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Unit 1: Introduction to Operating Systems

1. Define an Operating System. Compare it with a Government.

An Operating System (OS) is system software that acts as an intermediary between computer
hardware and end-users. Its primary role is to manage hardware resources (CPU, memory,
storage, devices) and provide a user-friendly environment for application programs to run. The
OS ensures efficient resource utilization, security, and user convenience by abstracting
hardware complexities and offering standardized interfaces.
Comparison with Government:
The analogy compares the OS to a government, where the OS governs the computer system
much like a government manages a country. In this analogy:
Citizens are like programs or processes, each with their own needs and goals.
Police represent the process scheduler, enforcing rules and ensuring order.
Constitution is akin to system calls and APIs, which define the rules and protocols for
interaction.
Resources (CPU, memory, devices) are managed and allocated by the OS, just as a
government allocates public resources.
The OS, like a government, balances competing demands, enforces policies, resolves conflicts,
and ensures fair and efficient operation.
Diagram:

Users
|
Shell / UI
|
Operating System
|-----------------------------|
| Process | Memory | File Sys |
| Device | Network |
2. Explain the architecture of UNIX Operating System.
The UNIX operating system is designed with a layered architecture, enhancing modularity and
security. The layers are:
1. Hardware Layer: The physical components (CPU, memory, disks, etc.).
2. Kernel: The core of UNIX, managing memory, processes, file systems, device control, and
system calls. It operates in privileged mode and provides essential services to higher layers.
3. Shell: The command interpreter, such as bash or sh, which translates user commands into
actions by the kernel.
4. Utilities and Applications: User-level programs like editors, compilers, and application
software.
This structure allows for clear separation of concerns, making UNIX robust and flexible.
Diagram:

+------------------------+
| Application Programs |
+------------------------+
| Shell |
+------------------------+
| Kernel |
+------------------------+
| Hardware |
+------------------------+

3. Describe the structure of a Virtual Machine (VM). What are its benefits?
A Virtual Machine (VM) is an abstraction that emulates a physical computer system, allowing
multiple OS instances to run on a single hardware platform. The structure includes:
1. Physical Hardware: The actual machine (CPU, memory, storage).
2. Hypervisor (Virtual Machine Monitor): Software layer that creates and manages VMs.
Type 1 hypervisors run directly on hardware; Type 2 run atop a host OS.
3. Virtual Machines: Each VM has its own guest OS and applications, isolated from others.
Benefits:
Hardware Utilization: Multiple VMs share the same hardware, maximizing resource use.
Platform Independence: VMs can run different OSs and versions on the same hardware.
Security and Isolation: Each VM operates independently, reducing risk of interference.
Snapshot and Rollback: VMs can be saved and restored to previous states, aiding in
backup and testing.
Diagram:
 Host Hardware
|
Hypervisor (VMM)
|---- VM1 (Guest OS)
|---- VM2 (Guest OS)

4. Monolithic vs Layered Architecture

Monolithic Kernel:
All OS services run in a single large process in kernel mode. Components communicate through
direct function calls, making it fast but harder to maintain and debug. Faults can affect the entire
system.
Layered OS:
Organized into hierarchical layers, each providing services to the layer above and using services
from the layer below. This modularity improves maintainability and fault isolation, but can
introduce performance overhead due to additional abstraction.

Feature Monolithic Kernel Layered OS

Structure One large code base Organized in layers

Security Hard to manage Easier fault isolation

Performance High Lower due to overhead

5. System Calls and Their Categories

System calls are the programming interface between user applications and the OS, allowing
programs to request services such as file operations, process management, and inter-process
communication.
Categories and Examples:
1. Process Control: fork(), exec(), wait()
2. File Management: open(), read(), write(), close()
3. Device Management: ioctl(), read(), write()
4. Information Maintenance: getpid(), alarm()
5. Communication: pipe(), shmget(), send(), recv()
System calls provide a controlled, secure way for applications to interact with hardware and
system resources.
Unit 2: Process and Thread Management

