Basics of Computer Networking:

1. What is a Computer Network?

A computer network is a group of two or more interconnected devices (such as

computers, printers, servers, routers, or switches) that can communicate with
each other and share resources like data, files, internet access, and hardware
(e.g., printers or storage devices). These connections can be wired (using
physical cables like Ethernet) or wireless (using technologies like Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth, or infrared).

The main goal of a computer network is to make communication and resource

sharing easier and more efficient. For example, in an office, employees can
share files, access the internet, and use a common printer through a network
instead of using separate resources for each computer.

Networks range in size and complexity—from small Local Area Networks

(LANs) in homes or offices to vast Wide Area Networks (WANs) that span
across countries or the globe, like the internet.

2. Key Terminology in Networking

To understand computer networking better, it's important to learn some

common terms:

 Node: Any device connected to a network is called a node. This includes

computers, printers, routers, switches, and mobile devices.
 Link: This refers to the connection between two or more nodes. It can be
physical (like cables) or wireless (like Wi-Fi or Bluetooth signals).
 Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that define how data is transmitted
over a network. Common protocols include TCP/IP (used for most
internet communication), HTTP (used for web browsing), FTP (for file
transfers), and SMTP (for sending emails).
 IP Address: Every device on a network has an Internet Protocol (IP)
address, which acts like a digital address so that devices can find and
communicate with each other.
 MAC Address: The Media Access Control address is a unique identifier
assigned to a device’s network interface card (NIC) at the hardware level.
 DNS (Domain Name System): DNS translates human-readable domain
names like www.google.com into IP addresses that computers can
understand.
  Firewall: A firewall is a network security system that controls which
traffic is allowed or blocked between networks based on predefined rules.

These terms are the building blocks of networking and help define how devices
interact in both small and large networks.

8. Network Topologies

Network topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of nodes and

links in a network. It determines how devices are connected and how data
flows between them. Here are the main types:

Bus Topology: All devices share a single communication line or cable. Data
travels in both directions, but only one device can send data at a time. It's
simple and cheap but becomes slow and unreliable as more devices are added.

Advantages of Bus Topology

 It is the easiest network topology for linearly connecting peripherals or
computers.
 It works very efficiently well when there is a small network.
 The length of cable required is less than a star topology.
 It is easy to connect or remove devices in this network without affecting
any other device.
 Very cost-effective as compared to other network topology i.e. mesh and
star
 It is easy to understand topology.
 Easy to expand by joining the two cables together.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
 Bus topology is not good for large networks.
 Identification of problems becomes difficult if the whole network goes
down.
 Troubleshooting individual device issues is very hard.
 Need terminators are required at both ends of the main cable.
 Additional devices slow the network down.

Star Topology: All devices are connected to a central device (like a hub or
switch). If one device fails, the rest continue working. However, if the central
hub fails, the whole network stops. This is common in home and office
networks.

Advantages of Star Topology

 It is very reliable as if one cable or device fails then all the others will
still work.
 It is high performing as no data collisions can occur.
 It is less expensive because each device only needs one I/O port and
wishes to be connected to the hub with one link.
 Easy fault detection because the links are often easily identified.
 No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
 Each device requires just one port i.e. to attach to the hub.
 If N devices are connected to each other in star, then the amount of
cables required to attach them is N. So, it's easy to line up.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
 Requires more cable than bus topology.
 If the connecting network device (network switch) fails, the nodes
attached are disabled and can't participate in network communication.
 More expensive than linear bus topology due to the value of the
connecting devices (network switches).
 If the hub goes down everything goes down, none of the devices can
work without the hub.
 Hub requires more resources and regular maintenance because it's the
central system of Star.
 Extra hardware is required (hubs or switches) which adds to the cost.
 Performance is predicated on the one concentrator i.e. hub.

Difference Between Star and Bus Topology

Star Topology Bus Topology

All devices are connected to a

All devices are connected to a central
single central cable (called the
hub
bus)

If a device fails, only that device is

If a device fails, the rest of the
affected, the rest of the network keeps
network keeps working
working

Requires more cable as compared to Bus Requires less cables as compared

Topology to Star Topology

Motly used for small to medium size Mostly used for simple networks
networks having fewer devices

