21ECC302T – Analog and Digital

Communication
Course Credit : 3
Theory : 9 Hours

1. Singh. R. P & Sapre. S. D,“Communication Systems:Analog & Digital,” 3rd edition, McGrawHill
Education, Seventh Reprint, 2016.

2.Simon Haykin,“Communication Systems”, John Wiley & Sons, 4th Edition, 2008
Course Outline
1. Analog
Modulation

5. Information 2. Radio
theory Concepts Transmitters and
Receivers

ADC

4. Passband Data 3. Digital Modulation

Transmission System and Baseband
Detection
Unit 2 – Radio transmitters and Receivers
• AM transmitter : Low Level, ▪ Tuned Radio Frequency receiver
High level transmitter ▪ Super-heterodyne receiver- AM
• FM transmitter – Direct Method ▪ Super-heterodyne receiver- FM
• FM transmitter – Indirect ▪ Sources of Noise
Method ▪ Noise in AM
• Classification of radio receiver, ▪ Noise in FM
Functions and Characteristics
▪ Threshold effect, Pre-emphasis
of radio receivers and De-emphasis
 Introduction: N o i s e s
• Undesired electrical signals which are introduced with a message signal during the
transmission or processing are called Noise.
• Noise may be predictable or unpredictable. The predictable noises can be estimated and
eliminated by proper design. Eg: Power supply hum, spurious oscillations.
• The unpredictable noise varies randomly with time and cannot be controlled. The amount
of noise power decides the minimum power level of the desired message at the transmitter
Sources:
1. External noise : noises whose sources are external to the receiver or communication
system
2. Internal noise: Created by the active and passive components present within the
communication circuit itself.
External Noises
Types
➢ Atmospheric Noise

➢ Extraterrestrial Noise

➢ Man made noise

Atmospheric Noise
➢ Caused by lightning discharges in thunderstorms or other natural electrical
disturbances
➢ Comes in the form of amplitude modulated impulses

➢ Random and spread over the whole of RF spectrum

➢ Consist of spurious radio signals with many frequency components

➢ Affects radio more than TV as field strength is inversely proportional to frequency

➢ At 30MHz and above these noises is less because

• Higher frequencies are limited to line of sight

• Sources generate little noise in VHF and above region
External Noises
Extraterrestrial Noise
➢ Types: Solar noise and Cosmic Noise

➢ Solar Noise

• Noise from sun at very high temperature (6000 degree Celsius)

• Sun radiates broad spectrum of frequencies including spectrum for broadcasting
• 11-year long cycle
• At the peak of this cycle, electrical disturbance erupt causing corona flames and sun spots

➢ Cosmic Noise
• Stars also radiates noise in same way as sun
• Noise from star called as black body noise
• Like milky way, noise also comes from distant galaxies
• Significant at frequencies ranging from 8MHz to 1.5GHz
• In Range 20Hz to 120MHz it is stronger, next to man made noise
• Below 20MHz, penetrates below the ionosphere
External Noises
Man Made Noise
➢ Electric noise produced by automobile and aircraft ignition, electric motors, switch gears, leakage
from high voltage lines etc.,
➢ Most intensive in industrial areas, densely populated urban and sub urban areas.
➢ Noise effective in frequency range of 1MHz to 600MHz
 Internal Noises
• Also known as fluctuation noise. It is caused by spontaneous fluctuations in the
physical system.
Eg: (a) Thermal motion of free electrons inside resistors known as Brownian motion,
which is random in nature.
(b) The random emission of electrons in vacuum tubes
(c) The random diffusion of electrons and holes in semiconductors
• The fluctuation noise is very significant. Types:
(i) Shot Noise
(ii) Thermal Noise
(iii) Transit Time noise
(iv) Miscellaneous Noise
 Internal Noises
➢Shot Noise
• Appears in active devices due to the random behavior of charge carriers.
• In electron tubes, the shot noise is generated due to random emission of electrons
from cathode.
• In semiconductors, it is caused due to the random diffusion of minority carriers or
random generation and recombination of electrons and hole pairs.
• Current in electron devices flows in the form of discrete pulses, every time a charge
carrier moves from one point to other.
• Although the current appears to be continuous it is still discrete phenomenon. The
nature of current variation with time is shown:
• The current fluctuates about mean value Io.
This current in(t) which wiggles around the mean
Value is known as Shot noise.
i(t) = Io +𝑖𝑛 (t)
 Internal Noises
➢Thermal Noise
• The noise arising due to random motion of free charged particles in conducting
media such as resistor is called resistor noise or Johnson noise.
• The intensity of random motion is proportional to thermal energy supplied, and is
zero at temperature of absolute zero. This noise is also known as thermal noise.

