StructuraliSm

1. Sign Signifier Signified

2. *Structuralist literary criticism*: looks at literature by focusing on hidden structures like language, systems, and
patterns. Based on Ferdinand De Saussure’s ideas, it says meaning comes from the relationships between parts of a
text and culture, not from the text alone. Saussure explained language as a system of signs made of the signifier
(word or symbol) and the signified (idea it represents). Structuralist critics study how meaning is built through story
patterns, binary oppositions, and genres.

Thinkers like Claude Lévi-Strauss and Roland Barthes applied this to myths and culture, believing all stories share
basic structures from human thought and society. Vladimir PProp, for example, found repeated characters and story
steps in Russian folktales. Structuralists care less about the writer’s intention or history, and more about how texts
reflect cultural meaning. Though later questioned by post-structuralism, structuralism still helps us understand texts
by finding patterns and systems behind meaning.

3. The concept of Langue and Parole was introduced by Swiss language expert Ferdinand de Saussure in his book
Course in General Linguistics (1916). These ideas are important in structuralist language studies and help us
understand language better. Langue means the shared system of rules in a language, like grammar, vocabulary, and
sentence structure. It is social, not personal, and used by the whole community. Langue stays mostly the same over
time and makes communication possible.

Parole, on the other hand, is the real use of language in speaking and writing. It shows personal choices and
different ways people speak or write. Parole is active, changes often, and is special to each person. Saussure said
that studying Langue is important because it gives the structure needed for communication, but Parole is also
needed to use language in real life. This difference between Langue and Parole helped create later language theories
like structuralism and semiotics, and showed how language works both as a social system and a way for personal
expression.

4. Post-structuralism is a critical theory that emerged in the mid-20th century as a response to structuralism. It
challenges the idea that language, meaning, and reality are fixed. Instead, it says they are changeable and depend
on context. Thinkers like Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault, and Roland Barthes believed that texts do not have one
true meaning. Meaning comes from history, power, and the way we understand things.

A key idea is deconstruction, by Derrida. It questions opposites in language like good/evil or male/female, showing
they are made by society and not natural. These opposites often hide unfair power. Foucault explained how power
shapes what people think is true, showing that truth is affected by history and control, not just facts.

Post-structuralism also says that identity is not fixed. It is shaped by language and culture. Barthes’ idea of the ”death
of the author” means that meaning comes from the reader, not just the writer. Overall, post-structuralism
encourages people to keep questioning meaning, identity, and knowledge. It is still important in many areas like
literature and cultural studies.

5. Structuralism and post-structuralism are two major ideas used to study language, culture, and society.
Structuralism, based on Ferdinand de Saussure’s ideas, looks at the hidden systems that create meaning. It says
language and culture work through binary oppositions (like good/bad) and that meaning comes from differences
between signs. Thinkers like Claude Lévi-Strauss used this to study myths and customs, seeing them as systems that
follow shared rules.

Post-structuralism came as a response to structuralism. It argues that meaning is not fixed and depends on context,
power, and how things are spoken about. Jacques Derrida’s idea of deconstruction shows that language is unstable
and texts can have many meanings. Michel Foucault said that power shapes knowledge, and what people see as
truth is often based on history and social forces.
Structuralism tries to find clear systems behind meaning, but post-structuralism questions those systems.
Structuralists believe in stable meaning, while post-structuralists believe meaning is uncertain and always changing.
This shift from certainty to questioning is the main difference, and it has shaped how we study literature, philosophy,
and culture.

6. In structuralism, Ferdinand de Saussure defines the “sign” as the basic unit of meaning in language. A sign has
two parts: the Signifier (the word, sound, or image) and the Signified (the idea it represents). For example, the word
“tree” is the Signifier, and the image or idea of a tree in the mind is the Signified. Their connection is arbitrary,
meaning there’s no natural reason the word “tree” means that object. Different languages use different words for
the same thing, showing this. Saussure also said signs gain meaning through differences from other signs—like how
“bat” is understood by not being “cat” or “rat”.

He also separated langue (the shared system of language rules) from parole (individual speech or writing). He
believed meaning comes from langue, not just personal use. This idea influenced thinkers like Roland Barthes and
Jacques Derrida, who showed that meaning is shaped by culture and context, not just the words themselves.

