REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE

A reversed Carnot Cycle is used for refrigeration and rejects 1000 kW of heat
at 340 K while receiving heat at 250 K.
Determine:
A. COP
B. The Power Required (W)
C. The Refrigerating Effect (QA )
Answers:
A. 2.778
B. 264.7 kW
C. 753.3 kW

REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE FORMULAS:

T1 W = QR − QA
COP =
T2 −T1 QR = W + QA Q
QA W = A
COP = COP
W

QA = QR − W T2 1
= +1
T1 COP
Q A = COP • W
COP • QR Tmax 1
QA = = +1
1 + COP Tmin COP
LEGEND:
FINAL ANSWER

SOLUTION: Initial Answer or

needed value
GIVEN:
QR = 1000 Kw Formulas to use
T1 = 250 K
Cancelled Units
T2 = 340 K

FOR COP FOR THE REFRIGERATING EFFECT (𝐐𝐀 )

T1 250 K COP • QR 2.778 • 1000 kW

COP = = COP = QA = = QA =
T2 −T1 (340 −250) K 1 + COP 1 +2.778

COP = 2.778 𝐐𝐀 = 735.3 kW

FOR THE WORK REQUIRED (W)

W = QR − QA = W = 1000 kW − 735.3 kW

W = 264.7 kW
 A reversed Carnot Cycle has a refrigerating COP of 4.
T
A. What is the ratio Tmax ?
min
B. If the work input is 6 kW, what will be the maximum
refrigerating effect, kJ/min and tons. (QA )
Answers:
A. 1.25
B. 6.82 TR

LEGEND:
Solution: FINAL ANSWER

Initial Answer or
needed value
GIVEN:
COP = 4 Formulas to use
W = 6 kW
Cancelled Units
𝐓𝐦𝐚𝐱
FOR RATIO 𝐓𝐦𝐢𝐧

Tmax 1 Tmax 1
= +1 = = +1
Tmin COP Tmin 4
𝐓𝐦𝐚𝐱
= 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
𝐓𝐦𝐢𝐧

FOR MAXIMUM REFRIGERATING EFFECT (𝐐𝐀 )

1 TOR
QA = COP • W = QA = 4 • 6 kW QA = 24 kW • 3.517 kW = 6.823997725 TR

𝐐𝐀 = 6.82 TR

OTHER WAY (Conversions)

1 hp
QA = COP • W = QA = 4 • 6 kW QA = 24 kW • 0.746 kW = 32.17 hp

BTU
42.4 BTU BTU 1 TR
min
QA = 32.17 hp • = 1364.008 QA = 1364.008 • BTU = 6.82004 TR
1 hp min min 200
min

𝐐𝐀 = 6.82 TR
 A reversed Carnot engine removes 40000 kW from a heat sink. The temperature of
the heat sink is 260 K and the temperature of the heat reservoir is 320 K.
Determine the power required of the engine. (W)

Answer:
9230.7 kW

SOLUTION: LEGEND:
FINAL ANSWER
GIVEN:
QA = 40000 Kw Initial Answer or
T1 = 260 K needed value
T2 = 320 K Formulas to use
Cancelled Units
QA QA
W = = W = T1
COP
T2 −T1

40000 kW
W = 260 K = 9230.768231 kW
(320 −260) K

W = 9230.7 kW or W = 9230.8 kW
PROBLEM 1.1
A refrigerating system operates on the reversed a reversed Carnot cycle. The higher
temperature of the refrigerant in the system is 120ºF and the lower is 10ºF. The capacity
is 20 tons. Neglect losses. Determine:

a.) Coefficient of Performance

b.) Heat Rejected from the System in BTU/min
c.) Net work in BTU/min
d.) Horsepower
e.) P.F and E.E.R
f.) GPM of water circulated in the condenser if the temperature is not
to exceed 10ºF
g.) The change in entropy in BTU/min ºR
h.) Mean effective pressure in psig if the piston displacement is 10 ft 3/s

SOLUTION:

T2 = T3 = Tmax = 120°F + 460 = 580°R LEGEND:

FINAL ANSWER

Initial Answer or
needed value
Formulas to use
Cancelled Units
T1 = T4 = Tmin = 10°F + 460 = 470°R

