Physics

Definition:
Physics is the science. Science works according to the scientific method. The “scientific
methods” accepts only reasons, logics and experimental evidence to tell between what is
scientifically correct and what is not.

Thought:
It is thought that the laws of physics do not change from place to place. This is why experiment
carried out in different countries by different scientists—of any religion or race----have always
led to the same result if the experiments have been done honestly and correctly. We also think
that the laws of physics today are the same as they were in the past.
Categories:
The branch of physics covers the following broad categories:
1- Classical Mechanics
2- Electromagnetism
3- Thermal physics
4- Quantum physics
1-Classical Mechanics:
It deals with the motion of bodies under the action of forces . This is often called Newtonian
mechanics as well.
2-Electromagnetism:
It’s objective is to study how charges behave under the influence of electric and magnetic fields
as well as understand how charges can create these fields.
3-Thermal physics:
Thermal physics in which one studies the nature of the heat and the changes that the addition
of the heat brings about in matter.
4-Quantum physics:
It primarily deals with the physics of the small objects such as atoms. Nuclei, quarks, etc.
However, Quantum mechanics will be treated only briefly for lack of time.

Dimensions:
Every physical quantity can be expressed in terms of three fundamental dimensions:
1- Mass (M)
2- Length (L)
3- Time (T)
Dimensions:

Speed (v)

 Definition: Speed is the rate at which an object covers distance. It's calculated as distance
divided by time (v=td).
 Dimensional Analysis:
o Distance (d) has dimensions of [L].
o Time (t) has dimensions of [T].
o Therefore, the dimensions of speed are [T][L]=[LT−1]. (We can also write this as
[M0L1T−1] to explicitly show no mass dependence.)

Acceleration (a)

 Definition: Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity (or speed in one dimension). It's
calculated as change in velocity divided by time (a=ΔtΔv).
 Dimensional Analysis:
o Velocity (or speed) has dimensions of [LT−1].
o Time (Δt) has dimensions of [T].
o Therefore, the dimensions of acceleration are [T][LT−1]=[LT−2]. (Or
[M0L1T−2]).

Force (F)

 Definition: Force is defined as mass times acceleration (F=ma).

 Dimensional Analysis:
o Mass (m) has dimensions of [M].
o Acceleration (a) is change in velocity over time, and velocity is change in
displacement over time. So, acceleration has dimensions of [LT−2].
o Therefore, the dimensions of force are [M]×[LT−2]=[MLT−2].

Energy (E)

 Definition: Energy is the capacity to do work. Work is defined as force times

displacement (W=Fd).
 Dimensional Analysis:
o Force (F) has dimensions of [MLT−2].
o Displacement (d) has dimensions of [L].
o Therefore, the dimensions of energy (or work) are [MLT−2]×[L]=[ML2T−2].
Pressure (P)

 Definition: Pressure is defined as force per unit area (P=F/A).

 Dimensional Analysis:
o Force (F) has dimensions of [MLT−2].
o Area (A) has dimensions of [L2].
o Therefore, the dimensions of pressure are [MLT−2]/[L2]=[ML−1T−2]

Example # 1:

d = vt + ½ at2

[L] = [LT-1][T] + [LT-2][T2]

[L] = [L] + [L]

Example # 2:

d = v + at2

[L] = [LT-1] + [LT-2][T2]

[L] = [LT-1][T] + [L]

 You can’t add quantities that have different dimensions. So force can be added to force,
but force can never be added to energy, etc. A formula is definitely wrong if the
dimensions on the left and right sides of the equal sign are different.
 We can be used different units to measure the same physical quantity. So, for example,
you can measure the mass in units of kilograms, pounds, or even in sair and chatak!
MKS= Meter Kilogram-Second system
1 mile = 5280 feet , 1 meter = 3.28 feet, 1 hour = 3600 sec
Miles -> feet -> meters
1mile/hr = 5280 feet/hr -> 5280 feet/3.28m -> 1609.75m/hr
=1609.75/3600
= 0.447m/s

