Seed

Seeds are part of the reproductive cycle of flowering plants.

Seeds are classified as monocotyledonous (Monocot) or dicotyledonous (Dicot).
Structure of a dicot seed

Structure of a monocot seed

Parts of a seed and their functions
Testa (seed coat): This is the outer-most layer of seed and is responsible for protecting
the seed against physical damage and infection. It is also responsible for dormancy in certain
seeds where it prevents imbibition (entry of water into the seeds)
Plumule: This is the embryonic shoot. It develops into a shoot after germination
Radicle: This is the embryonic root. It develops into roots after germination.
The plumule and radicle together make up the embryo of the seed. The
region of the embryo next to the plumule is called the epicotyl while
the region next to the radicle is called the hypocotyl.
Epicotyl: The upper portion of the embryo and seedling.
Hypocotyl: Part of the seedling stem.
Coleoptile: the protective sheath surrounding the apical meristem of monocots.
Cotyledons: These store food and enzymes in non-endospermic seeds, mainly in dicot seeds.
Dicots have two cotyledons while monocots have one cotyledon.
In most monocot seeds, food is stored in another tissue known as the endosperm. Seeds,
which have the endosperm, are called endospermic seeds while those without the endosperm
are called non-endospermic seeds. The main forms of foods stored in seeds include starch, oils
and proteins.
In some monocot seeds such as maize, the plumule is protected by a sheath called the coleoptile
while the radicle is protected by a sheath called the coleorrhiza.These prevent damage during
germination.
Differences between dicot seeds and monocot seeds
Monocot seeds Dicot seeds
1. Have one cotyledon Have two cotyledons
2. Produce a fibrous root system Produces a taproot system
3. Embryonic radicle points downwards Embryonic radicle points upwards.
4. Endosperm present Endosperm absent.
5. Examples are grasses, lilies or maize Examples of dicot seeds are: legume ( beans,
seeds peas), tomatoes, sunflowers.

Conditions Necessary for Germination

The conditions necessary for the germination of seeds include oxygen, water (moisture) and a
suitable temperature.
Experiment to Show that Oxygen is Necessary for Germination of Seeds
Suggested materials: Soaked maize seeds, cotton wool, two conical flasks, alkaline
pyrogallol, two strings and two stoppers.
Method:
- Label two conical flasks, A and B.
- Put 10 cm3 of water in flask A and 10 cm3 of alkaline pyrogallol in flask B.
- Wrap two sets of maize seeds in moist cotton wool.
- Hang one set of seeds in flask A and the other in flask B as shown below.
- Leave the seeds for about seven days.
The set up of the experiment is shown in the following diagram:

Conical flask A Conical flask B

Observation
The seeds in flask A germinate. However, the seeds in flask B fail to germinate because the
alkaline pyrogallol absorbs oxygen from the air inside the flask. As such, the seeds lacked
oxygen for respiration.
Conclusion
Oxygen is necessary for germination of seeds. It is required for respiration which provides
energy for germination.
Experiment to Show that Water is Necessary for Germination
Suggested Materials: Soaked maize seeds, dry maize seeds, cotton wool, three petri dishes
Method:
- Label the petri dishes A, B, and C.
- Put five soaked seeds in petri dish A.
- Put another five soaked seeds on top of moist cotton wool in petri dish B.
- Put five dry seeds in petri dish C.
- Cover the seeds in dish A completely with water.
- Keep the cotton wool in petri dish B moist all the time by sprinkling it with water.
- Leave the seeds for at least seven days.
Observation:
Seeds in petri dish A do not germinate; seeds in petri dish B germinate while those in
petri dish C do not germinate.
Conclusion
Seeds require suitable amounts of water (moisture) in order to germinate. The water is
imbibed (absorbed) by the seed and is important in the following ways:
- It softens the testa so that it can split to release the plumule and radicle.
- It activates enzymes and provides an aqueous medium for metabolic reactions to
take place.
- It is involved in hydrolysis of complex nutrients in a seed e.g. hydrolysis of starch
to maltose.
Too much water makes the seeds rot. For this reason the seeds in dish A did not
germinate. Seeds in dish C did not germinate because no water is provided for them to
soften the testa and activate enzymes.
Experiment to Show that a Suitable/Favourable Temperature is Necessary for
Germination of Seeds
Suggested Materials: Soaked seeds, cotton wool, 3 pyrex beakers, a fridge and an oven.
Method
- Label the beakers A, B, and C
- Wrap three sets of five seeds in moist cotton wool.
- Place one set in beaker A, one in B and the other in beaker C.
- Put beaker A in a refrigerator at a temperature of 0 oC, beaker B at room temperature
(about 25oC) and beaker C in an oven at a temperature of 50 oC.
- Leave the set up for at least seven days ensuring that the cotton wool remains moist.
Observation
The seeds put in the refrigerator at 0oC (in beaker A) and those put in the oven at 50oC
(in beaker C) fail to germinate while those left at room temperature (in beaker B) germinate.
Conclusion
Very low and very high temperatures are not favourable for seed germination. Seeds at very
low temperature fail to germinate because the enzymes in the embryo become inactive or
less active and as such they do not catalyse the metabolic reactions necessary for
germination. High temperatures (temperatures above optimum) denature the enzymes and
as such no metabolic reactions take place. Hence seeds require a favourable temperature in
order to germinate.
Types of Germination
There are two types of germination, namely epigeal and hypogeal germination.
Epigeal Germination
This is a type of germination where the cotyledons are pushed above the ground by
elongation of the hypocotyl. The plumule is covered by cotyledons and comes out of the
ground with a hooked shape in order to protect the delicate shoot. The cotyledons also
carry out photosynthesis during the first few days before the leaves develop fully.
Examples of seeds that carry out this type of germination are beans. This type of germination is
commonly associated with dicotyledonous seeds .