➢Transit Time Noise

• At very high frequencies, the time taken by electron from cathode to anode
becomes comparable to the period of the signal being amplified
• Occurs in the VHF range
• Results in the increase of the noise input admittance of the tube
• Increase with frequency at the rate of 6 dB / Octave for tubes
 Internal Noises
➢Miscellaneous Noise
• Partition Noise
▪ The multigrid tubes (tetrode, pentode etc.) contain more than one grid
and the partition of electrons emitted from cathode among the various
grids is random in nature.
▪ This gives rise to another source of noise in multigrid tubes, called
Partition Noise.
• Flicker Noise
▪ Noise of his type arises due to imperfections in cathode surface of
electron tubes and surfaces around the junctions of semiconductor
devices.
▪ Low frequency range
 Noise in AM system
➢In communication systems, message signal travels from the transmitter to the receiver
vis a channel.
➢The channel introduces additive noise in the message signal.
➢The noise characteristics of a modulation system is evaluated using a parameter
known as figure of merit (γ).
➢γ is defined as ratio of output signal to noise ratio to input signal to noise ratio of
receiver.
➢Higher the value of γ, better will be the noise performance.
(𝑆𝑁𝑅)𝑜 𝑆𝑜 Τ𝑁𝑜
➢γ = = , 𝑆𝑜 , 𝑆𝑖 → Output and input signal power
(𝑆𝑁𝑅)𝑖 𝑆𝑖 Τ𝑁𝑖
➢𝑁𝑜 , 𝑁𝑖 → Output and input noise power
 Noise in AM system
Calculation of Figure of Merit
The following assumptions are made for noise analysis:
(i) Channel noise is additive
Interference effect of noise is obtained by simple addition of signal f(t) and noise n(t)
(ii) Channel noise is white and Gaussian
The power spectrum of white noise n(t) is uniform over entire frequency band. The total noise power is
thus obtained by multiplying the noise power density spectrum η/2 with bandwidth
N = (η/2 ) x Bandwidth
The noise amplitude has a Gaussian distribution.
(iii) Band pass noise at input of detector
The bandpass filter at input of receiver allows a narrowband signal centered about ±fc and rejects other
frequencies including noise. The white noise at input of detector has power density spectrum shown.
The power density is 𝑆𝑛𝑖 = η/2 .
(iv) Input noise power 𝑵𝒊
The input noise power is determined for baseband i.e. 2fm Hz.
𝑁𝑖 = (η/2 ) (2fm) = η fm.
 Noise in DSB SC System
➢ DSB-SC system uses synchronous detection at the receiver

➢Noise Power
• The noise signal at the input of the detector is a bandpass noise given by

• This signal is multiplied by cos𝜔𝑐 t in the synchronous detector. The multiplied signal is given by
 Noise in DSB SC System
• The noise signal 𝑛𝑑 (t) is passed through a LPF

• Terms centered at ±2𝜔𝑐 are filtered out by LPF and hence,

• Power density spectrum is proportional to mean square value of the signal, the power density spectrum of 𝑛𝑜 (t) is
related to power density spectrum of 𝑛𝑐 (t) as