A. COP
QA
COP = ; Wnet = Win − Wout ; Wnet = QR − QA
Wnet

QA Tmin
COP = = COP = T
QR −QA max −Tmin

470°R
COP = COP = 4.273
(580−470)°R
 LEGEND:
FINAL ANSWER

Initial Answer or
needed value
𝐁𝐓𝐔
B. QR in Formulas to use
𝐦𝐢𝐧

QA QA 1 Cancelled Units
COP = ; QR = + QA ; QR = QA (COP + 1)
QR −QA COP

BTU
200 1 𝐁𝐓𝐔
min
QR = 20 TOR x (4.273 + 1) 𝐐𝐑 = 4936.11 𝐦𝐢𝐧
1 TOR

𝐁𝐓𝐔
C. 𝐖𝐧𝐞𝐭 in 𝐦𝐢𝐧

Wnet = QR − QA
BTU
BTU 200 𝐁𝐓𝐔
min
Wnet = 4936.11 min − 20 TOR x 𝐖𝐧𝐞𝐭 = 936.11 𝐦𝐢𝐧
1 TOR

D. 𝐖𝐧𝐞𝐭 in Horsepower
BTU 1hp
Wnet = 936.11 x BTU 𝐖𝐧𝐞𝐭 = 22.07 𝐡𝐩
min 42.41
min

E. Performance Factor and EER

P.F = COP + 1
P.F = 4.273 + 1 P.F = 5.273
EER = 3.412 (COP)
EER = 3.412 (4.273) EER = 14.58

F. 𝐕̇𝐖 in gpm
Q
QR = mw Cpw ∆t ; mw = Cp R∆t
w

BTU
4936.11 lbm
min
mw = BTU mw = 493.61 min
(1 )(10°F)
lbm−°F

mw mw
ρw = ; Vw =
Vw ρw

lbm
493.61 7.481gal
min
Vw = lbm x 𝐕𝐰 = 𝟓𝟗. 𝟏𝟖𝐠𝐩𝐦
62.4 3 1ft3
ft
 LEGEND:
FINAL ANSWER

Initial Answer or
needed value
Formulas to use
Cancelled Units
𝐁𝐓𝐔
G. ∆𝐒 in 𝐦𝐢𝐧−°𝐑
QA
QA = Tmin ∆S ; ∆S = Tmin

BTU
4000 𝐁𝐓𝐔
min
∆S = ∆𝐒 = 𝟖. 𝟓𝟏 𝐦𝐢𝐧−°𝐑
470°R
QR
QR = Tmax ∆S ; ∆S = Tmax

BTU
4936.11 𝐁𝐓𝐔
min
∆S = ∆𝐒 = 𝟖. 𝟓𝟏 𝐦𝐢𝐧−°𝐑
580°R

H. Mep in psig
Wnet
Mep = VD

BTU
936.11
min ft−lbm 1ft2 lbf
Mep = ft3 60s
x 778.16 x Mep = 8.43in2 or Psia
10 ( ) 1 BTU 144in2
s min

Pabs = Patm + Pg ; Pg = Pabs − Patm

Pabs = 8.43 + 14.7 Mep = -6.27 𝐏𝐬𝐢𝐠

Pg = −Pvac Mep = 6.27 Pvac

PROBLEM 1.2
A reversed Carnot cycle acting as a heat pump is to supply 16,500 BTU/min to heat
rooms of a building to 75ºF when the outside temperature is 60ºF.

a.) If the processes are externally reversible, compute the heat obtained from
the atmospheric air and the power required to operate the cycle.
b.) If the heating is done directly by an electric coil, what amount of
electricity expressed in horsepower is committed?
c.) If the electricity P3.45/kWh and the combined motor and compressor efficiency
is 70%, how much would be the savings on electricity expenses when the system is
used instead of using a direct heater for one day continuous operation?

SOLUTION: LEGEND:
FINAL ANSWER

Initial Answer or
needed value
Formulas to use
A. 𝐐𝐀 =? 𝐖𝐧𝐞𝐭 =?
Cancelled Units
Tmax 535°R
P.F = = = P.F = 35.67
Tmax −Tmin (535−520)°R

QR Q
P.F = ; QA = QR − P.FR
QR −QA

BTU
BTU 16500 𝐁𝐓𝐔
min
QA = 16500 min − 𝐐𝐀 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟑𝟕. 𝟒𝟑 𝐦𝐢𝐧
35.67

Wnet = QR − QA

BTU 1hp
Wnet = [(16500 − 16037.43)] min ( BTU ) 𝐖𝐧𝐞𝐭 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟗𝟏𝐡𝐩
42.41
min

B. 𝐐𝐑 in hp
BTU 1hp
16500 min x BTU 𝐐𝐑 = 𝟑𝟖𝟗. 𝟎𝟔 𝐡𝐩
42.41
min

C. Savings =? (cost per day)

 LEGEND:
FINAL ANSWER

Initial Answer or
needed value
Formulas to use
Cancelled Units
Wnet Wnet
e = ; Pm =
Pm e