Q. Ferdinand de Saussure, a Swiss linguist, is known as the father of modern linguistics and an important thinker in
structuralism. His ideas, shared in Course in General Linguistics (1916), influenced many fields like anthropology,
literature, and philosophy. Saussure said language is a system of signs, each made of a signifier (word or sound) and
a signified (the idea it represents). This changed the focus from language history to how language works as a system
at one time.

A key part of his theory Is the difference between langue and parole . Langue is the shared system of rules in a
language, and parole is how individuals speak or write. He said that words get meaning not from objects but from
their differences from other words. This idea became central to structuralism and influenced thinkers like Lévi-
Strauss, Barthes, and Derrida.

Saussure’s focus on hidden language structures led to new ways of studying culture and society as systems of related
parts. He showed that meaning is not fixed, but made through relationships. This changed how people study
language and signs, making Saussure a key figure in structuralist theory.
 FeminiSm
1. Defference between feminist female and feminine
2. Ecritore Feminine
3. Feminist literary theory
4. Gyno criticism
5. Julier Christopher
6. 3 phases of women’s writing
7. What is feminism

Q. The words feminist, female, and feminine are related but have different meanings. A feminist is someone who
supports equal rights for all genders. Feminism fights unfair treatment and stereotypes and is open to everyone, not
just women. It is a belief system, not based on gender or looks.

The word female is about biological sex. It describes people who are born with certain physical features, like the
ability to have children or produce eggs. In humans, this usually means women, but the word female is a neutral,
scientific term. It does not include behavior, style, or beliefs.

Feminine means the qualities or behaviors that are often linked to girls or women in a culture. Things like being
caring, gentle, or emotional are sometimes called “feminine.” But these ideas are different in every culture and time.
Most importantly, femininity is a social idea, not something fixed. Anyone, no matter their gender or sex, can show
feminine traits.

Q. Écriture féminine, or “women’s writing,” is an idea from French feminists like Hélène Cixous, Luce Irigaray, and
Julia Kristeva in the 1970s. It challenges male-dominated writing and supports a style that shows women’s real
feelings and experiences. Based on post-structuralist ideas, it works to break down the language systems that have
often left out women’s voices.

In her famous essay The Laugh of the Medusa (1975), Cixous encouraged women to write about their bodies, desires,
and llive, which are often silenced in male writing. Écriture féminine is free, emotional, and non-linear, unlike
traditional writing, which follows male logic and order.

This kind of writing is for anyone, and it aims to change how language works, giving women a way to express
themselves and fight against control. It still influences feminist writing and modern thought today.

Q. Feminist literary theory is a way of studying literature by looking at how gender affects writing and meaning. It
started in the late 20th century as part of the feminist movement. This theory challenges old literary views that
often ignored or misrepresented women. It looks at topics like patriarchy, gender roles, and female power in stories.
Feminist critics study how books show women—often as weak or dependent —and how society and power shape
these stories.

Important thinkers include Virginia Woolf, who in A Room of One’s Own (1929) said women need freedom and
money to create. Simone de Beauvoir, in The Second Sex(1949), showed how society creates ideas about women.
Later, Elaine Showalter focused on women’s writing, and Judith Butler, in Gender Trouble (1990), questioned fixed
gender roles. Today, feminist theory includes many forms, like liberal, radical, and intersectional feminism, and it
has also helped shape queer and postcolonial studies.

Q. Gynocriticism is a branch of feminist literary criticism that studies women’s writing, focusing on female authors,
creativity, and experiences. Coined by Elaine Showalter in A Literature of Their Own (1977), it aims to create a
separate tradition of women’s literature, apart from male-centered criticism. Unlike other feminist criticism that
looks at how women are shown in men’s writing, gynocriticism focuses on women as writers. It studies themes,
styles, genres, and language in female-authored texts to define women’s literary tradition. Showalter identified
three phases; the feminine phase (copying male styles), the feminist phase (protesting male dominance), and the
female phase (finding women’s own voice).

Gynocriticism examines women’s writing through psychological, cultural, and historical views to understand female
creativity. It highlights how women’s experiences, often ignored in patriarchal societies, appear in their work.
Themes like gender identity, female sexuality, motherhood, and oppression are central. Important figures include
Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar, who in The Madwoman in the Attic (1979) studied how 19th-century women writers
struggled against patriarchal limits.

