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Solid State
Part 1

Crustal structure
Crystalline Solid:- A crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituent atoms,
molecules or ions are arranged in an orderly repeating pattern extending in all three
special dimensions .
Amorphous Solid:- An amorphous solid is a solid in which the molecules do not form a
regular spatial lattice and are in more or less chaotic or random distribution throughout
the solid.

Crystal Lattice:- an arrangement of infinite numbers of imaginary points in 3D (or 2D)

space with each point having identical surroundings is known as space lattice or simply
lattice.
Basis:- The structure of all crystals can be described in terms of a lattice with a groups of
atoms, ions or molecules, identical in composition arrangement and orientations, attached
to each lattice point.

Unit Cell:- A unit cell is defined the “building blocks” that make up the crystal, (each one
undisguisable from the next.

Lattice parameters of unit cell:- A unit cell can be completely described by the three
vectors 𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗, 𝑐⃗, when the length of the vectors and the angle between them (, 𝛽, 𝛾) are
known. These vectors and the interfacial angles are known as lattice parameters.

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BravaisLattice :- There are just fourteen ways (3d) and 6 ways in(2d ) which the points in
space lattices can be arranged in order that all the lattice points have exactly.

Characteristics of a unit cell:-

The common characteristics of unit cell are,

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Volume of a unit cell:-The volume of a unit cell having 𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗, 𝑐⃗ as the fundamental
translation vectors or crystallographic axes is given by,

V = |𝑎⃗ . (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗) |

For cubic crystal a = b = c; ∴ 𝑉 = 𝑎3 .

CubicCrystalLattices (1).cdf CubicCrystalLattices.cdf

Co-ordinate number:- In a crystal the number of nearest neighbors to an atom in a given

structure is called co-ordinate number.
Atomic Radius:-It is supposed that all the atoms in a crystal have the same size and are
touching each other. Thus the atomic radius is the distance between the centers of two
neighboring atoms.
Atomic packing fraction:- It is defined as the ratio of the volume of the atoms occupying
the unit cell to the volume of the unit cell relating the structure of the crystal

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Atoms per unit Coordination Atomic radius Packing fraction

cell:-: number

SC 1 6 𝑎 0.52
2
BCC 2 8 √3𝑎 0.68
4
FCC 4 12 √2𝑎 𝑎 0.74
=
4 2√2
DIAMOND 8 4 √3 0.34
𝑎
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Miller Indices:-

. MillerIndices.cdf

Miller Indices

Definition: Miller indices are a notation system used to describe the orientation of crystal planes in a lattice.

Notation: Represented as (hkl), where h, k, and l are integers indicating the plane's orientation relative to the
crystallographic axes (a, b, c).

• Example: A plane intersecting at (1, 2, ∞) has reciprocals (1/1, 1/2, 1/∞) ;

Multiply by 2 to get (2, 1, 0).

Significance: Used to describe crystal structures, diffraction patterns, and material properties in
crystallography.

Note: 1 :

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In a cubic crystal the angle between planes 𝑜𝑓 miller indices (ℎ1 𝑘1 𝑙1 ); (ℎ2 𝑘2 𝑙2 ) will be

ℎ1 ℎ2 + 𝑘1 𝑘2 +𝑙1 𝑙2
cos −1
√ℎ1 2 + 𝑘1 2 + 𝑙1 2 √ℎ2 2 + 𝑘2 2 + 𝑙2 2

Interplaner separation between two parallel planes:-

Let us consider a simple unit cell in which the crystal axes 𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗, 𝑐⃗ are orthogonal. Let
this coincides with co-ordinate axes X,Y,Z respectively with O as origin at a lattice point.

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𝑎
𝑑=
√(ℎ2 + 𝑘 2 + 𝑙 2

Lattice constant in terms of M.weight of an cubic element:-

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Let n be the number of molecule in a unit cell, of element of molecular wt. M, density 𝜌,

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𝑛𝑀 3
𝑎 = ( )
𝜌𝑁

Density of lattice points in a lattice plane:

Number of atoms par unit area of the (hkl) plane is given by.
𝒏𝒅𝒉𝒌𝒍
𝝈𝒉𝒌𝒍 =
𝑽
Example : Des
𝑑111 (𝑠𝑐) 𝑎 1
𝜎111 (𝑠𝑐 ) = 𝑛(𝑠𝑐) = 1 =
𝑎3 √3𝑎3 𝑎2 √3
𝑑101 (𝑓𝑐𝑐) 𝑎 √2
𝜎101 (𝑓𝑐𝑐 ) = 𝑛(𝑓𝑐𝑐) = 4 =
𝑎3 2√2𝑎3 𝑎2

X ray diffraction and reciprocal lattice

Bragg’s law:
Let us consider parallel lattice planes, equidistant from one another in a crystal structure,
separated by a distance 𝑑. Let a narrow beam of monochromatic x-ray of wave length 𝜆 ,
be incident on the 1𝑠𝑡 plane at a glancing angle 𝜃.