1mi/hr =1mi/hr * 5280ft/mi * 1m/3.28ft * 1/3600hr/s = 0.477m/s

Lecture – 2 (Kinematics - I )
Distance and Displacement
 x(t) is called displacement and it denotes the position of a body at time. If the
displacement is the positive then that body is to the right of the chosen origin and
if negative, then it is to the left.
 Distance:
l
ϴ=
r
L = ϴr
π
where ϴ is in radian i.e., ϴ =
2
π l
So; =
2 r
πr
L=
2
Displacement:
Displacement = r¿ r √ 2
Average Speed and Velocity
 Velocity is defined as the rate of change of position with respect to time.
d
V=
t

 The change in position or displacement divided by time intervals in which the

displacement occurs.

total displacement
Avg.Velocity =
total time
Δx
V=
Δt
 Speed is defined as the rate at which an object covers distance.
d
V=
t

 If the body is moving with average speed “v” then in time “t” will cover a
distance “d”.
d = vt
average speed = distance travelled in time Δt / Δt

Remember:
Displacement ≤ Distance
Avg Velocity ≤ Avg. Speed
So; average velocity is less than or equal to average speed.
 We define instantaneous velocity at any time “t” as:
 ds
V= =tanϴ
dt

x(t2) – x(t1) / t2 - t1 = Δx/Δt

here Δx and Δt are both very small quantities that tend to zero but their ratio “v”
does not.

 Acceleration is defined as rate of change of velocity.

v
a=
t
 Average Velocity is defined as total change in velocity by total time.
v 1−v 2
a=
t 1−t 2
 Instantaneous acceleration
dv
a = =tanϴ
dt

Remember:
Retardation = - acceleration
 here Δx and Δt are both very small quantities that tend to zero but their ratio “v”
does not. Negative acceleration is called “deceleration”. The speed of a
deceleration body decreases with time.
 For constant acceleration a body that starts from rest at t = 0, v increases linearly
with time, v α t (or v = at)
Vector
 Vectors are quantities that has a size as well as direction is called vector. So, for
example, the wind blows with some speed and in some direction. So, the wind
velocity is a vector. OR
 Vector are the quantities that has some magnitude as well as direction is called
vector.
 Scalor = only magnitude
 Vector = magnitude + direction
 In one dimension, a vector has only one component (call it the x-component).
 In two dimensions, a vector has both “x” and “y” components.
 In three dimensions, the component are along the x,y,z axes.
 Two vectors can be added together geometrically. We take any one vector, move
it without changing it’s direction so that both vectors start from the same point,
and then make a parallelogram. The diagonal of the parallelogram is the resultant.
→ → →
C = A + B
 Two vectors can also be added algebraically. In this case, we simply add the
components of the two vectors along each axis separately.
  when two vectors are joined tail to tail, the resultant is the diagonal of their
parallelogram/essentially the difference between them.

Remember:

 Tail-to-tail joining ➜ difference of the vectors. A2

 Tail-to-head joining ➜ sum of the vectors.

|R| = √A2 + B2 + ABcosϴ

Bsinϴ
Tanα ¿
A +Bcosϴ

Special cases:

1- ϴ = 0 degree:

Means both the vectors are in same direction. The angle between them is zero. Its
resultant value is maximum.

 AB |R| = A + B

2- ϴ =180 degree:

Means both the vectors are in opposite direction. The angle between them is 180 degree.
Its resultant value is minimum. The resultant is the difference between A and B.

 AB |R| = A ~ B

1- ϴ = 90 degree:

If two vectors are inclined in 90 degree. The angle between them is 180 degree. Its
resultant value is minimum. The resultant will be.

Magnitude = |R| = √A2 + B2 + ABcosϴ

Bsinϴ B
Direction = Tanα ¿ OR Tanα ¿
A +Bcosϴ A
 Lecture – 3 (Kinematics - II)
 The derivative shows how fast a function changes when its
argument is changes. Remember that for f(x) we say that f is
function that depends upon the argument x.
 Functions do not always have to be written as f(x), x(t) is also
a function. It tells us where a body is at different times t.
 Also, note that if we measured distances from the group up,
then the acceleration would be negative.
→ →
 The scalar product of the two vectors A and B is defined as:
→ →
A . B = ABcosϴ
You can think of :
→ →
A . B = (A)(B)cosϴ
→ → →
=(length of A) * (projection of B on A)
OR → →
A . B = (B)(Acosϴ)
→ → →
=(length of B) * (projection of A on B)

Remember that for the unit vectors i.j = j.j = 1 and i.j = 0.