= η for |f| ≤ 𝑓𝑚
𝜂
= 4 for |f| ≤ 𝑓𝑚

• The output noise power 𝑁𝑜 is given by

 Noise in DSB SC System
• 𝑁𝑖 = η 𝑓𝑚
𝑁𝑜 1
• 𝑁𝑖
=
2

➢Signal Power
• Modulated signal at the input of the detector is f(t) cos𝜔𝑐 t . The input signal power 𝑆𝑖 is the mean
square value of f(t) cos𝜔𝑐 t

• The signal voltage at the output of the detector is (1/2) f(t). The output signal power is the mean
square value of (1/2) f(t).
 Noise in DSB SC System
• Figure of merit γ is given by

• No improvement in S/N ratio

 Noise in SSB SC System
➢SSB-SC system also uses synchronous detection at the receiver
➢Noise Power
• The input noise power is given as 𝑁𝑖 = η 𝑓𝑚
• The noise power density at the output of the synchronous detector is

=
 Noise in SSB SC System
➢Signal Power
• The power of the SSB-SC signal is same as the power of the baseband signal f(t)

• The output of the detector has the signal power

• Noise performance identical to DSB-SC

 Noise in AM system (Envelope Detector)
• The input to the AM detector is given by
• The input signal power Si is given by

Output power
Substituting quadrature representation for in equation (1),

After trigonometric manipulations,

Where
Noise in AM system (Envelope Detector)
• The envelope A(t) has both signal and noise components. The noise performance
depends on relative magnitudes of signal and noise. The analysis can be carried out
for two cases:
(i) Small-Noise Case
Noise is taken to be much smaller than signal << [A+ f(t)]
The noise component is in-phase with signal
[A+ f(t)], is in phase quadrature. Since << [A+ f(t)], is also smaller than
[A+ f(t)].
When is much small, then can be taken as zero.
Then, the envelope becomes
Noise in AM system (Envelope Detector)
(a) Output Signal Power So : The ms value of useful signal f(t)

(b) Output Noise power: The noise signal at the output of detector is with
power density given by

The output noise power is

The figure of merit is thus given by

Noise in AM system (Envelope Detector)
Figure of merit γ

• The noise performance improves with reduction in carrier amplitude and is

maximum when A =0 i.e. supressed carrier systems.
• The greatest value of γ achieved depends on the minimum possible value of A,
which is equal to maximum value of f(t) to avoid overmodulation.
• Thus the best noise performance is achieved when A is equal to maximum value
of f(t) i.e. 100% modulation.
Noise in AM system (Envelope Detector)
(ii) Large Noise case >> [A+ f(t)]
Therefore, the quadrature component of also higher than [A+ f(t)].
The envelope of modulated signal is given by

Since noise components dominates over the signal, the first term can be ignored. Then
Putting

We get

Since the noise component ,

The envelope A(t) has no exclusive f(t) terms. As the modulating signal is
completely mingled with noise, it caries no useful information. The loss of message
f(t) in envelope detector due to large noise is referred to as threshold effect.
 Threshold Effect in Envelope Detector
➢If the input SNR (Si/Ni) is below a certain level called threshold level, the noise
dominates over message signal.
➢Threshold is defined as value of input SNR (Si/Ni) below which the output SNR
(So/No) deteriorates much more rapidly than input SNR.
➢The threshold effect starts in an envelope detector whenever the carrier power to
noise power ratio approaches unity or less.
 Noise in FM system
➢The block diagram of the FM is shown below

➢Signal Power
• The power of the EM signal of same as that of an unmodulated carrier as
amplitude of the signal remains unchanged after modulation
Noise in FM system
• The output of the detector is proportional to instantaneous frequency of FM
signal
 Noise in FM system
➢ Noise Power
• Input noise power is
• Output noise power is computed assuming the message signal term to be zero
• Input to the detector 𝑔𝑖 (t) will have carrier term and noise term
Noise in FM system