10.91hp 0.746kW
Pm = x Pm = 11.63kW
0.7 1hp

E
P = ; E = Pt
t

E = 11.63kW (24hr) E = 279.12kW

VIA HEAT PUMP

kW
Cost of Energy = P3.45 hr (279.12kW) CoE = P962.96 a day

VIA DIRECT ELECTRICITY

0.746kW kW
Cost of Energy = 389hp(24hr)( ) (P3.45 ) CoE = P24028.0632 a day
1hp hr

Savings = CoE–CoE ; CoEVia Heat Pump − CoEDirect Electricity

P24028.0632 – P962.96 Savings = 23065.10 a day

PROBLEM 1.3
A refrigeration system operated on the reversed Carnot Cycle at minimum and maximum
temperatures of - 25ºC and + 70ºC, respectively. If the heat rejected by the condenser is
6000 kJ/min, draw the T-s diagram and find:
a.) The power input required in kW
b.) Tons of refrigeration developed
c.) The tons of ice produced in one day if the harvest temperature of ice is at
18ºC from raw water temperature of 28ºC and the gain or heat loss is 20% of the
product load
d.) The number of ice cans needed for a 22” x 11” x 44” standard of ice block. SG
of ice is assumed to be 0.98
e.) The freezing time required, if the ice cans are submerged in a brine solution
having a brine temperature of - 13ºC

SOLUTION:

𝐖𝐒𝐅 = ∫ 𝐕𝐝𝐩 – Area beside the P-V Diagram

𝐖𝐍𝐅 = ∫ 𝐏𝐝𝐯 – Area under the P-V Diagram

P-V Diagram

T-S Diagram
 LEGEND:
FINAL ANSWER

Initial Answer or
A. Wnet = ? needed value

Wnet = QR − QA Formulas to use

Tmin 248K Cancelled Units

COP = T = COP = (343−248)K
COP = 2.61
max −Tmin

QA QA 1
COP = ; QR = + QA ; QR = QA (COP + 1)
QR −QA COP

kJ
COP(QR ) 2.61(6000 ) kJ 1min kJ
min
QA = = QA = = 4337.95 x QA = 72.3 or Kw
1+COP 1 + 2.61 min 60s s

kJ 1min 𝐤𝐉
Wnet = QR − QA = Wnet = [(6000 − 4337.95) min] x 𝐖𝐧𝐞𝐭 = 𝟐𝟕. 𝟕𝟎 𝐨𝐫 𝐤𝐖
60s 𝐬

B. TOR = ?
1 TOR
QA = 72.3 kW x 𝐐𝐀 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟓𝟔 𝐓𝐎𝐑
3.517kW

C. m = ? in TONS

QA = QP + Qg ; 20%QP = Qg ; QA = QP + 20%QP

QA = 1.2QP
Q P = Q1 + Q 2 + Q 3 ; QP = QS + QL + QS

QP = (ṁw Cpw ∆t) + (mi hfi ) + (mi Cpi ∆t i ) ; mw = mi

ṁ
QP = (Cpw ∆t + hfi + 0.5Cpw ∆t i )
t
kg kJ kJ kJ
Q P = 864000s [(4.187 kg−K) (28K) + (335 kg) + (0.5) (4.187 kg−K) (18K)] QP = 5.67x10−3 m ; kW

QA = 1.2QP QA = 1.2(5.67x10−3 m) QA = 6.804x10−3 m ; kW

QA 72.3kW 1 TON
m = m = = 10626.10kg x m = 11.72 TONS of Ice
QA 6.804x10−3 kW 907.03kgm
D. Number of Ice cans needed
LEGEND:
11”
FINAL ANSWER

Initial Answer or
22” needed value
Formulas to use
44”
Cancelled Units
VIce Block = LxWxH = 22”x11”x44” VIce Block = 10648in3
ρice
SGIce = ; ρice = SGIce x ρwater
ρwater

kg kg
ρice = 0.98(1000 ) ρice = 980
m3 m3
mIce mIce
ρice = VIce
; VIce = ρice

10626.10kgm
VIce = kg VIce = 10.84m3
980 3
m

VIce 10.84m3
# of Ice Cans/Blocks = = 1m 3 = 62.12 # of Ice Cans/Blocks = 62 Blocks
VIce Block 10648in3 x( )
39.37in