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∴
rays will interfere each other and produced maximum intensity when,
2𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
𝑛 =1,2,3……. integer, giving the order of diffraction.
This is Bragg’s law.

Note:
Now from Braggs law for (hkl)plane, for a particular wavelength (𝜆),
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃ℎ𝑘𝑙 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃ℎ𝑘𝑙 ∝
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙
𝑎
[𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒: 𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 = ]
√ℎ2 + 𝑘 2 + 𝑙 2

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃ℎ𝑘𝑙 ∝ √ℎ2 + 𝑘 2 + 𝑙 2

The planes which response in 𝑥 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦 diffraction,

Reciprocal lattice

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Every crystal structure has two lattices associated with it, the crystal lattice and the
reciprocal lattice. Vectors in the crystal lattice have the dimension of length, and the
reciprocal lattice have the dimension of 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ−1 .

The three reciprocal axes are defined along as 𝑎⃗∗ , 𝑏⃗⃗ ∗ , 𝑐⃗∗ for the crystal of lattice vect0rs
𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗, 𝑐⃗,

𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗ 𝑐⃗ × 𝑎⃗ 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗
𝑎⃗∗ = 2𝜋 ; 𝑏⃗⃗ ∗ = 2𝜋 ; 𝑐⃗∗ = 2𝜋
[𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗, 𝑐⃗] [𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗, 𝑐⃗] [𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗, 𝑐⃗]

X ray diffraction in reciprocal lattice

Laue condition

𝑘⃗⃗ be the wave vector of the incident X-ray.

𝑘⃗⃗ ′ be the wave vector of the diffracted X-ray.
𝐺⃗ be a reciprocal lattice vector.
Then the Laue condition is:
𝑘
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗
𝑘′ − 𝑘 = 𝐺
This means that the difference between the incident and scattered wave vectors must equal a reciprocal
.
lattice vector

Symmetry operation

A symmetry operation’ is one, that leaves the crystal and its environment invariant.

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The crystal systems are characterized by three symmetry elements. They are
• Centre of symmetry

• Planes of symmetry

• Axes of symmetry

SYMMETRICAL ELEMENTS OF CUBE

(a) Centre of symmetry 1
(b) Planes of symmetry 9 (Straight planes -3, Diagonal planes -6)
(c)Axes of symmetry

(i) Diad axes 6(giving 2 fold symmetry)

(ii) Triad axes 4(giving 3 fold symmetry)
(iii) Tetrad axes 3(giving 4 fold symmetry)
Total number of symmetry elements= 23

CubicSymmetryTypes.cdf

Basic crystal structure:

1. The fundamental building block whose repetition in three dimensions generates

a crystal is called

(a) unit cell (b) lattice cell (c) primitive cell (d) none of these

2. The number of basic crystal system in 3D is

(a) 2 (c) 4 (b) 3 (d) 7

(d)There are 7 basic crystal systems in crystallography. They are:

1. Cubic(3)
2. Tetragonal(2)
3. Orthorhombic(4)
4. Monoclinic(2)

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5. Triclinic
6. Hexagonal
7. Rhombohedral (also called trigonal)

3. The number of different Bravais lattice possible in two dimensions is:

(𝒂)𝟐 (𝒃)𝟑 (𝒄)𝟓 (𝒅)𝟔

4. The number of different Bravais lattice possible in three dimensions is,

(𝒂)𝟔 (𝒃)𝟏𝟎 (𝒄)𝟏𝟒 (𝒅)𝟐𝟒

5. Basis is defined as

(a) an atom about a lattice point

(b) a group of atoms about a lattice point

(c) one or a group of atoms about a lattice point

(d) none of these

6. Which one of the following axes of rotational symmetry is NOT permissible in single crystals?
(𝒂)𝒕𝒘𝒐 − 𝒇𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝒂𝒙𝒆𝒔 (𝒃)𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒆 − 𝒇𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝒂𝒙𝒆𝒔 (𝒄)𝒇𝒐𝒖𝒓 − 𝒇𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝒂𝒙𝒆𝒔 (𝒅)𝒇𝒊𝒗𝒆 − 𝒇𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝒂𝒙𝒆𝒔

7. In a primitive unit cell, the number of lattice points

(a) 2 (b) 5 (c) 4 (d) 1.

