. Analyze how routers differentiate the incoming unicast, multicast, and broadcast IP
packets.

• Unicast: Destination IP is a specific host (e.g., 192.168.1.1).

• Multicast: IP falls in 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255 range.
• Broadcast: Destination is all devices in the subnet (e.g., 255.255.255.255).
Routers identify based on destination address and route accordingly.

12. What is multicast routing?

Multicast routing sends data from one source to multiple selected receivers. It uses special
multicast addresses and protocols like PIM to efficiently deliver data without sending duplicates
on each path.

13. What is meant by hop count?

Hop count is the number of routers a packet passes through from source to destination. It is a
basic routing metric used to determine the shortest or best path.
14. How do routers get the information about neighbors in Link State Routing?
Routers exchange Hello packets to discover neighbors. Then they send Link State
Advertisements (LSAs) containing info about links to all routers in the area. Each router builds
a full map of the network using this data.

15. Show the need for a network layer.

The network layer is needed for:

• Routing packets between different networks

• Logical addressing (IP addresses)
• Handling packet forwarding, fragmentation, and inter-network communication

16. Why is the routing algorithm required?

A routing algorithm determines the best path for data to travel across networks. It ensures
efficient, loop-free, and reliable delivery of packets to their destinations.

17. What is link state routing?

Link State Routing is a routing method where routers have a complete map of the network.
Each router independently calculates the shortest path using algorithms like Dijkstra’s based on
link state information.

18. Discover the OSPF header format.

OSPF packet header contains:

• Version
• Type (Hello, DB Description, etc.)
• Packet Length
• Router ID
• Area ID
• Checksum
• Authentication Type and Data

19. Differentiate Link State and Distance Vector routing protocols.

Feature Link State Routing Distance Vector Routing

Routing View Full map of the network Knows only neighbors' paths
Updates Triggered or periodic LSAs Periodic full table updates
Convergence Fast Slower
Protocols OSPF, IS-IS RIP, IGRP

20. Define Reliable flooding.

Reliable flooding ensures that link state information (LSAs) is distributed to all routers without
duplication or loss. It includes acknowledgment and retransmission to guarantee delivery.
21. What are the features in OSPF?

• Link state protocol

• Supports authentication
• Fast convergence
• Hierarchical routing (areas)
• Uses cost metric for routing decisions
• Supports CIDR and VLSM

22. What is the role of a default gateway in a network?

A default gateway allows devices to send data to destinations outside their local subnet. It
serves as the next hop for all traffic destined for unknown networks.

23. What is Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM), and how does it work?
PIM is a multicast routing protocol that works independently of the underlying unicast routing
protocol. It builds multicast distribution trees using unicast routing information. PIM modes
include:

• Dense Mode: Flood and prune method

• Sparse Mode: Uses Rendezvous Points for group joining

24. How does PIM interact with other unicast routing protocols like OSPF or
BGP?

Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM) interacts with unicast routing protocols like OSPF or
BGP by using their routing tables to make multicast forwarding decisions. It performs a Reverse
Path Forwarding (RPF) check using the unicast routing information to ensure packets arrive on
the correct interface. PIM does not exchange routing data with OSPF or BGP directly, but
depends on them to provide accurate unicast paths.

UNIT-5

1. What do you understand about the CSMA protocol?

Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) is a protocol where a device checks if the
communication channel is free before transmitting. It helps reduce collisions in shared networks
like Ethernet.

2. What is HDLC?
HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control) is a bit-oriented protocol that provides framing, error
detection, and flow control for reliable data transfer over point-to-point and multipoint links.

3. Outline the services provided by the Data Link Layer.

The data link layer provides:

• Framing
 • Error detection
• Flow control
• Access control
These ensure reliable and orderly communication between nodes.

4. What is flow control and error control?

Flow control prevents a fast sender from overwhelming a slow receiver.
Error control detects and corrects transmission errors to ensure reliable communication.

5. What are the three different configurations supported by HDLC?

• Normal Response Mode (NRM)

• Asynchronous Response Mode (ARM)
• Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM)

7. Relate persistent CSMA with non-persistent CSMA.

• Persistent CSMA: The device continuously senses the channel and transmits
immediately when it’s free.
• Non-persistent CSMA: The device waits for a random time if the channel is busy before
sensing again, reducing collisions.

8. Examine the term Piggybacking.

Piggybacking is a technique where acknowledgment for received data is sent along with
outgoing data frames, reducing the number of control messages and improving efficiency.

9. Why 802.0 and List out the other standards?

IEEE 802.0 defines the overall architecture for LAN/MAN standards.
Other standards include:

• 802.3 (Ethernet)
• 802.11 (Wireless LAN)
• 802.5 (Token Ring)
• 802.15 (WPAN)
• 802.16 (WiMAX)

10. Examine the access method used by wireless LAN?

Wireless LANs primarily use CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Avoidance) to minimize collisions by sensing the channel and using acknowledgments and
backoff timers. It is suitable for the unreliable wireless medium.

11. What is the purpose of a MAC Address?

A MAC address uniquely identifies a device on the local network and is used for addressing
frames at the Data Link Layer.

12. Write about the Hubs and switches.

 • Hub: A simple device that broadcasts incoming data to all ports; works at physical layer.
• Switch: A smarter device that forwards data only to the destination port based on MAC
addresses; operates at Data Link Layer.

13. Why VLAN Required?

VLANs segment a physical network into multiple logical networks to improve security, reduce
broadcast traffic, and simplify network management.

14. What are the parameters used to measure performance in transmission media?

• Bandwidth
• Attenuation
• Noise
• Delay
• Error rate

15. What is the purpose of Ethernet?

Ethernet is a LAN technology designed for fast, reliable, and cost-effective data communication
using CSMA/CD as its access method.

16. What are the different transmission mediums available?

• Twisted pair cable

• Coaxial cable
• Fiber optic cable
• Wireless (radio waves, infrared)

17. List out the devices used in Data Link Layer

• Switch
• Bridge
• Network Interface Card (NIC)
• Access Point (for wireless)

19. Differentiate MAC and IP address and its format?

Feature MAC Address IP Address

Purpose Identifies device on local network Identifies device on network layer
(logical address)
Format 48-bit hexadecimal (e.g., IPv4: 32-bit dotted decimal (e.g.,
00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E) 192.168.1.1)
IPv6: 128-bit hexadecimal (e.g.,
2001:0db8::1)
Layer Data Link Layer Network Layer
Scope Local network segment Across networks (global or local)
20. What is CSMA/CD?
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) is a protocol used in
Ethernet networks where devices listen to the channel before transmitting and detect collisions
during transmission to retransmit data.

21. Write the advantages of Fiber optic cable

• High bandwidth and data rates

• Long-distance transmission without signal loss
• Immune to electromagnetic interference
• Secure and difficult to tap
• Lightweight and thin compared to copper cables

22. List the various wireless standard protocol (802.X)

• 802.11 — Wireless LAN (Wi-Fi)

• 802.15 — Wireless PAN (Bluetooth)
• 802.16 — Wireless MAN (WiMAX)
• 802.20 — Mobile Broadband Wireless Access

23. Write the advantages of Star and Ring network topology

• Star: Easy to install and manage; failure of one node doesn’t affect others.
• Ring: Data flows in one direction, reducing collisions; easier fault isolation.

24. Expand LAN, WAN, MAN, WWW

• LAN: Local Area Network

• WAN: Wide Area Network
• MAN: Metropolitan Area Network
• WWW: World Wide Web