E. Freezing Time Required in hour (T)

a2
T = ; a = Thickness of ice (in);
32−t
; t = Temperature of brine solution (°F)
9 9
t = °C + 32 = t = (-13°C) + 32 t = 8.6°F
5 5

a2 (11in)2
T = = T = T = 5.17hrs
32−t (32−8.6)°F
 REFRIGERATOR
• A device like HEAT PUMP
but with REVERSE
OBJECTIVE. THERMAL EFFICIENCY (𝛈𝐭𝐡,𝐫𝐞𝐯 )
• Maintains a BODY (Reversible)
TEMPERATURE LOWER THAN
𝐓𝐦𝐚𝐱 − 𝐓𝐦𝐢𝐧
THAT OF SURROUNDINGS 𝛈𝐭𝐡,𝐫𝐞𝐯 = x 100%
𝐓𝐦𝐚𝐱
while OPERATING IN A 𝐓𝐦𝐢𝐧
𝛈𝐭𝐡,𝐫𝐞𝐯 = 𝟏 − | | x 100%
CYCLE. 𝐓𝐦𝐚𝐱
• When operating on a
REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE, it
is called a CARNOT
REFRIGERATOR. REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE
• Is the MOST EFFICIENT
HEAT PUMP REFRIGERATION CYCLE
• A device used for operating BETWEEN TWO
EXTRACTING HEAT FROM A SPECIFIED TEMPERATURE
LOW TEMPERATURE LEVELS.
SURROUNDING and SENDING
IT TO HIGH TEMPERATURE PROCESS 1-2:
BODY, while OPERATING IN
A CYCLE. ISENTROPIC COMPRESSION
• Maintains a BODY
TEMPERATURE HIGHER THAN (S1 = S2 = C)
THAT OF SURROUNDINGS
while OPERATING IN A PROCESS 2-3:
CYCLE.
• When operating on a ISOTHERMAL HEAT REJECTION
REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE, it (T2 = T3 = TH = Tmax = C)
is called a CARNOT HEAT
PUMP. PROCESS 3-4:

ISENTROPIC EXPANSION
THERMAL EFFICIENCY (𝛈𝐭𝐡 )
(both Reversible and (S3 = S4 = C)
Irreversible)
PROCESS 4-1:
𝐖𝐧𝐞𝐭
𝛈𝐭𝐡 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝐐𝐀 ISOTHERMAL HEAT ADDITION
𝐐𝐀 − 𝐐𝐑
𝛈𝐭𝐡 = x 100% (T4 = T1 = TL = Tmin = C)
𝐐𝐀
𝐐𝐑
𝛈𝐭𝐡 = 𝟏 − | | x 100%
𝐐𝐀
 REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE
REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE HEAT ADDED (𝐐𝐀 )
PVT TOOLS 𝐐𝐀 = 𝐓𝐦𝐢𝐧 ∆𝐒𝟐−𝟑 = 𝐓𝐦𝐢𝐧 (𝐒𝟐 − 𝐒𝟑 )
𝐐𝐀 = 𝐓𝐦𝐢𝐧 ∆𝐒𝟒−𝟏 = 𝐓𝐦𝐢𝐧 (𝐒𝟏 − 𝐒𝟒 )
PROCESS 1-2:
HEAT REJECTED (𝐐𝐑 )
ISENTROPIC COMPRESSION
𝐐𝐑 = 𝐓𝐦𝐚𝐱 ∆𝐒𝟒−𝟏 = 𝐓𝐦𝐚𝐱 (𝐒𝟏 − 𝐒𝟒 )
(S1 = S2 = C) 𝐐𝐑 = 𝐓𝐦𝐚𝐱 ∆𝐒𝟐−𝟑 = 𝐓𝐦𝐚𝐱 (𝐒𝟐 − 𝐒𝟑 )
k−1
T2 P2 k V1 k−1
= ( ) =( ) NET WORK (𝐖𝐧𝐞𝐭 )
T1 P1 V2

PROCESS 2-3: 𝐖𝐧𝐞𝐭 = |𝐐𝐑 | − |𝐐𝐀 |

𝐖𝐧𝐞𝐭 = (𝐓𝐦𝐚𝐱 − 𝐓𝐦𝐢𝐧 )∆𝐒
ISOTHERMAL HEAT REJECTION
COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE
(T2 = T3 = TH = Tmax = C) • It is PERFORMANCE INDEX of
P3 V2
= REFRIGERATION CYCLE.
P2 V3 • Defined as the RATIO OF HEAT
ABSORBED by the REFRIGERANT.
PROCESS 3-4:
𝐐𝐀 𝐐𝐀
COP = COPREF = =
ISENTROPIC EXPANSION 𝐖𝐧𝐞𝐭 𝐐𝐑 −𝐐𝐀
𝐓𝐦𝐢𝐧
COP = COPREF =
𝐓𝐦𝐚𝐱 −𝐓𝐦𝐢𝐧
(S3 = S4 = C)
k−1
T4 P4 k V3 k−1 PERFROMANCE FACTOR
= ( ) =( ) • It is PERFORMANCE INDEX or
T3 P3 V4
COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE of
PROCESS 4-1: HEAT PUMP.
• Defined as the RATIO OF HEAT
ISOTHERMAL HEAT ADDITION REJECTED by to the NET WORK OF
THE CYCLE.
(T4 = T1 = TL = Tmin = C)
P4 V1
= 𝐐𝐑 𝐐𝐑
P1 V4 PF = COPHP = =
𝐖𝐧𝐞𝐭 𝐐𝐑 −𝐐𝐀
𝐓𝐦𝐚𝐱
PF = COPHP = = COPR + 1
𝐓𝐦𝐚𝐱 −𝐓𝐦𝐢𝐧
 ENERGY EFFICIENCY RATIO
• It is the RATIO OF THE INTERNAL ENERGY (U)
BTU •
COOLING CAPACITY in ALSO KNOWN as INNER WORK,
hr
TO THE POWER INPUT in INTERNAL WORK, and INTRINSIC
Watts. ENERGY.

