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 Chapter 12
Digital Search Structures
„ Digital Search Trees
„ Binary Tries and Patricia

„ Multiway Tries

C-C Tsai P.1

Digital Search Tree

„ A digital search tree is a binary tree in which
each node contains one element.
„ Assume fixed number of bits.
„ Not empty =>
„ Root contains one dictionary pair (any pair).
„ All remaining pairs whose key begins with a 0
are in the left subtree.
„ All remaining pairs whose key begins with a 1
are in the right subtree.
„ Left and right subtrees are digital subtrees on
remaining bits.

C-C Tsai P.2

1
 Example of Digital Search Tree
„ Start with an empty digital search tree and insert a
pair whose key is 0110.
0110
„ Now, insert a pair whose key is 0010.
0110

0010
„ Now, insert a pair whose key is 1001.

0110

0010 1001
C-C Tsai P.3

Example
„ Now, insert a pair whose key is 1011.
0110
0110

0010 1001
0010 1001
„ Now, insert a pair whose key is 0000. 1011

0110

0010 1001

C-C Tsai 0000 1011 P.4

2
 Search/Insert/Delete
„ Complexity of each operation is O(#bits in a key).
„ #key comparisons = O(height).
„ Expensive when keys are very long.

0110

0010 1001

0000 1011

C-C Tsai P.5

Applications of Digital Search Trees

„ Analog of radix sort to searching.
„ Keys are binary bit strings.
„ Fixed length – 0110, 0010, 1010, 1011.
„ Variable length – 01, 00, 101, 1011.
„ Application – IP routing, packet
classification, firewalls.
„ IPv4 – 32 bit IP address.
„ IPv6 – 128 bit IP address.

C-C Tsai

3
 Binary Trie
„ Information Retrieval.
„ At most one key comparison per operation,
search/insert/delete.
„ A Binary trie (pronounced try) is a binary tree
that has two kinds of nodes: branch nodes
and element nodes. For fixed length keys,
„ Branch nodes: Left and right child pointers. No
data field(s).
„ Element nodes: No child pointers. Data field to
hold dictionary pair.

C-C Tsai P.7

Example of Binary Trie

0 1

0 0 1
1100
0 1 0
0001 0011
0 1
1000 1001

At most one key comparison for a search.

C-C Tsai P.8

4
 Variable Key Length
„ Left and right child fields.
„ Left and right pair fields.
„ Left pair is pair whose key terminates at root of
left subtree or the single pair that might otherwise
be in the left subtree.
„ Right pair is pair whose key terminates at root of
right subtree or the single pair that might
otherwise be in the right subtree.
„ Field is null otherwise.

C-C Tsai P.9

Example of Variable Key Length

0 null
0 1

00 01100 10 11111
0 0
0000 001 1000 101
1

00100 001100

At most one key comparison for a search.

C-C Tsai P.10

5
 Fixed Length Insert
Insert 0111. 0 1

0 0 1
1
1100
0 1 0111 0
0001 0011
0 1
1000 1001

Zero compares.
C-C Tsai P.11

Fixed Length Insert

Now, Insert 1101 0 1

0 0 1
1
1100
0 1 0111 0
0001 0011
0 1
1000 1001

C-C Tsai P.12

6
 Fixed Length Insert
1100
Insert 1101 0 1

0 0 1
1

0 1 0111 0 0
0001 0011
0 1 0
1000 1001

C-C Tsai P.13

Fixed Length Insert

Inserted 1101. 0 1

0 0 1
1

0 1 0111 0 0
0001 0011
0 1 0 1
1000 1001 1100 1101
One compare.
C-C Tsai P.14

7
 Fixed Length Delete
Now, Delete 0111. 0 1

0 0 1
1

0 1 0111 0 0
0001 0011
0 1 0 1
1000 1001 1100 1101

C-C Tsai P.15

Fixed Length Delete

0 1

0 0 1

0 1 0 0
0001 0011
0 1 0 1
1000 1001 1100 1101
Delete 0111. One compare.
C-C Tsai P.16