Ring Topology: Each device is connected to two others, forming a circular

path. Data travels in one direction, and each device receives and passes it
along. A break in the ring can stop the entire network unless there are built-in
redundancies.
Advantages of Ring topology :
 In this data flows in one direction which reduces the chance of packet
collisions.
 In this topology additional workstations can be added after without
impacting performance of the network.
 Equal access to the resources.
 There is no need of server to control the connectivity among the nodes
in the topology.
 It is cheap to install and expand.
 Minimum collision.
 Speed to transfer the data is very high in this type of topology.
 Due to the presence of token passing the performance of ring topology
becomes better than bus topology under heavy traffic.
 Easy to manage.
 Ring network is extremely orderly organized where every device has
access to the token and therefore the opportunity to transmit.
Disadvantages of Ring topology :
 Due to the Unidirectional Ring, a data packet (token) must have to pass
through all the nodes.
 If one workstation shuts down, it affects whole network or if a node goes
down entire network goes down.
 It is slower in performance as compared to the bus topology
 It is Expensive.
 Addition and removal of any node during a network is difficult and may
cause issue in network activity.
 Difficult to troubleshoot the ring.
 In order for all the computer to communicate with each other, all
computer must be turned on.
 Total dependence in on one cable.
 They were not Scalable.

Mesh Topology: Every device is connected to every other device. This offers the
highest fault tolerance—if one link fails, data can take another path. It’s highly
reliable but expensive and complex to set up, so it’s used in critical systems.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

 In case of failure of a single device, the entire network didn't break.
 There is no traffic problem as there is a dedicated point to point links
for every device.
 Mesh Topology provides high privacy and security.
 Data transmission is more consistent because failure doesn’t disrupt its
processes.
 Adding new devices won’t disrupt transmission of data.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
 Mesh Topology is costly as compared to the other network topologies i.e.
star, bus, point to point topology.
 Installation of nodes are difficult in mesh topology.
 Power requirement is higher as all the nodes will need to remain active
all the time and share the load.
 Each node requires a extra utility cost.
 More maintenance is required in mesh topology

Tree Topology: This is a hybrid of star and bus topologies. It has groups of
star-configured devices connected to a central bus. It’s scalable and ideal for
larger networks but more complex to manage.

Advantages of Tree Topology

 Efficient Data Transmission:
Data traffic can be efficiently managed within specific branches, reducing
congestion and improving bandwidth usage especially useful in networks
with high data flow.
 Segmentation:
It allows logical division of the network into smaller, manageable units
based on department, location, or function, enhancing isolation, control,
and security.
 Point-to-Point Connection:
The root node maintains point-to-point connections with other nodes,
offering dedicated bandwidth and minimizing data collisions
and congestion.
 Scalability:
Tree topology is highly scalable, allowing expansion by adding branches
and hierarchical levels to the network.
 Flexibility:
It can accommodate diverse sub network types and sizes by using different
hubs and cables.
 Reliability:
Errors can be easily isolated within the network without affecting the root
node, making it more reliable than many other topologies.
 Security:
Tree topology enhances both security and privacy by using dedicated
channels or links for data transmission, making it suitable for sensitive
environments.
 Centralized Control: The structure supports centralized control and
management, which simplifies tasks such as monitoring, troubleshooting,
and overall security management.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
 Single Point of Failure: The root node acts as a single point of failure if
it crashes or is damaged, it can bring down the entire network.
 Parent-Child Dependency: Child nodes rely on their parent nodes for
connectivity. If a parent node malfunctions, the connected child nodes also
stop functioning.
 Difficult Maintenance: Due to its complex structure, maintenance is
not straightforward.
 Complexity: The installation, configuration, and maintenance of this
topology can be complex for multi-level networks.
 Cost: The cost associated with setting this topology up is relatively
high as we require cables, hubs, and various other network devices for its
proper functioning. Hence, the overall cost increases.
 Dependency: In this topology, if the root node and backbone stop
working by any chance, then the overall network will be affected by it.
 Performance degradation: Performance degradation, especially in
downstream branches, occurs due to heavy network traffic or if the root
node becomes overloaded.

Hybrid Topology: Combines two or more topologies to suit specific needs. For
example, a network might use a star layout in one part and a mesh in another.
It offers flexibility and scalability.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
Below are the advantages of hybrid topology:
 Adding a new node or deleting the existing node is easy in hybrid
topologies.
 Hybrid topology is more secure, reliable, and scalable as compared to
individual star, ring and mesh topology.
 Error detection and troubleshooting is easier in hybrid topology.
 When an organization has a large geographical area utilizing hybrid
topology is considered as better option.
 Traffic with large volume is handled easily by the hybrid topology.
 The overall performance and speed is greater in hybrid topology.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
Below are the disadvantages of hybrid topology:
 The design and implementation of hybrid network topology is difficult.
 More number of cables and other physical devices are required for
hybrid topology.
 The process of installation of hybrid topology is difficult.
 The overall implementation, setup and process of hybrid topology is
much more costlier.