EER = 3.412 (COP) PORTIONS OF INTERNAL ENERGY

SENSIBLE ENERGY
TON OF REFRIGERATION - ASSOCIATED WITH THE KINETIC
ENERGIES OF THE MOLECULES.
• The STANDARD UNIT OF
REFRIGERATION, or simply
TON DENOTED BY THE SYMBOL LATENT ENERGY
TOR. - ASSOCIATED WITH THE PHASE OF A
SYSTEM.
1 TOR BTU
= 288000
day
1 TOR BTU MACROSCOPIC ANALYSIS
= 12000
hr
1 TOR BTU
= 200 U = mu
min
1 TOR BTU U = mcvT
= 3.33
sec
1 TOR kJ
= 12660 Where:
hr
1 TOR kJ m = Mass
= 211
min u = Specific Internal Energy
1 TOR kJ
= 3.517 cv = Specific Heat at constant
sec
1 TOR = 3.517 kW Volume
T = Absolute Temperature in K or °𝑅

MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE

MICROSCOPIC ANALYSIS
𝐖𝐧𝐞𝐭 = 𝐕𝐃𝐌𝐞𝐩
𝐖
Mep = 𝐧𝐞𝐭 du = cvdT
𝐕𝐃

Where: Where:
VD = Volume Displacement or cv = Is a function of T.
Piston Displacement
Wnet = Work Net
 FLOW WORK (𝑾𝒇 )
ENTHALPY (H) • ALSO KNOWN as FLOW ENERGY,
• STORED ENERGY sometimes FLOW RESISTANCE ENERGY,
known as the COMBINATION CONVECTED ENERGY, and
ENERGY. TRANSPORT ENERGY.
• It is the SUM of the
INTERNAL and FLOW ENERGY. 𝑾𝒇 = PV
MACROSCOPIC ANALYSIS
Where:
P = Pressure
H = U + 𝑾𝒇
V = Volume
H = mcvT + PV
H = mcpT WORK (W)
H = mh • Also CALLED AS MECHANICAL
WORK.
Where: • W is POSITIVE when WORK IS
m = Mass DONE BY THE SYSTEM.
P = Pressure • W is NEGATIVE when WORK IS
V = Volume DONE ON THE SYSTEM.
T = Absolute Temperature in K
or °𝑅 TYPES OF WORK (W)
h = Specific Enthalpy
U = Internal Energy WORK NON-FLOW (WNF)
cv = Specific Heat at Constant • The WORK DEVELOPED BY A
Volume CLOSED SYSTEM.
cp = Specific Heat at Constant
Pressure 𝟐
WNF = ∫𝟏 𝐏𝐝𝐕
MICROSCOPIC ANALYSIS WNF = p(𝐕𝟐 − 𝐕𝟏 )