1. Process Control Block (PCB)

A Process Control Block (PCB) is a data structure maintained by the OS for every process. It
stores all information needed to manage and track the process’s execution.
Fields in PCB:
Process ID: Unique identifier for the process.
Process State: Current status (Running, Waiting, Ready, etc.).
Program Counter: Address of the next instruction to execute.
CPU Registers: Values of all CPU registers for context switching.
Memory Management Info: Details about memory allocated to the process.
Accounting Info: CPU usage, process priority, etc.
I/O Status Info: List of I/O devices assigned, open files, etc.
Diagram:

+----------------------+
| Process ID |
| State |
| Program Counter |
| CPU Registers |
| Memory Info |
| Accounting Info |
| I/O Status Info |
+----------------------+

2. User vs Kernel Threads

User Threads:
Managed by user-level libraries, not visible to the OS. They are faster to create and switch but if
one thread blocks (e.g., on I/O), all threads in the process block.
Kernel Threads:
Managed by the OS kernel. Each thread is individually scheduled, allowing true parallelism on
multiprocessors. However, creation and context switching are slower due to kernel involvement.

Feature User Threads Kernel Threads

Creation Faster Slower

OS Support Not required Required

Switching User-level System-level

3. CPU Scheduling with Gantt Charts
Given:
Processes: P1=10, P2=1, P3=2, P4=1, P5=5; Arrival=0 for all.
FCFS (First Come First Serve):
Gantt: P1 | P2 | P3 | P4 | P5
0 10 11 13 14 19

SJF (Shortest Job First):

Gantt: P2 | P4 | P3 | P5 | P1
0 1 2 4 9 19

Priority (Lower number = Higher Priority):

Priorities: P2=1, P5=2, P1=3, P3=3, P4=4
Gantt: P2 | P5 | P1 | P3 | P4
0 1 6 16 18 19

Turnaround Time (TAT): Completion Time - Arrival Time

Waiting Time: TAT - Burst Time

4. Context Switching
Context switching is the process of saving the state of a currently running process and loading
the state of the next scheduled process. It involves storing the current process's PCB, updating
CPU registers, and loading the next process's PCB. While essential for multitasking, context
switching adds overhead, as CPU cycles are spent on administrative tasks rather than executing
user processes.

5. Need for Scheduling

Scheduling is vital to:
Maximize CPU utilization by keeping it busy.
Reduce response time for user interactions.
Ensure fairness among processes.
Prevent starvation, where some processes never get CPU time.

Unit 3: Process Synchronization and Deadlocks

1. Peterson's Solution
Peterson’s Solution is a classic software-based algorithm for achieving mutual exclusion between
two processes. It uses two shared variables: flag[] (indicates intent to enter critical section) and
turn (whose turn it is). Each process signals its intention and sets the turn to the other, then waits
if the other process also wants to enter and it’s their turn.
Pseudo-code:

flag[i] = true;
turn = j;
while (flag[j] && turn == j);
// critical section
flag[i] = false;

This solution ensures mutual exclusion, progress, and bounded waiting.

2. Semaphores
A semaphore is a synchronization primitive used to control access to shared resources.
Binary Semaphore: Can be 0 or 1, similar to a lock.
Counting Semaphore: Can take non-negative integer values.
Operations:
wait(S): If S > 0, decrement S; else, wait.
signal(S): Increment S.
Semaphores prevent race conditions and ensure mutual exclusion.

3. Banker's Algorithm
The Banker's Algorithm is used for deadlock avoidance. It simulates resource allocation for each
process and checks if the system remains in a safe state. If allocation leads to an unsafe state, it
is denied.
Example Tables:
Allocation: Resources currently allocated.
Max: Maximum resources required.
Available: Currently available resources.
Need: Max - Allocation.
The algorithm checks if all processes can finish with available resources, ensuring no deadlock.
4. Deadlock Conditions
Four necessary conditions for deadlock:
1. Mutual Exclusion: At least one resource is non-shareable.
2. Hold and Wait: Processes hold resources while waiting for others.
3. No Preemption: Resources cannot be forcibly taken away.
4. Circular Wait: A closed chain of processes exists, each waiting for a resource held by the
next.