Lecture – 4 (Force and Newton’s law)

 Ancient view; objects tend to stop if they are in motion; force
required to keep something moving. This was a natural thing
to believe in because we see objects stop moving after some
 time; frictionless motion is possible to see only in rather
special circumstances.
 Types of forces
1- Balanced force: all forces are equal.
2- Unbalanced force: all forces are unequal.
 Modern view; objects tend to remain in their initial state;
force is required to change motion. Or body naturally oppose
changes in their state of rest or motion. Resistance to changes
in motion is called inertia. Motion inertia means it is harder
to make a body accelerate or decelerate.
 Newton’s first law: An object will remain at rest or move
with constant velocity unless acted upon by new external
force. (A non-accelerating reference frame is called an
inertial frame; Newton’s first holds only in inertial frames.)
 More force leads to more acceleration:
a α F
 The greater the mass of a body, the harder it is to change
its state of motion. More mass means more inertia. In
other words, more mass leads to less acceleration:
a α 1/m
combine both the above observations to conclude that:
a α F/m
 Newton’s second law: a α F/m (or, if you prefer, write as
F=ma).
 F=ma is one relationship between three independent
quantities (m,a,f). acceleration is measured from observing
the rate of change of velocity; mass is a measure of the
amount of matter in a body (two identical cars have twice
the mass of a single one). Forces (due to gravity, a
stretched spring, repulsion of two like charges, etc).
 Force has dimensions of [mass]*[acceleration] = MLT-2.
In the MKS system the unit of force is the newton. It has
the symbol N where:
1 Newtons = 1 kilogram.meter/second2.
 Forces can be internal or external. For example the natural
attraction of atoms within a block of wood are called
internal forces.
 In application of F = ma, remember that F stands for the
total external force upon body.
 Forces are vectors, and so they must be added vertically:
→ → → →
F = F1 + F2 + F3 +…………..
this means that the components in the x direction must be
added separately, those in the y direction separately, etc.
 Galileo had established this important fact when he
dropped different means from the famous leaning tower of
Pisa!
 The weight of a body W is the force which gravity exerts
upon it, W=mg. Mass and weight are two completely
different quantities. So, for example, if you used a spring
balance to weight a kilo of grapes on earth, the same
grapes would weigh only 1/7 kilo on the moon.
 Newton’s third law: for every action there is an equal and
opposite reaction. More precisely, FAB = -FBA where FAB is
the force exerted by body B upon A whereas FBA is the
force exerted by body A upon B. if this was not true than
in that case, a system of two bodies, even if it is
completely isolated from the surroundings, would have a
net force acting upon it because the net force acting upon
both bodies would be FAB + FBA ≠ 0.

SI.No Mass Weight

 .
1 The mass is scalar quantity. The weight is a
vector quantity.
2 Mass of a rigid body is The weight if a
regular everywhere in the rigid body alters
universe. from place to place
and inclines zero
at the center of the
earth.
3 Mass can be resulted by Weight can be
traditional balance. defined as spring
balance.
4 The unit mass is kg or g. The unit of weight
is newton.
5 Mass can never be zero. Weight can be
zero based on the
gravity acting
upon it.
6 Mass does not change Weight changes
based on location. based on the
location,
depending on the
gravity it
experiences.
7 Mass is measured using an Weight is
ordinary weighing scale. measured using
spring balance.

Lecture – 7

Work
 Work is done when a force produces motion is produces in a
body. Its SI unit is joule (J).
“works is done when a force causes displacement in the
direction of applied force. ”
Condition:
1- Force should be applied on the body.
2- Body should be displaced.
Formula:
W= f*s
Cases in work done:
1- In the same direction:
When force and displacements are in the same direction the angle
between them is zero so the work done by them is same.
W= f*s cosϴ ϴ = 0 degree
W= f*s cos(0)
W= f*s
2- In the opposite direction:
When force and displacements are in the opposite direction the
angle between them is 180 degree so the work done by them is
negative.
W= f*s cosϴ ϴ = 180 degree
W= f*s cos(180)
W= -f*s

3- In the direction of gravitational force:

4- When force and displacements are perpendicular to each other the
angle between them is 90 degree so the work done by them is zero.
W= f*s cosϴ ϴ = 90 degree
W= f*s cos(90)
 W= 0
Energy:
Energy is defined as the ability to do work. Its unit is the same as
that of the work. Energy is a scalar quantity.
SI unit:
SI unit of energy is joule.