8
 Fixed Length Delete
Now, Delete 1100. 0 1

0 0 1

0 1 0 0
0001 0011
0 1 0 1
1000 1001 1100 1101

C-C Tsai P.17

Fixed Length Delete

0 1

0 0 1

0 1 0 0
0001 0011
0 1 1
1000 1001 1101
Delete 1100.
C-C Tsai P.18

9
 Fixed Length Delete
1101
0 1

0 0 1

0 1 0 0
0001 0011
0 1
1000 1001

Delete 1100.
C-C Tsai P.19

Fixed Length Delete

1101
0 1

0 0 1

0 1 0
0001 0011
0 1
1000 1001

Delete 1100.
C-C Tsai P.20

10
 Fixed Length Delete
0 1

0 0 1

1101
0 1 0
0001 0011
0 1
1000 1001

Delete 1100. One compare.

C-C Tsai P.21

Fixed Length Join(S,m,B)

„ Insert m into B to get B’.
„ S empty => B’ is answer; done.
„ S is element node => insert S element
into B’; done;
„ B’ is element node => insert B’ element
into S; done;
„ If you get to this step, the roots of S and
B’ are branch nodes.

C-C Tsai P.22

11
 Fixed Length Join(S,m,B)
„ S has empty right subtree.
S B’ J(S,B’)
a b c J(a,b) c
J(X,Y) Djoin X and Y, all keys in X < all in Y.

„ S has nonempty right subtree.

„ Left subtree of B’ must be empty, because all keys
in B’ > all keys in S.
S B’ J(S,B’)
a b c a J(b,c)
C-C Tsai
Complexity = O(height). P.23

Compressed Binary Tries

„ No branch node whose degree is 1.
„ Add a bit# field to each branch node.
„ bit# tells you which bit of the key to use
to decide whether to move to the left or
right subtrie.

C-C Tsai P.24

12
 Example: Binary Trie
1
0 1
2
0 0 1
3
0 1 0 0
0001 4 4
0011
0 1 0 1
1000 1001 1100 1101

„bit# field shown in black outside branch node.

C-C Tsai P.25

Example: Compressed Binary Trie

0 1
1
3 2
0 1
0 1
0001 0011
4 4
0 1 0 1
1000 1001 1100 1101
„bit# field shown in black outside branch node.
„#branch nodes = n – 1.
C-C Tsai P.26

13
 Insert
0 1
1
3 2
0 1
0 1
0001 0011
4 4
0 1 0 1
1000 1001 1100 1101
Now, Insert 0010.
C-C Tsai P.27

Example: After Inserting 0010

0 1
1
3 2
0 1
0 1
0001 4
0 1 4 4
0010 0011 0 1 0 1
1000 1001 1100 1101
Now, Insert 0100.
C-C Tsai P.28

14
 Example: Insert 0100
1
0 1

2 2

0 1 0 1
3
0100 4 4
0 1
0 1 0 1
0001 4 1000 1001 1100 1101
0 1
0010 0011
C-C Tsai P.29

Delete
0 1
1

2 2

0 1 0 1
3
0100 4 4
0 1
0 1 0 1
0001 4 1000 1001 1100 1101
0 1
0010 0011 Now, Delete 0010.
C-C Tsai P.30

15
 Example: After Deleting 0010
0 1
1

2 2

0 1 0 1
3
0100 4 4
0 1
0 1 0 1
0001 0011 1000 1001 1100 1101

C-C Tsai
Now, Delete 1001. P.31

Example: After Deleting 1001

0 1
1

2 2

0 1 0 1
3
0100
1000 4
0 1
0 1
0001 0011
1100 1101

C-C Tsai P.32

16
 Patricia
„ Practical Algorithm To Retrieve Information
Coded In Alphanumeric.
„ All nodes in Patricia structure are of the same
data type (binary tries use branch and element
nodes).
„ Pointers to only one kind of node.
„ Simpler storage management.
„ Uses a header node that has zero bitNumber.
Remaining nodes define a trie structure that is the
left subtree of the header node. (right subtree is
not used)
„ Trie structure is the same as that for the
compressed binary trie.
C-C Tsai

Node Structure
bit# LC Pair RC

„ bit# = bit used for branching

„ LC = left child pointer
„ Pair = dictionary pair
„ RC = right child pointer

C-C Tsai P.34

17
 Compressed Binary Trie To Patricia
0 1
1
3 2
0 1
0 1
0001 0011
4 4
0 1 0 1
1000 1001 1100 1101
„Move each element into an ancestor or header node.

C-C Tsai P.35

Example:
Compressed Binary Trie To Patricia
0 0001

0 1101
3 1
0011 2
0 1001
1 0 1
4 4
1000 1100
1
0 1
C-C Tsai
0 P.36

18
 Insert
„Insert 0000101 0
0000101

0
„Insert 0000000 0000101

5
0000000

C-C Tsai P.37

Insert
0
„Now, Insert 0000010 0000101

5
0000000

0
„Inserted 0000010 0000101
5
0000000
6
0000010
C-C Tsai P.38

19
 Insert
0
„Insert 0001000 0000101 0
0000101
5
0000000 4
0001000
6
0000010 5
0000000

6
0000010

C-C Tsai P.39

Insert
0
„Insert 0000100 0000101

4
0001000

5
0000000

6
0000010

C-C Tsai P.40

20
 Insert
0
„Insert 0001010 0000101

4
0001000

5
0000000

6 7
0000010 0000100

C-C Tsai P.41

Insert
0
„Inserted 0001010 0000101

4
0001000

5 6
0000000 0001010

6 7
0000010 0000100

C-C Tsai P.42

21
 Delete
„ Let p be the node that contains the
dictionary pair that is to be deleted.
„ Case 1: p has one self pointer.
„ Case 2: p has no self pointer.

C-C Tsai P.43

p Has One Self Pointer

„ p = header => trie is now empty.
„ Set trie pointer to null.

„ p != header => remove node p and update

pointer to p.

p p
0001000 0000000

C-C Tsai P.44

22
 p Has No Self Pointer
„ Let q be the node that has a back pointer to p.
„ Node q was determined during the search for
the pair with the delete key k.

p
0001000
Blue pointer could
be red or black.
q
y

C-C Tsai P.45

p Has No Self Pointer

„ Use the key y in node q to find the unique node
r that has a back pointer to node q.

p
0001000

q
y

r
z

C-C Tsai P.46

23
 p Has No Self Pointer
„ Copy the pair whose key is y to node p.

p
0001000
y

q
y

r
z

C-C Tsai P.47

p Has No Self Pointer

„ Change back pointer to q in node r to point to
node p.
p
0001000
y

q
y

r
z

C-C Tsai P.48

24
 p Has No Self Pointer
„ Change forward pointer to q from parent(q) to
child of q.
p
0001000
y

q
y

r
z Node q now has been
removed from trie.

C-C Tsai P.49

Multiway Tries
„ Key = Social Security Number.
„ 441-12-1135
„ 9 decimal digits.
„ 10-way trie (order 10 trie).
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Height <= 10.

C-C Tsai

25
 Social Security Trie
„ 10-way trie
„ Height <= 10.
„ Search: <= 9 branches on digits plus 1 compare.
„ 100-way trie
„ 441-12-1135
„ Height <= 6.
„ Search: <= 5 branches on digits plus 1 compare.

C-C Tsai P.51

Social Security AVL & Red-Black

„ Red-black tree
„ Height <= 2log2109 ~ 60.
„ Search: <= 60 compares of 9 digit numbers.
„ AVL tree
„ Height <= 1.44log2109 ~ 40.
„ Search: <= 40 compares of 9 digit numbers.
„ Best binary tree.
„ Height = log2109 ~ 30.