dh = cpdT Where:
V = Volume
Where: P = Pressure
cp = Is a function of T.
WORK STEADY-FLOW (WSF)
• The WORK DEVELOPED BY AN
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE (𝐏𝐚𝐛𝐬 ) OPEN SYSTEM.
- PRESSURE affected by the
BAROMETRIC PRESSURE. 𝟐
WSF = -∫𝟏 𝐕𝐝𝐏
• 𝐏𝐚𝐛𝐬 = 𝐏𝐛𝐚𝐫 + 𝐏𝐠
WSF = -V(𝐏𝟐 − 𝐏𝟏 )
• 𝐏𝐚𝐛𝐬 = 𝐏𝐛𝐚𝐫 − 𝐏𝐯𝐚𝐜
• Sometimes if Pbar is not Where:
available use 𝐏𝐛𝐚𝐫 = 𝐏𝐚𝐭𝐦 P = Pressure
V = Volume
 HEAT (Q) LATENT HEAT OF FUSION (hfi)
• An ENERGY in TRANSIT from
ONE BODY TO ANOTHER • also known as HEAT OF FUSION,
because of a TEMPERATURE is the AMOUNT OF ENERGY
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE (ETHALPY) that MUST BE ADDED
BODIES. FOR THE PHASE CHANGE BETWEEN A
• Q is POSITIVE when HEAT LIQUID and A SOLID to OCCUR
IS ADDED TO THE BODY. WITHOUT CHANGE IN TEMPERATURE.
• Q is NEGATIVE when HEAT • It is also the AMOUNT OF
IS REJECTED BY THE BODY. ENERGY ABSORBED DURING MELTING
is EQUIVALENT to the AMOUNT OF
SENSIBLE HEAT (QS) ENERGY RELEASED DURING
• The AMOUNT OF HEAT NEEDED FREEZING.
TO CHANGE the TEMPERATURE
WITHOUT CHANGING THE FOR WATER:
PHASE. cal kcal J
hfi = 80 = 80 = 335
g kg g
kJ BTU
QS = mc∆𝐓 = 335 = 144
kg lb
QS = mc(T2-T1)
LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION (hfg)
Where:
m = Mass • also known as ENTHALPY OF
c = Specific Heat VAPORIZATION, HEAT OF
∆T = Change in Temperature VAPORIZATION, HEAT OF
EVAPORATION is the AMOUNT OF
LATENT HEAT (QL) ENERGY (ETHALPY) that MUST BE
• The AMOUNT OF HEAT NEEDED ADDED TO A LIQUID SUBSTANCE,
TO CHANGE the PHASE to TRANSFORM A QUANTITY OF
WITHOUT CHANGING THE THAT SUBSTANCE INTO A GAS.
TEMPERATURE. • It is also the AMOUNT OF
ENERGY ABSORBED DURING
QL = mL VAPORIZATION and is EQUIVALENT
QL = mhfi to the ENERGY RELEASED DURING
QL = mhfg CONDENSATION.
Where: FOR WATER:
m = Mass cal kcal J
L = Latent Heat of Fusion hfi hfg = 540 = 540 = 2257
g kg g
or Vaporization hfg kJ BTU
= 2257 = 970.3
kg lb
 SPECIFIC HEAT (c) FOR WATER:
• THE ENERGY REQUIRED TO
RAISE THE TEMPERATURE of FPS SI SI
a UNIT MASS OF A
SUBSTANCE by ONE DEGREE. CGS MKS
cp = 1.0 cp = 4.187
SPECIFIC HEAT AT CONSTANT cal J
VOLUME (cv) cp = 1.0 g ∙ °C g ∙ °C
- THE ENERGY REQUIRED TO BTU
RAISE THE TEMPERATURE of a lb ∙ °F cal cp = 4.187
cp = 1.0
g ∙K J
UNIT MASS OF A SUBSTANCE by
ONE DEGREE as the VOLUME IS cp = 1.0 g ∙K

HELD CONSTANT. BTU cp = 1.0

lb ∙ °R kcal cp = 4.187
kg ∙ °C J
SPECIFIC HEAT AT CONSTANT
kg ∙ °C
PRESSURE (cp) cp = 1.0
- THE ENERGY REQUIRED TO kcal cp = 4.187
RAISE THE TEMPERATURE of a kg ∙K J
UNIT MASS OF A SUBSTANCE by kg ∙K
ONE DEGREE as the PRESSURE IS
HELD CONSTANT. FOR ICE: cp = 0.5 (cp = of water )
FOR STEAM: cp = 0.4454 (cp = of water )
Differential Changes in
Internal Energy (u) and
Enthalpy (h): ENTROPY (S)
• MEASURE OF MOLECULARD
du = cvdT DISORDER, or MOLECULAR
dh = cpdT RANDOMNESS.

𝐒𝐐
For Ideal Gases: dS =
𝐓

cp = cv + R Where:
SQ = Heat Transferred at
Where: Temperature
R = Specific Gas Constant or T = Temperature
Gas Constant
 MASS DENSITY OR DENSITY (𝛒)
For CHANGE IN ENTROPY in a
REVERSIBLE PROCESS 𝐦
𝛒 =
𝐕
𝟐
𝐒𝐐
∆𝐒 = 𝐒𝟐 − 𝐒𝟏 ∫ Where:
𝟏 𝑻
𝟐 𝐦𝐜𝐝𝐓 𝐓𝟐 m = Mass
∆𝐒 = ∫𝟏 | ∆𝐒 = 𝐦𝐜 𝐥𝐧 V = Volume
𝐓 𝐓𝟏

For CHANGE IN SPECIFIC DENSITY IN TERMS OF FLOW RATES

ENTROPY (𝛒)

∆𝐬 = 𝐬𝟐 − 𝐬𝟏 ṁ
𝛒=
𝐕̇

WEIGHT (W) Where:

ṁ = Mass Flow Rate
𝐦𝐠 mass
W = ṁ =
𝐤 time

Where: V̇ = Volume Flow Rate

m = Mass volume
V̇ = = Area(Velocity)
time
g = Gravitational
Acceleration
DENSITY FOR IDEAL GASES (𝛒)
k = Proportionality Constant
𝐏
𝛒=
𝐑𝐓
MKS
(Meter Kilogram Second) Where:
m
P = Pressure
g = 9.8066 T = Absolute Temperature
𝑠2
MASS (m) R = Specific Gas Constant or Gas
Constant
𝐖𝐤
m =
𝐠 Note: For Air
Where: kJ ft∙lbf
W = Weight R = 0.28708 | R = 0.28708
kg∙K lbm ∙°R
g = Gravitational
Acceleration
k = Proportionality Constant
 SPECIFIC VOLUME (𝒗)
GRAVITATIONAL CONSTANT
𝐕 𝟏
𝒗= |𝒗=
𝐦 𝛒
FPS SI SI
Where: (foot- (International (International
V = Volume pound- System of System of
m = Mass second) Units) Units)
ρ = Density CGS MKS
(Centimeter (Meter
SPECIFIC WEIGHT, WEIGHT Gram Second) Kilogram
DENSITY OR UNIT WEIGHT (𝛄) g = Second)
cm
32.174 g = 980.66
ft 𝑠2 m
𝛄 =
𝑾
| 𝛄 =
𝝆𝒈 g = 9.8066
𝑠2 𝑠2
𝑽 𝒌

Where:
W = Weight
V = Volume PROPORTIONALITY CONSTANT
ρ = Density k = gc
g = Gravitational Acceleration
k = Proportionality Constant k = 1 k = g
MKS kgm ∙ m k = 9.8066
COMMON OR ARBITRARY k = 1
N ∙ s2 kgm ∙ m
TEMPERATURE SCALES (t) kgf ∙ s2

CGS kgm ∙ m k = 9.8066

EQUATIONS: k = 1
N ∙ s2 gm ∙ cm
𝟓 gf ∙ s2
𝒕°𝐂 = (°𝐅 - 32)
𝟗 FPS slug ∙ ft
k = 1
lbf ∙ s2 k = 32.174
𝟗 lbm ∙ ft
𝒕°𝐅 = ( x °𝐂) + 32 k = 1 lbm ∙ ft
𝟓 poundal ∙ s2
lbf ∙ s2

ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURES SCALES Other useful formula in SI UNITS:

(T) kg ∙ m
EQUATIONS: k = 1000 m 2
kN ∙ s

𝑻𝑲 = °𝐂 + 273

𝑻°𝐑 = °𝐅 + 460
 CONSIDERING UNITS OF R,
IDEAL GAS EQUATION OF THE
𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐔𝐧𝐢𝐭
STATE (𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐔𝐧𝐢𝐭) (
𝐔𝐧𝐢𝐭 𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬
)
R →
𝐀𝐛𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 𝐓𝐞𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞
Pv = RT
𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐔𝐧𝐢𝐭
R → (𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬)(𝐀𝐛𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 𝐓𝐞𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞)
Where:
P = Absolute Pressure
For Air:
v = Specific Volume
R = Gas Constant kJ kJ
T = Absolute Temperature R = 0.28708 | R = 0.28708
kgm ∙ K kgm ∙ °C

𝑉 ft ⋅ lbf ft ⋅ lbf
But v = . Thus, R = 53.342 | R = 53.342
𝑚 lbm ∙ °R lbm ∙ °F

Pv = RT ̅)
UNIVERSAL GAS CONSTANT (𝑹
𝑽
P( ) = RT
𝒎
ft ⋅ lbf kJ
PV = mRT 𝑅̅ = 1545.32 𝑅̅ = 8.3143
pmole ∙ °R kmol ∙ K

Where: ft ⋅ lbf kJ
P = Absolute Pressure 𝑅̅ = 1545.32 𝑅̅ = 8.3143
pmole ∙ °F kmol ∙ °C
V = Volume
m = Mass 𝑅̅ = 1545.32
ft ⋅ lbf
𝑅̅ = 8.3143
kJ
R = Specific Gas Constant or lbmol ∙ °R kgmol ∙ K
Gas Constant
ft ⋅ lbf kJ
T = Absolute Temperature 𝑅̅ = 1545.32 𝑅̅ = 8.3143
lbmol ∙ °F kgmol ∙ °C

1545.32 BTU J
GAS CONSTANT (R) 𝑅̅ = 𝑅̅ = 8.3143
778.16 pmole ∙ °R kmol ∙ K

̅
𝐑
R = 1545.32 BTU J
𝐌𝑾 𝑅̅ = 𝑅̅ = 8.3143
778.16 pmole ∙ °F kmol ∙ °C

Where: 1545.32 BTU J

R = Gas Constant 𝑅̅ = 𝑅̅ = 8.3143
778.16 lbmol ∙ °R gmol ∙ K
̅ = Universal Gas Constant
R
MW = Molecular Weight or Molar 𝑅̅ = 1545.32 BTU 𝑅̅ = 8.3143
J
778.16 lbmol ∙ °F gmol ∙ °C
Mass of the Gas
L ⋅ atm
𝑅̅ = 0.08205
mol ∙K
 MAYER'S FORMULA