• For frequency modulation consider only

• Two cases
Noise in FM system
• Small Noise Case
• becomes

as for small angle tan θ = θ

where
 Noise in FM system
• The detected output is proportional to

• The noise of this detected output is

• Power density spectrum of 𝑛𝑜 (t) is given as

Noise in FM system
 Noise in FM system
• The output noise power is given as

• Output noise power of FM detector varies inversely with carrier power. This
decrease in the noise power with an increase in carrier power is known as Noise-
Quieting Effect of the carrier
• Output SNR is given as
 Noise in FM system
• Figure of merit is given as

• For single tone modulating signal,

 Noise in FM system
• Bandwidth of FM is twice the deviation, and hence output SNR is proportional to
square of bandwidth of FM signal

3
= β2
2
 Capture Effect
Capture Effect
➢Inherent ability of an FM system to minimize the effects of unwanted signals also
applies to interference produced by another frequency modulated signal whose
frequency content is close to carrier frequency
➢Interference suppression in an FM receiver works well only when the
interference is weaker than the desired FM input
➢When the interference is the stronger one of the two, the receiver locks onto
stronger signal and thereby suppresses the desired FM input
➢When they are of nearly equal strength, the receiver fluctuates back and froth
between them
➢This phenomenon is known as capture effect
 Threshold Effect in FM
Threshold Effect

➢Above equation states that, output signal to noise ratio of an FM receiver, is valid only if
the carrier to noise ratio, measure at the discriminator input, is high compared to unity
➢Input noise power is increased so that the carrier to noise ratio is decreased, FM receiver
breaks
➢First individual clicks are heard, and as carrier to noise ratio decreases, the clicks merge
into crackling or sputtering sound
➢Near the breaking point, above equation fail by predicting values of output SNR ratio
larger than the actual one
➢This phenomenon is known as threshold effect
 Pr e - e m p h a s i s a n d D e - e m p h a s i s
➢Power spectral density of the message usually falls off at higher frequencies
➢Power spectral density of output noise increases rapidly with frequency
➢Around ω = ±ω𝑚 , relative spectral density of message is quite low, whereas
spectral density of output noise is high
➢Message is not using the frequency band allotted in an efficient manner
➢Satisfactory approach to the efficient use of the allowed frequency band is based
on the use of Pre-emphasis in the transmitter and de-emphasis in the receiver
 Pr e - e m p h a s i s a n d D e - e m p h a s i s
➢ Pre-emphasis
• Emphasize the high frequency components of the
message signal prior to modulation
• Low frequency and high frequency portions of the
power spectral density of the message are equalized in
such a way that message fully occupies the frequency
band allotted
• It is a high pass network acting as a differentiator

➢ De-emphasis
• De-emphasis the high frequency components to
restore original signal power distribution of message
• High frequency components of the noise at the
discriminator output is reduced, effectively reducing
output SNR
• It is a low pass network acting as an integrator
 Pr e - e m p h a s i s a n d D e - e m p h a s i s
➢ Transfer function of pre-emphasis (𝐻𝑝 (ω)) and de-emphasis (𝐻𝑑 (ω)) have
inverse relationship

➢ Assuming R << r in pre-emphasis

 Pr e - e m p h a s i s a n d D e - e m p h a s i s
➢ Second break frequency is given as

➢ Rate of increase in amplitude is 6 dB/octave

➢For FM broadcasting, lower break frequency is 2.1KHz and higher break
frequency is chosen much higher than highest frequency term in message band
➢De-emphasis transfer function is given as
 Pr e - e m p h a s i s a n d D e - e m p h a s i s
➢

➢Transfer function is plotted as below

 Comparison of Noise in AM and FM
Parameter DSB-SC Coherent SSB-SC Coherent Envelope Detector FM receiver
(Small Noise)

Input Signal power

Output Signal Power

Input Noise Power

Output Noise Power

Figure of merit 1 1

Threshold Effect × × Yes Yes