PHONETICS AND

PHONOLOGY
Lesson 3 - Consonants

Prepared by Do Phuong Hoa

01
Definition
Definition of Consonants
Consonants can be defined in terms of both phonetics and
phonology.

"Phonetically, they are sounds made by a closure or narrowing

in the vocal tract so that the airflow is either completely
blocked, or so restricted that audible friction is produced."

"From a phonological point of view, consonants are those units

which function at the margins of syllables, either singly or in
clusters."
(Crystal, 2008, p. 103)
02
Description of
Consonants
 Description of Consonants
For consonantal articulations, a description must provide answers to the
following questions: (pulmonic or
non-pulmonic)
(1) Is the airstream set in motion by the lungs or by some other means?
(2) Is the airstream forced outwards or sucked inwards? (egressive or ingressive)
(3) Do the vocal cords vibrate or not? (voiced or voiceless)
(4) Is the soft palate raised, directing the airstream wholly through the mouth, or
lowered, allowing the passage of air through the nose? (oral or nasal)
(5) At what point or points and between what organs does closure or narrowing
take place? (place of articulation)
(6) What is the type of closure or narrowing at the point of articulation?
(manner of articulation)
Cruttenden (2014)
 Description of Consonants

1. Airstream mechanism
2. State of the larynx
3. State of the velar port
4. Place of articulation
5. Manner of articulation

=> English consonants

 2.1. Airstream mechanism
All consonants in English are pulmonic
egressive (exclusively)

(other languages: pulmonic egressive is

the unmarked airstream mechanism
 2.2. State of the larynx
Only voiceless and voiced phonations are used for contrastive purposes.

Glottal stop (*), whispery, creaky, and breathy phonations are used
paralinguistically and extralinguistically only.
 2.3. State of the velar port

If the velum is open, so that air

flows through the nasal cavity
=> the sound is nasal

If the velum is closed

=> the sound is oral
 2.4. Place of articulation

Place of articulation tells us where the sound is produced

=> where in the vocal tract the airflow restriction occurs

=> the active articulator moves to the passive

articulator to make constriction

(Collins et al., 2019)

 2.4. Place of articulation

Bilabial sounds are sounds made at the two lips /p b m/

Dental sounds involve an articulation made against the

back of the upper teeth /θ ð/

Labiodental sounds are made with the upper teeth (‘dental’)

against the lower lip (‘labio’) /f v/

Alveolar sounds are made with the tongue tip/blade

/t d n l s z/
at the alveolar ridge
sounds are made with the tongue tip
Postalveolar approaching the alveolar area (~ /t d/) but /r/ ([ɹ])
never actually makes contact
 2.4. Place of articulation
sounds are made with the tongue front,
Palato-alveolar raised up to the area between alveolar
/ʃ ʒ tʃ dʒ/
ridge & hard palate
differences? => try /s/, /r/, then /ʃ/
NOTE: some authors put /r ʃ ʒ tʃ dʒ/ under the common category of “post alveolar”.

sounds are made with the tongue

Palatal /j/
body, raised up to the hard palate

Velar sounds are made with the tongue

/k g ŋ/
back raised towards the soft palate

Glottal sounds are made at the glottis

(laryngeal)
/h/
/w/?
=> a double-articulation, a labio-velar glide
 2.5. Manner of articulation
Consonants = at least 02 articulators => flow of air changes (stopped, turbulent, or resonate)
Manner of articulation defines the degree of constriction/ stricture that is made
=> tells us how the sound is produced
=> 03 possible types of stricture => 05 groups of consonants sounds

Nature of Effect of
stricture stricture

▪ Complete closure ➢ Forms obstruction which blocks airstream

▪ Close approximation ➢ Forms narrowing giving rise to friction
▪ Open approximation ➢ Forms no obstruction but changes shape of vocal tract,
thus altering nature of resonance

Source: Collins et al., 2019

2.5.1. Oral stop/Plosive
Oral stops/Plosives are made with a complete closure in the oral cavity, with the
velum raised, which allows the airstream to escape through the mouth

(the airstream is completely stopped and suddenly released)

=> /p b t d k g/

/p b/ /t d/ /k g/

hold stage(Collins et al., 2019)

2.5.2. Nasal (stop)
Nasals (nasal stops) have a stricture of complete closure in the nasal cavity, but the
velum is lowered, which allows the airstream to escape through the nose

(the airstream is completely stopped and suddenly released)

=> /m n ŋ/

/n/ /ŋ/ /m/

hold stage(Collins et al., 2019)

2.5.3. Fricative
Fricates are the result of two articulators being in close approximation with each
other => a small gap between the two articulators

(the airstream is partially stopped and gradually released)

=> /f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ h/

/f v/ /θ ð/ /s z/ /ʃ ʒ/

hold stage(Collins et al., 2019)

2.5.4. Affricates
Affricates are plosives which are released into fricatives.

(the airstream is completely stopped and gradually released)

=> /tʃ dʒ/

hold & release stage(Collins et al., 2019)

 2.5. Manner of articulation
2.5.5. Approximants
In an approximant:
▪ "one articulator approaches another, but the degree of narrowing involved
does not produce audible friction." (Crystal, 2008)

▪ "the active articulator moves to narrow the vocal tract, but not so much that
fricative noise is created." (Zsiga, 2013)

▪ "air passes through the vocal tract without generating any friction noise, and
the velum is raised, sealing off the nasal cavities." (Odgen, 2017)
 2.5. Manner of articulation
2.5.5. Approximants

***Airflow
▪ Oral vs. Nasal airflow
▪ Central vs. Lateral airflow
✓ Central airflow is when the air flows down the middle of the vocal tract
✓ Lateral airflow is when the air flows down one or both sides of the vocal
tract
TRY!

/s/ - hold the articulation and then suck air in

# /l/ - hold the articulation and then suck air in
 2.5. Manner of articulation
2.5.5. Approximants
a. Lateral approximant
Approximant with lateral flow => /l/

Arrow indicates passage of airstream without (Collins et al., 2019)

friction over lowered sides of tongue
2.5.5. Approximants
b. Central approximants

Post-alveolar approximant /r/ /j w/ ~ glides/semi-vowels

Palatal approximant /j/ /l r/ ~ liquids
Labial-velar approximant /w/

(Collins et al., 2019)

 02
Practice
 Naming:
state of the larynx /d/ voiced alveolar plosive
English consonants -> place of articulation /θ/ voiceless dental fricative
-> manner of articulation /ŋ/ (voiced) velar nasal
place of
articulation
manner of
articulation
REVISION

/dʒ/ 1. voiced palato – alveolar affricate

/ɡ/ 2. voiced velar plosive
/s/ 3. voiceless alveolar fricative
/b/ 4. voiced bilabial plosive
/m/ 5. (voiced) bilabial nasal
/ʃ/ 6. voiceless palato – alveolar fricative
/k/ 7. voiceless velar plosive
/j/ 8. (voiced) palatal approximant
 REFERENCES
Collins, B., Mees, I. M., & Carley, P. (2019). Practical English phonetics and phonology: A resource
book for students (4th ed.). Routledge.
Cruttenden, A. (2014). Gimson's pronunciation of English (8th ed.). Routledge.
Crystal, D. (2008). A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics (6th ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
Ogden, R. (2017). Introduction to English phonetics (2nd ed.). Edinburgh University Press.
Zsiga, E. C. (2020). The phonology/phonetics interface. Edinburgh University Press.