5. Resource Allocation Graph

A graphical representation of resource allocation and requests.
Diagram:

P1 --> R1 --> P2 --> R2 --> P1

(Cycle indicates deadlock)

Unit 4: Memory Management

1. Paging vs Segmentation
Paging:
Divides memory into fixed-size pages. Each process has a page table mapping logical pages to
physical frames. It eliminates external fragmentation but can cause internal fragmentation.
Segmentation:
Divides memory into variable-sized segments based on logical divisions (code, data, stack).
Each segment has its own table. It fits user’s view but suffers from external fragmentation.

Feature Paging Segmentation

Division Fixed-size pages Variable segments

Table Page Table Segment Table

Fragmentation Internal External

Diagram:

Logical Address -> Page No + Offset -> Frame No + Offset

2. Page Replacement Algorithms
When a page fault occurs and memory is full, a page replacement algorithm selects a page to
evict:
FIFO: Oldest page is replaced.
LRU: Least recently used page is replaced.
Optimal: Page not needed for the longest future time is replaced.
Example:
Reference String: 7, 0, 1, 2, 0, 3, 0, 4 (Frames = 3)
Calculate page faults for each algorithm.

3. Demand Paging
Demand paging loads pages into memory only when needed. If a required page is not in
memory, a page fault occurs, prompting the OS to fetch the page from disk and update the
page table. This approach saves memory but can cause delays due to page faults.

4. Working Set Model

The working set model defines the set of pages a process has referenced in the last τ time units.
It helps the OS allocate sufficient frames to prevent thrashing (excessive paging), ensuring
efficient memory use and system stability.

5. Local vs Global Replacement

Local Replacement: Each process can only replace its own pages, ensuring fairness.
Global Replacement: Any page in memory can be replaced, possibly leading to unfair
allocation but potentially better overall utilization.

Unit 5: File and Storage Management

1. File Allocation Methods

Contiguous Allocation: Files are stored in consecutive blocks. Fast access but suffers from
external fragmentation.
Linked Allocation: Each block points to the next. No fragmentation, but no random access.
Indexed Allocation: An index block contains pointers to all file blocks. Supports random
access but adds overhead.
Diagram:

Contiguous: [File1][File2][File3]
Linked: [Block1]->[Block2]->[Block3]
Indexed: [Index]->[Block1][Block2][Block3]
2. Disk Scheduling Algorithms
Given Requests: 98, 183, 37, 122, 14, 124, 65, 67; Initial Head = 53
FCFS: Serve requests in order of arrival.
SSTF: Serve the closest request next.
SCAN: Move head in one direction, servicing all requests, then reverse.
LOOK: Like SCAN, but only goes as far as the last request in each direction.
C-SCAN: Like SCAN, but jumps to the beginning after reaching the end.
Diagram:
Plot disk cylinders and head movement for each algorithm.

3. Inode
An inode is a data structure in UNIX file systems that stores metadata about a file, such as:
Owner, group
File size, timestamps
Pointers to data blocks (direct, indirect, double indirect)
The inode does not store the file name; directory entries map names to inode numbers.

4. Free Space Management

Bitmap: Each bit represents a block (0 = free, 1 = used).
Linked List: Free blocks are linked together.
Grouping: A block contains addresses of several free blocks.

5. File Attributes and Structure

Attributes: Name, size, owner, permissions, timestamps.
Structures:
Byte Sequence: Treated as a stream of bytes (Unix).
Record Sequence: Organized as records.
Tree-based: Directories and subdirectories form a tree structure.
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