8. In a BCC structure, the effective number of lattice points per unit cell is

(a) 2 (b) 5 (c) 4 (d) 1

9. In a FCC lattice, the number lattice points per unit cell is

(a) 2 (b) 5 (c) 4 (d) 1

10. If the number of Bravais lattice is three then the crystal is

(a) monoclinic (b) hexagonal (c) cubic (d) tetragonal

11. In a single layer of graphite called graphene, the carbon atoms form a hexagonal
lattice. The number of. Carbon atoms par unit cell will be.
(𝒂)𝟐 (𝒃)𝟑 (𝒄)𝟒 (𝒅)𝟔

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12. The coordination number of BCC lattice,

(𝒂)𝟔 (𝒃)𝟖 (𝒄)𝟏𝟐 (𝒅)𝟐𝟒

13. The coordination number of FCC lattice,

(𝒂)𝟔 (𝒃)𝟖 (𝒄)𝟏𝟐 (𝒅)𝟐𝟒

14. The atomic radius for FCC lattice is

𝒂 √𝟑𝒂 𝒂 √𝟑𝒂
𝒂) 𝒃) 𝒄) 𝒅)
𝟐 𝟒 𝟐√𝟐 𝟖

15. The atomic radius for BCC lattice is

𝒂 √𝟑𝒂 √𝟐 𝒂 √𝟑𝒂
𝒂) 𝒃) 𝒄) 𝒅)
𝟐 𝟒 𝟒 𝟖

16. The atomic radius for diamond lattice is

𝒂 √𝟑𝒂 √𝟐 𝒂 √𝟑𝒂
𝒂) 𝒃) 𝒄) 𝒅)
𝟐 𝟒 𝟒 𝟖
𝒂 𝒂 𝒂
For a unit cube of side 𝒂, the nearest atoms are at the points (𝟎, 𝟎, 𝟎); (𝟒 , 𝟒 , 𝟒)

17. The volume of unit cell of a FCC lattice having atomic radius 𝒂,
𝟑√𝟑𝝅𝒂𝟑 √𝟑𝝅𝒂𝟑
𝒂) 𝒃) 𝒄)𝟏𝟔√𝟐𝒂𝟑 𝒅)𝟖𝝅√𝟐𝒂𝟑
𝟒 𝟐
18. Actual volume occupied in SC unit cell of lattice constant 𝑎 by element,

𝜋𝑎3 𝜋𝑎3 𝜋𝑎3 𝜋𝑎3

𝑎) 𝑏) 𝑐) 𝑑)
2 6 8 16
19. The packing fraction for bcc lattice is
𝑎)0.52 𝑏)0.68 𝑐)0.74 𝑑)0.34
Type equation here.
20. The packing fraction for FCC lattice is
𝑎)0.52 𝑏)0.68 𝑐)0.74 𝑑)0.34

21. The packing fraction for diamond is

𝑎)0.52 𝑏)0.68 𝑐)0.74 𝑑)0.34

22. The fraction of volume unoccupied in the unit cell of the body centered cubic lattice is,
8 − √3𝜋 √3𝜋 6 − √2𝜋 𝜋
(𝑎) (𝑏) (𝑐) (𝑑)
8 8 6 3√2

23. Metallic monovalent sodium crystallizes in a bcc structure. If the length of the unit cell is 4 × 10−8 cm,
the concentration of conduction electrons in metallic sodium is ,

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(𝑎)6.022 × 10 𝑐𝑚23 −3 (𝑏)3.125 × 10 𝑐𝑚 22 −3 (𝑐)2.562 × 1021 𝑐𝑚−3 (𝑑) 1.250 × 1020 𝑐𝑚−3

24. In an metal of atomic weight 𝑀 and density 𝜌 has fcc structure. If lattice constant is
1 1 1 1
2𝑀 3 4𝑀 3 𝜌𝑀 3 𝜌𝑀 3
𝑎) ( ) 𝑏) ( ) 𝑐) ( ) 𝑑) ( )
𝑁𝜌 𝑁𝜌 2𝑁 2𝑁

25. The Miller indices of a plane with intercepts 𝑎⃗; 2𝑏⃗⃗; 3𝑐⃗
𝑎)(321) 𝑏)(123) 𝑐)(632) 𝑑)(236)

26. The intercepts of the coordinate axes by a plane are 2𝐴̇; 1𝐴;̇ 2𝐴̇ where the lattice vectors are in the
ratio 2:2:1. The miller indices of the plane,
𝑎)(121) 𝑏)(122) 𝑐)(221) 𝑑)(241)
Type equation here.
27. The interplanar separation (101) plane of fcc Lattice having lattice constant 𝑎 is,

𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑎) 𝑏) 𝑐) 𝑑)2𝑎
2 √2 2√2

28. The ratio interplanar separation of (110) plane and (111) planes of bcc Lattice having lattice
constant 𝑎 is,

𝑎) 1: √3 𝑏 )√2: √3 𝑐)√3: √2 𝑑)√6: 1

29. For a simple cubic lattice the ratio 𝑑100 : 𝑑110 : 𝑑111
𝑎) 1: √2: √3 𝑏 )√3: √2: 1 𝑐)√6: √3: √2 𝑑)√2: √3: √6

30. For bcc cubic lattice the ratio 𝑑100 : 𝑑110 : 𝑑111
𝑎) 1: √2: √3 𝑏 )√3: √6: 1 𝑐)√6: √3: 1 𝑑)1: √3: √6

31. Angle between two planes(101);(111) is

2 1 2 1
𝑎) cos1 ( ) 𝑏) cos1 ( ) 𝑐) cos1 (√ ) 𝑑) cos1 (√ )
√3 √2 3 6

32. Number of atoms per unit area of BCC of lattice constant 𝑎 in 111 plane,
1 −2 2 −2 √2 −2 2√2 −2
𝑎) 𝑎 𝑏) 𝑎 𝑐) 𝑎 𝑑) 𝑎
√3 √3 √3 √3

33. For a simple cubic lattice the ratio between density of lattice point between (111),(101) planes,

𝑎) 1: √3 𝑏 )√2: √3 𝑐)√3: √2 𝑑)√6: 1

X-ray diffraction
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34. The second order maximum in the diffraction of 𝑋-rays of 0.20nm wavelength from a simple cubic
crystal is found to occur at an angle of thirty degrees to the crystal plane. The distance between the
lattice planes is

(𝑎) 1Å (𝑏)2Å (𝑐)4Å (𝑑)8Å

35. Monochromatic X -rays of wavelength 1 A are incident on a simple cubic crystal. The first order Bragg
reflection from (311) plane occurs at an angle of 300 from the plane. The lattice parameter of the
crystal in Å is
11
(𝑎) 1 (𝑏) √3 (𝑐) √ (𝑑) √11
3

36. A X-ray beam of wavelength 1.54Å is diffracted from the (110) planes of a solid with a cubic lattice of
lattice constant 3.08Å. The first order Bragg diffraction occurs at
1 1 1 1
(𝑎) sin−1 ( ) (𝑏) sin−1 ( ) (𝑐) sin−1 ( ) (𝑑) sin−1 ( )
4 2√2 2 √2

37. In the X -ray diffraction pattern recorded for a simple cubic solid (lattice parameter 𝑎 = 1Å) using X
rays of wavelength 1 A, the first order diffraction peak(s) would appear for the [JAM 2019]
(𝑎) (100) 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑠 (𝑏) (112) 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑠 (𝑐) (210) 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑠 (𝑑) (220) 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑠

38. The reciprocal lattice of the fcc lattice is

(𝑎) 𝑆𝐶 (𝑏)𝐵𝐶𝐶 (𝑐)𝐹𝐶𝐶 (𝑑)𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡
39. The reciprocal lattice of SC
(𝑎) 𝑆𝐶 (𝑏)𝐵𝐶𝐶 (𝑐)𝐹𝐶𝐶 (𝑑)𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡

40. If V is the volume of unit cell in direct lattice the volume in reciprocal lattice will be
1 2𝜋 8𝜋
𝑎) 𝑉 𝑏) 𝑐) 𝑑)
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
41. Consider a X-ray diffraction from a crystal with a fcc lattice. The lattice plane for which there is No
diffraction peak is
(𝑎) (2,1,2) (𝑏) (1,1,1) (𝑐) (2,0,0) (𝑑) (3,1,1)

42. A beam of 𝑋-rays is incident on a B.C.C crystal. If the difference between the incident and scattered
⃗⃗ = ℎ𝑥̂ + 𝑘𝑦̂ + 𝑙𝑧̂ where 𝑥̂, 𝑦̂, 𝑧̂ are the unit vectors of the associated cubic lattice, the
wave vectors is 𝐾
necessary condition for a scattered beam to give a Laue maximum is
(𝑎)ℎ + 𝑘 + 𝑙 = 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 (𝑏) ℎ = 𝑘 = 𝑙
(𝑐) ℎ, 𝑘, 𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑡 (𝑑) ℎ + 𝑘 + 𝑙 = 𝑜𝑑𝑑

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