C-C Tsai P.52

26
 Compressed Social Security Trie
„ char# = character/digit used for branching.
„ Equivalent to bit# field of compressed binary trie.
„ #ptr = # of nonnull pointers in the node.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
char# #ptr

C-C Tsai P.53

Insert
„Insert 012345678. 012345678

„Insert 015234567. 3 2 5

012345678 015234567
3: The 3rd digit is used for branching
Null pointer fields not shown.
C-C Tsai P.54

27
 Insert
„Insert 015231671. 3 2 5

012345678 015234567

C-C Tsai P.55

Insert
„Insert 079864231. 3 2 5

6 1 4
012345678

015231671 015234567

C-C Tsai P.56

28
 Insert
„Insert 012345618. 2 1 7

3 2 5
079864231

6 1 4
012345678

015231671 015234567
C-C Tsai P.57

Insert
„Insert 011917352. 2 1 7

3 2 5
079864231
1 4
8 1 7 6

012345678
012345618 015231671 015234567
C-C Tsai P.58

29
 Insert
2 1 7

31 2 5
079864231
011917352
1 4
8 1 7 6

012345678
012345618 015231671 015234567

C-C Tsai P.59

Delete
„Delete 011917352. 2 1 7

31 2 5
079864231
011917352
1 4
8 1 7 6

012345678
012345618 015231671 015234567
C-C Tsai P.60

30
 Delete
„Delete 012345678. 2 1 7

3 2 5
079864231
1 4
8 1 7 6

012345678
012345618 015231671 015234567

C-C Tsai P.61

Delete
„Delete 015231671. 2 1 7

3 2 5
079864231
1 4
6
012345618

015231671 015234567
C-C Tsai P.62

31
 Delete
2 1 7

3 2 5
079864231

012345618 015234567

C-C Tsai P.63

Variable Length Keys

„ Problem arises only when one key is a (proper) prefix of
another.
„Insert 0123 3 2 5

1 4 6
012345678

015231671 015234567
C-C Tsai P.64

32
 Variable Length Keys
„ Add a special end of key character (#) to each key to
eliminate this problem.
„Insert 0123 3 2 5

1 4 6
012345678

015231671 015234567
C-C Tsai P.65

Variable Length Keys

„Insert 0123 3 2 5

4 # 1 4 6
5

012345678 0123 015231671 015234567

End of key character (#) not shown.

C-C Tsai P.66

33
 Tries With Edge Information
„ Add a new field (element) to each branch
node.
„ New field points to any one of the element
nodes in the subtree.
„ Use this pointer on way down to figure out
skipped-over characters.

C-C Tsai P.67

Example
3 2 5

5 4 # 1 4
6

012345678 0123 015231671 015234567

„element field shown in blue.

C-C Tsai P.68

34
 Trie Characteristics
„ Expected height of an order m trie is ~logmn.
„ Limit height to h (say 6). Level h branch nodes point
to buckets that employ some other search structure
for all keys in subtrie.
„ Switch from trie scheme to simple array when
number of pairs in subtrie becomes <= s (say s=6).
„ Expected # of branch nodes for an order m trie when n is
large and m and s are small is n/(s ln m).
„ Sample digits from right to left (instead of from left
to right) or using a pseudorandom number
generator so as to reduce trie height.
C-C Tsai P.69

Multibit Tries
„ Variant of binary trie in which the number of bits
(stride) used for branching may vary from node to
node.
„ Proposed for Internet router applications.
„ Variable length prefixes.
„ Longest prefix match.
„ Limit height by choosing node strides.
„ Root stride = 32 => height = 1.
„ Strides of 16, 8, and 8 for levels 1, 2, and 3 => only 3
levels.

C-C Tsai P.70

35
 Multibit Trie Example

S =1 0 null
S =2 0 1 S =1
000 001 010 011 10 11
0 1
00 01 10 11

C-C Tsai P.71

Multibit Tries
„ Node whose stride is s uses s bits for branching.
„ Node has 2s children and 2s element/prefix fields.
„ Prefixes that end at a node are stored in that node.
„ Short prefixes are expanded to length represented by
node.
„ When root stride is 3, prefixes whose length is < 3 are
expanded to length 3.
„ P = 00* expands to P0 = 000* and P1 = 001*.
„ If Q = 000* already exists P0 is eliminated because Q
represents a longer match for any destination.

C-C Tsai P.72

36