What Are Sociology theories?
A theory is a set of principles that helps us to explain something about the
world. For example, the theory of evolution helps us explain an enormous
variety of evidence about the world, from the fossil record to questions about
DNA. Even within that theory, you’ll find many competing ideas. For example,
gradualism holds that evolutionary changes are slow and gradual, while
punctuated equilibrium argues big changes occur in short spurts that are far
apart.
In the same way, as other scientific theories explain the world, sociological
theories provide us with a framework for explaining the social world around
us. They might ask questions about the nature of social order or about the
kinds of processes that influence social change. There are also many different
types of sociological theory, which look at a wide range of social problems and
issues. That’s why starting with some of the primary perspectives in
sociological theory is an excellent starting point for further exploration.
Major Sociological Theories
The three major sociological theories that new students learn about are the
interactionist perspective, the conflict perspective, and the functionalist
perspective. And each has its own distinct way of explaining various aspects
of society and the human behavior within it. Taking a moment to compare and
contrast sociological theories can provide further context.
Interactionist Perspective
Many sociological theories are what’s called macro-sociology — looking at the
big picture. For instance, macro-sociology might consider how a social
problem like poverty would be influenced by various social institutions. By
contrast, micro-sociology is focused on the dynamics involved between
smaller groups of individuals.
The interactionist perspective is a good example of micro-sociology. This
theory is sometimes called the symbolic interactionist perspective because it
argues that our behavior is deeply influenced by definitions and symbolic
meanings. And it is our symbolic interactions with other members of the
community which creates those definitions and meanings. Our sense of self,
being influenced by social interaction, is also influenced by the way others
choose to label us. Because the labels others give us provide us with a new
view of ourselves.
As such, the interactionist perspective emphasizes the fact that humans react
to their perceived definition of their circumstances, as opposed to what you
might call an objective evaluation. If we were absolutely positive the world was
ending at a particular time and date, whether or not it was a true belief, it
would influence our behavior in a significant way. As a result, the things we
consider real are capable of being real in consequence, even if our beliefs are
incorrect.
Functionalist Perspective
By contrast, the functionalist perspective is a more traditional example of
macro-sociology. It has a heavy emphasis on the interconnected relationships
between various systems within society. In other words, it tends to be more
concerned with how part and whole influence each other. And those parts
have to cooperate and work together in order to keep society in a state of
balance.
Family values, education, knowledge, and culture play an important role in
communicating values to young people. Within this perspective, all the various
aspects of a society are considered functional if they help social stability, or
dysfunctional if they do not. But what is social stability? Even among
functionalists, you’ll find an array of answers.
And some circumstances are more challenging to identify than others; some
aspects of society can even contribute and detract from social instability at the
same time. For instance, crime is associated with social instability. But it can
also be functional by promoting shared moral bonds, social cohesion, and
occasionally helping to readjust social norms. Learn more about sociological
theories about crime.
Conflict Perspective
While functionalism shows us a cooperative picture of society, the conflict
perspective looks at society as being composed of groups with their own
distinct interests. This theory originates from Karl Marx, who viewed human
society as undergoing a series of different stages of economic development.
At the stage of industrialization, separate classes of people emerge, those
who earn wages (proletariat) and those who own the means of production
(bourgeoisie.) The bourgeoisie then use their disproportionate influence to
rearrange society to their advantage, and maintain power differences by using
their control over social institutions to turn them to their own advantage. Some
conflict perspective theorists will claim progress is a zero sum game, and
progress for one group can only come at the expense of another. Others
disagree.
Importantly, conflict theory is not limited to ideas of class. You can define
groups in various different ways, along religious, racial, gender, or political
lines. In each case, the members of those groups will tend to pursue what is in
the interests of their group. And in each case, conflict theory asks us to look at
which groups have power presently, and who is benefiting from currently-
existing social arrangements. For example, men and women suffer from
different types of cancer, at different rates. But how does research funding get
allocated?