Q. Julier Christopher is an important feminist thinker known for her work in psychoanalysis and language. She
focuses on how identity and language are complex. Kristeva’s idea of the “semiotic” (linked to feelings and the
mother) comes before the “symbolic” order of language and rules, challenging male-centered systems that ignore
women’s voices. She also introduced “abjection,” showing how societies reject what they see as dirty, especially
linking this to the maternal body. Patriarchal cultures push down the maternal to keep control. This idea is key in
feminist debates about gender and the body.

Christopher’s feminism is complex and sometimes debated. She criticizes feminism based on fixed identities, saying
strict categories of “women” can be limiting. Instead, she supports a flexible, changing idea of self, matching post-
structuralist feminism that questions strict gender categories.

Q . Feminism is a belief and movement that supports equal rights and chances for all people, especially between
men and women. It fights against unfair treatment, stereotypes, and social rules that make women and other
genders less equal. Anyone who wants to stop these unfair rules can be a feminist. Feminism works to remove
systems that keep gender unfairness and wants everyone to have the same opportunities in life, work, and society.

Feminism also looks at how culture, society, and history affect ideas about gender roles and who we are. It
challenges the way women have been shown as weak or less important and focuses on women’s rights and
experiences. There are different kinds of feminism, like liberal, radical, and intersectional, which also consider race,
class, and sexuality. Overall, feminism wants a fair and respectful world where everyone’s rights are recognized and
valued.

Q. The 3 phases of women’s writing in feminism, identified by Elaine Showalter, show how women’s writing and
feminist ideas have grown. These are the Feminin, Feminist, and Female phases, showing how women dealt with
male control and found their voices.

In the Feminin phase, women copied male styles and often used male pen names to be accepted. Writers like
Charlotte Brontë and George Eliot showed women’s creativity while following social rules. In the Feminist phase,
women fought for rights and challenged society. Writers like Virginia Woolf and Kate Chopin spoke about equality
and freedom. In the Female phase, women focused on self-discovery and identity, writing about women’s
experiences without following male ideas. Thinkers like Simone de Beauvoir and writers like Toni Morrison and
Margaret Atwood embraced women’s true voices. These phases show the growing strength of feminist writing.
 marxiSm:

1. Comment on base and superstructure / Model of society

Q The Marxist model of society is based on the idea of base and superstructure. The base includes the economic
system—how goods are produced and the relationships between people involved in production. This economic base
shapes the superstructure, which consists of political institutions, laws, culture, and ideas that help keep the existing
social order.

The base acts as the foundation for the superstructure. The mode of production—whether capitalism, feudalism, or
socialism—determines social relations and influences the superstructure. For example, in capitalism, the owners of
production (the bourgeoisie) hold economic power, which leads to laws and institutions that protect their interests.
The superstructure then supports the base by promoting the ruling class’s ideas through religion, education, and
family, helping to maintain their control over society.

Q. Antonio Gramsci’s idea of Hegemony explains how one social class controls others not just by force, but through
culture and ideas. He said the ruling class keeps power by shaping society’s beliefs and values, making their views
seem natural. This happens through institutions like schools, religion, media, and family, which he called “civil
society.” Civil society works with the government and police (“political society”) to maintain control. Together, they
create a cultural Hegemony where the ruling class’s ideas are accepted as common sense.

Gramsci also believed hegemony isn’t permanent. It can be challenged by “organic intellectuals”—people from
oppressed groups who promote new ideas and help raise awareness. These thinkers play a key role in organizing
resistance against the dominant class.

Q. Vulgar Marxism is a simple and limited way of understanding Marxist theory that misses its deeper ideas. It sees
the economy as the only force shaping all parts of society like culture, politics, and beliefs. This view ignores the
complex relationship between the economic base and the Superstructure. Vulgar Marxism thinks the economy
directly controls everything else without allowing for any influence back or human choices. It also reduces literature,
art, and culture to just reflections of class and money, missing their unique artistic and independent qualities.

Thinkers like Antonio Gramsci, Georg Lukács, and the Frankfurt School criticized vulgar Marxism. Gramsci focused
on cultural power and struggles over ideas, while Lukács stressed the whole picture and awareness of class. They
called for a better and more flexible understanding of how the base and Superstructure affect each other.

Q. Russian Formalism was a literary movement in Russia during the 1910s and 1920s. It focused on the form of
literature—like structure, language, style, and techniques—rather than the story, social context, or the author’s
intentions. This new approach looked at what makes a text truly literary. Key figures include Victor Shklovsky, Roman
Jakobson, Boris Eikhenbaum, and Yuri Tynianov. Shklovsky’s idea of “ostranenie” or “defamiliarization” means
making familiar things seem strange to help readers see them differently. Formalists believed literature changes
normal language to create special effects and new perspectives.

They also distinguished between “fabula” (the basic events in order) and “syuzhet” (how the story is arranged). This
helped them study story structure more clearly and ddeeply.

Q.Antonio Gramsci, a Marxist thinker, explained how the ruling class keeps control over society by distinguishing
between “rule” and “hegemony.” Rule means control through force or threats, usually done by the state with the
help of the police, army, or laws. This kind of power makes people obey because they are afraid of punishment and
is used when people do not agree. On the other hand, “hegemony” is a softer and longer-lasting way to control. It
happens when people accept the ideas, values, and beliefs of the ruling class as normal and right. This is done
through schools, religion, media, and family, which shape what people think and believe is best for everyone.
Through hegemony, the ruling class gains leadership in ideas and morals, making their way of thinking seem natural
and true.

Gramsci also said hegemony is not fixed; it needs to be kept strong and can change over time. The working class, or
proletariat, can fight against the ruling class’s hegemony by creating a “counter-hegemony” — a new way of thinking
based on their own experiences and needs.

Q. Marxist Literary criticism is a way of studying literature by looking at class struggle, economic systems, and power,
based on ideas from Karl Marx and later Marxist thinkers. It sees literature not just as art but as something shaped
by the real-life conditions and ideas of the time. This type of criticism shows how literature reflects, supports, or
challenges social and economic unfairness in society. A key idea is the relationship between the economic base and
the cultural Superstructure—where the economy influences culture, including literature. It looks at how books
support or question capitalist ideas by exploring themes like class conflict, exploitation, alienation, and resistance.

Critics study who has power in a story, how wealth and work are shown, and how characters fit into social classes.
They also consider the author’s background and the time when the book was written. Literature is seen as both
shaped by and shaping ideas, often showing the struggle between the ruling class (bourgeoisie) and the working
class (proletariat).

****Georg Lukacs and Antonio Gramsci***

Q. Leninist Marxism, also known as Marxism-Leninism, is a political and ideological development of classical
Marxism as interpreted and adopted by Vladimir Lenin. While Karl Marx believed a spontaneous proletarian
revolution would arise from class struggle, Lenin thought such a revolution needed a well-organized and disciplined
party to lead the working class. The main idea of Leninist Marxism is the concept of the Vanguard party, a central
group of professional revolutionaries who guide the proletariat to overthrow capitalist systems. Lenin argued that
workers alone might only develop “trade union consciousness” under capitalism and needed revolutionary theory
to reach true class consciousness. Therefore, the party must educate, organize, and mobilize the people toward
revolution.

Lenin also changed Marx’s idea of revolution in industrially advanced countries, saying that revolution could happen
first in a less developed country like Russia because of the weaknesses of imperialism. He introduced the idea of
imperialism as the highest stage of capitalism, where capitalist nations exploit colonies to keep profits, which delays
internal collapse.

Q. Engelsian Marxism refers to the ideas and development of Karl Marx’s work by his lifelong collaborator, Friedrich
Engels. While Marx focused on analyzing capitalism using historical materialism and dialectical logic, Engels helped
explain and organize Marxist theory, especially after Marx’s death. Engelsian Marxism highlights scientific socialism,
historical progress through dialectical materialism, and the role of the working class in social change. Engels
expanded on Marx’s unfinished ideas, especially in works like *Anti-Darwin and Dialectics of Nature*, where he
applied dialectical ideas to natural science, a topic Marx did not focus on. He also contributed to Marxist views on
the state and family in *The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State*, showing how social institutions
develop from material conditions. Some critics say Engelsian Marxism moves away from Marx’s complex dialectical
method by adding a more fixed and natural view.