Hypogeal germination
This is a type of germination where the cotyledons remain underground, due to elongation
of the epicotyl. The plumule is covered with a sheath called the coleoptile to protect it
from abrasion as it pushes out of the soil. Examples of seeds which undergo this type of
germination are monocotyledonous seeds such as maize, sorghum and millet seeds.
Seed Dormancy
Seed dormancy is he state/condition during which a seed carries out minimum metabolism
and does not germinate. Seed dormancy is important in the following ways:
- It gives time for seeds to reach full maturity.
- It prevents the seed from germinating when conditions are harsh. Hence it is a
survival mechanism
Causes of Seed Dormancy
- Hard Testas: In some seeds, the testas are hard and impermeable to water and
oxygen, thereby preventing germination of the seeds.
- Chemical Substances: Some seed embryos have hormones, such as abscicic acid
(ABA) which keep them from germinating.
- Physiological Conditions: Some plant seeds can only germinate if first exposed to
certain conditions of the environment such as cold temperatures, light or darkness.
Dormancy may be broken in the following ways:
- Scarification: This is the physical destruction of hard testa so that a seed becomes
permeable to water and oxygen. It can be done manually or by the action of digestive
juices or gizzards of some animals.
- Soaking Seeds in Water: This softens hard testas in some seeds.
- Exposure to appropriate environmental conditions such as light, darkness and cold
temperatures.
- Exposure to appropriate chemical substances which reverse the effects of chemical
inhibitors of germination e.g. gibberellic acid is thought to reverse the effects of ABA in
some cereals.
Growth in Animals
1. Life cycle of a Mosquito
The mosquito undergoes complete metamorphosis. This is a type of life cycle where the
different stages of the cycle have different body forms (morphologies) from each other and
different behaviours and nutritional requirements. The stages of a mosquito life cycle are
egg, larva, pupa and adult (imago) as summarised in the following diagram.

Eggs are laid in water by female mosquitoes after mating and they hatch into larvae
(singular: larva). Larvae can swim and they feed on phytoplankton and zooplankton. They
eventually develop into pupae (singular: pupa) which are a less active stage that continually
undergoing internal changes. After some time, the adult insect emerges out of the pupa
case (puparium). The adult flies and feeds mainly on plant juices. However, when female
mosquitoes are carrying fertilized eggs, they develop a desire for animal blood which they
need for egg development.
Because of blood sucking, the female Anopheles mosquito is a vector for malaria in humans.
A vector is any organism that transmits parasites from one host to another. Mosquitoes are
said to be biological vectors. A biological vector is one that carries parasites inside its
body systems and the parasite undergoes part of its life cycle inside the vector.
Control of mosquitoes (in order to control malaria) can be targeted against the different
stages of the life cycle in the following ways:
(i) Draining all stagnant pools of water to eliminate eggs, larvae and pupae
(ii) Spraying stagnant water with insecticides and/or oil. Insecticides such as DDT
kill the eggs, larvae and pupae directly. Oil blocks the oxygen supply from the
eggs, larvae and pupae, thereby killing them.
(iii) Biological control (the use of one type of organism called the control agent to
get rid of another – called the target organism – which is a nuisance). The
control agent must be a natural enemy (predator or parasite) of the target
organism. Biological control may also involve interfering with reproduction by
use of radiation or chemicals and the artificial synthesis of chemical substances
normally produced by the target organism to be used in traps.
 (iv) Use of insecticide – treated mosquito nets to trap and kill adult mosquitoes
(v) Clearance of bushes and tall grass where adults normally live before entering
houses
Life Cycle of a House Fly
Like the mosquito, the housefly also undergoes complete metamorphosis during its life
cycle. Its life cycle is summarised in the following diagram:

The female housefly lays eggs in rotting material after mating. The eggs normally hatch into
larvae (commonly called maggots) 8-24 hours after being laid. The larvae feed on rotting
material by sucking the nutrients and move using pads on the lower side of their bodies.
After 4-5 days, the larvae develop into pupae which are immobile and do not feed.
Although the pupae are immobile, a lot of metabolism occurs inside of them and the imago
takes shape within the pupa case known as the puparium. 3 to 4 days later, the imago
breaks out of the puparium. It takes an imago 14 days to reach sexual maturity and the cycle
starts all over again.
Control of Houseflies
Houseflies may be controlled using the following methods;
- Sanitary disposal of refuse and faeces (this reduces the breeding sites for
houseflies).
- Spraying with insecticide (to kill adult flies).
- Use of fly traps e.t.c.
- Cosvering the „mouths‟of pit latrines.