MASS AND MOLECULAR WEIGHT R = Cp - Cv

R = 𝐂̅p - 𝐂̅v
m = n(MW)
RELATIONSHIP OF Cp, Cv, k, and R
Where:
m = Mass Cp
Since k = ,
n = Number of Moles Cv
MW = Molecular Weight or Molar
Mass of the gas Cp = kCv
𝐂𝐩
Cv =
𝐤
MOLECULAR WEIGHT OR MOLAR MASS
OF THE GAS (MW) ̅p
C
Also k = ̅ ,
Cv
For Air:
𝐂̅𝐩 = k𝐂̅𝐯
𝑘𝑔 𝐂̅𝐩
MW = 28.970 𝐂̅𝐯 =
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑘𝑔 𝐤
MW = 28.970
𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙
Thus ,
𝑙𝑏
MW = 28.970
𝑝𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 R = Cp - Cv | R = kCv - Cv
𝑙𝑏
MW = 28.970 R = Cv (k-1)
𝑙𝑏𝑚𝑜𝑙

Hence, Or ,

̅ = C̅p - C̅v | R
R ̅ = kC̅v - C̅v
PV = mRT
PV = [n(MW)]RT ̅ = 𝐂̅𝐯 (k-1)
𝐑
̅
𝐑
PV = [n(MW)] T
𝐌𝑾 And ,
̅
PV = 𝐍𝐑𝑻
Cp
R = Cp - Cv | R = Cp -
Where: k
𝐤−𝟏
P = Absolute Pressure R = Cp ( )
𝐤
V = Volume
n = Number of Moles And ,
R = Gas Constant
T = Absolute Temperature ̅p
C
̅ = C̅p - C̅v | R
R ̅ = C̅p -
k
̅ = 𝐂̅𝐩 (𝐤−𝟏)
𝐑
𝐤
 USEFUL CONVERSIONS:
IDEAL GAS: DRY AIR
1 kgf = 9.8066 N
1 lbf = 4.4484 N
PROPERTIES ENGLISH SI 1 lbf = 0.4536 kgf
OF DRY AIR 𝐍
1 Pa = 1
𝐦𝟐
Specific 𝐶𝑝 𝐶𝑝 1 Bar = 100 kPa
Heat at = = 1.0062 1 Psi = 6895 Pa
Constant 0.24 kJ 1 atm = 101.325 kPa
Pressure BTU kgm −K 𝐤𝐠
1 atm = 1.033
lbm − °R 𝐜𝐦𝟐
𝐥𝐛
1 atm = 14.696
Specific 𝐶𝑝 𝐶𝑝 𝐢𝐧𝟐
Heat at = 0.1714 = 0.7186 1 J = 1 N-m
Constant BTU kJ 1 Cal = 4.187 J
Volume lbm − °R kgm −K 1 BTU = 252 cal
1 BTU = 1055 J
R air R air 𝐉
1 W = 1
Gas Constant = 53.342 = 287.08 𝐬
𝐤𝐉
ft −lbf J 1 kW = 1
𝐬
lbm − °R kgm −K
1 hp = 0.746 Kw
Ratio of k air k air 𝐤𝐍−𝐦
1 hp = 0.746
𝐬
Specific = 1.4 = 1.4 𝐁𝐓𝐔
Heats 1 hp = 42.41
𝐦𝐢𝐧
𝐥𝐛𝐟−𝐟𝐭
1 hp = 550
𝐬
𝐤𝐠−𝐦
1 N = 1
𝐬𝟐
1 ft = 12 in
1 m = 3.28 ft
1 kg = 2.20 lb
1 m3 = 1000 L
1 Gallon = 3.785 L
1 Gallon = 7.481 ft3
𝐁𝐓𝐔
1 TOR = 12000
𝐇𝐑
𝐁𝐓𝐔
1 TOR = 200
𝐦𝐢𝐧
𝐜𝐚𝐥
1 TOR = 252
𝐁𝐓𝐔
𝐤𝐜𝐚𝐥
1 TOR = 3024
𝐡𝐫
𝐤𝐜𝐚𝐥
1 TOR = 50.4
𝐦𝐢𝐧
𝐉
1 TOR = 1055
𝐁𝐓𝐔
𝐤𝐉
1 TOR = 211
𝐦𝐢𝐧
1 TOR = 3.517 kW