Kinetic energy:
Kinetic energy is the energy an object has due to its motion,
whether horizontal or vertical. It is always positive and always
depends on the mass and velocity of an object.
Equation:
The equation of K.E is:
1
K.E = 2
mv 2

Potential energy:
Potential energy is the energy an object has due to its position,
properties or forces acting on it. It allows the object to do more
work. It is independent of the path.
Equation:
The equation of P.E is:
P.E = mgh

Lecture – 8
Conservation of energy:
According to law of conservation of energy, energy can neither be created
nor be destroyed. It can, however, be transformed from one form to another.
When all forms of energy are considered, the total energy of an isolated
system remains constant.

Power:
Power is defined as the rate of doing work. It is equivalent to the amount of
energy consumed per unit time.
Formula:
 work done W
P = time taken = t
1 watt is defined as the power required to do 1 joule of work per second.
Larger rates of energy transfer are measured in kilowatts.
Average power is calculated by dividing the total energy consumed by the
total time taken, useful when power varies over time.
energy E
P = timetaken = t
E = P*t
When we read “unit” anywhere we have to remember that we have to find
energy in KWh.

Lecture – 9-10

Momentum:
Collision:
Lecture – 11
Rotational Kinematics:

Angular displacement:
Angular displacement (θ) is the angle, in radians (or degrees), through
which a body rotates around a fixed axis between two positions.
Direction of ϴ by right hand thumb rule. ϴ is dimensionless
quantity its unit is radian.
Relationship between linear displacement and angular
displacement:
S=rϴ
Angular velocity:
Angular velocity (ω) is the change in angular displacement per unit time.

Formula:
dϴ
ω = dt
Average angular velocity:
ϴ2−ϴ1
ω = t 2−t 1
Instantaneous angular velocity:
 dϴ
ω = dt

ω is also an axial vector means its along its axis. And unit of ω is radian/ sec.

Rotation:
A rigid body is said to be in pure rotation if every particle of the body moves
in the circle and the centers of all the circle lies on straight line called the
axis of rotation.

Lecture – 15 to 16
Oscillation:
A type of motion in which particles move back and forth about a mean
position.
Example:
1- Simple pendulum
2- Spring mass system
Simple harmonic motion:
A type of oscillation in which;
1- Acceleration of particle is directly proportional to displacement of particle
from mean position.
2- Acceleration is always directed opposite to displacement.
a α –x
x = A sinϴ
ϴ
also; ω= t
ϴ=¿ ωt

So; x = A sin ωt
Also; x = A sin (ωt + φ)
Hence; displacement in SHM is represented as;
x = A sin (ωt + φ)
Velocity and Acceleration of particle;
 Velocity;
x = A sin (ωt + φ)
dx
v = dt
dAsin (ωt +φ)
v=
dt

v = Acos¿) ( d (ωtdt+ φ) )
v = Acos¿)(ω )

v = Aω cos¿)

so Velocity of a particle is:

v = Aω cos¿)

acceleration:
dv
a = dt

a= ( d ( A ω cosdt ( ωt +φ )) )
a = Aω ( ) dt
−sin ( ωt +φ ) d ( ωt +φ )
dt

a = −ω 2 Asin ( ωt +φ )
i.e., equal to x = A sin (ωt + φ)
a = −ω 2 x
so; acceleration of a particle is
a = −ω 2 Asin ( ωt +φ )
K.E, P.E and T.E in SHM;
1
K.E = 2 m ω 2 ( A 2−x 2 )
k = m ω2
1
P.E = 2 k ω 2
1
P.E = 2 m ω 2 ( x 2 )
T.E = K.E + P.E
1 1
= 2 m ω 2 ( A 2−x 2 ) + 2 m ω 2 ( x 2 )

1 1 1
= 2 m ω 2 A 2− 2 mω 2 x 2+ 2 mω 2 x 2

1
T.E = 2 m ω 2 A 2

Time period of pendulum: