Department of Electrical Engineering

LABORATORY MANUAL

OF

Electrical & Electronics Measurements

FOR

S.Y. Semester – III

Name of Student:- ………………………………………………..

Class:-……………………. DIV:-……………

Roll No:-……………….. PRN No:-…………..

SEM:- ODD Academic Year:- 2024-25

Mission of the Department

We, at Department of Electrical Engineering, are committed to achieve our vision by-
Vision of the Department
M1: Preparing technically and professionally competent engineers by imparting quality
To emerge as a center of excellence in Electrical Engineering
education through effective teaching learning methodologies.
education producing knowledgeable, employable, and ethical
M2: Developing professional skills and right attitude among students that will help them to
engineering graduates to serve industry/society
succeed and progress in their personal and professional career.
M3: Inculcating moral and ethical values in students with concern to society and environment.

1
YTC, Satara
 SAFTEY INSTRUCTIONS

1. SAFETY is of paramount importance in the Electrical Engineering Laboratories.

2. Electricity NEVER EXECUSES careless persons. So, exercise enough care and attention in
handling electrical equipment and follow safety practices in the laboratory. (Electricity is a
good servant but a bad master).
3. Avoid direct contact with any voltage source and power line voltages. (Otherwise, any such
contact may subject you to electrical shock)
4. Wear rubber-soled shoes. (To insulate you from earth so that even if you accidentally
contact a live point, current will not flow through your body to earth and hence you will be
protected from electrical shock)
5. Wear laboratory-coat and avoid loose clothing. (Loose clothing may get caught on an
equipment/instrument and this may lead to an accident particularly if the equipment
happens to be a rotating machine)
6. Girl students should have their hair tucked under their coat or have it in a knot.
7. Do not wear any metallic rings, bangles, bracelets, wristwatches and neck chains. (When
you move your hand/body, such conducting items may create a short circuit or may touch a
live point and thereby subject you to electrical shock)
8. Be certain that your hands are dry and that you are not standing on wet floor. (Wet parts of
the body reduce the contact resistance thereby increasing the severity of the shock)
9. Ensure that the power is OFF before you start connecting up the circuit.(Otherwise you will
be touching the live parts in the circuit)
10. Get your circuit diagram approved by the staff member and connect up the circuit strictly as
per the approved circuit diagram.
11. Check power chords for any sign of damage and be certain that the chords use safety plugs
and do not defeat the safety feature of these plugs by using ungrounded plugs.
12. When using connection leads, check for any insulation damage in the leads and avoid such
defective leads.
13. Do not defeat any safety devices such as fuse or circuit breaker by shorting across it. Safety
devices protect YOU and your equipment.
14. Switch on the power to your circuit and equipment only after getting them checked up and
approved by the staff member.
15. Take the measurement with one hand in your pocket. (To avoid shock in case you
accidentally touch two points at different potentials with your two hands)
16. Do not make any change in the connection without the approval of the staff member.
17. In case you notice any abnormal condition in your circuit ( like insulation heating up,
resistor heating up etc ), switch off the power to your circuit immediately and inform the
staff member.
18. Keep hot soldering iron in the holder when not in use.
19. After completing the experiment show your readings to the staff member and switch off the
power to your circuit after getting approval from the staff member.

2
YTC, Satara
 INDEX

Expt. Date of Date of Sign of

No.
Title of Experiment
Performance Submission Faculty

Study of types of instrument: PMMC,

Moving Iron, Electro-dynamometer,
1.
Hot wire,Thermocouple, Induction,
Electrostatic, Rectifier
2. Study of Energy Meter

Measurement of three phase power by

3.
Two Wattmeter method.
Measurement of Medium range
4.
resistance using Wheatstone’s bridge
5. Characterize the strain gauge sensor

6. Characterize the LVDT sensor

Measurement of temperature using

7.
thermocouple.
To measure temperature using RTD
8.
sensor
Measurement of phase difference and
9. frequency of a sinusoidal ac voltage
using C.R.O

This is certify that …………..……………………………………………. and Roll

No………………of S.Y. Electrical has completed all the experiment in the subject Electrical
Machine-I during academic Year 2024-25.

Sign of Student Sign of Faculty HOD- Electrical

3
YTC, Satara
 Experiment No. 1

Aim: Study of types of instrument: PMMC, Moving Iron, Electro-dynamometer, Hot wire,
Thermocouple, Induction, Electrostatic, Rectifier

Objectives:
1. Demonstration of working parts of Permanent Magnet Moving Coil, Moving Iron,
Electrodynamometer instrument, Hot wire, Thermocouple, Induction, Electrostatic,
Rectifier.
2. Understanding symbols and notations used on the instrument.
3. Demonstration for measuring an electrical parameter

Theory
1. PMMC Meters-Permanent Magnet Moving Coil or PMMC Instrument
Definition: The instruments which use the permanent magnet for creating the stationary magnetic
field between which the coil moves is known as the permanent magnet moving coil or PMMC
instrument. It operates on the principle that the torque is exerted on the moving coil placed in the
field of the permanent magnet. The PMMC instrument gives the accurate result
for DC measurement.

Construction of PMMC Instrument:

The moving coil and permanent magnet are the main part of the PMMC instrument. The parts of the
PMMC instruments are explained below in details.

2
Moving Coil – The coil is the current carrying part of the instruments which is freely moved
between the stationary field of the permanent magnet. The current passes through the coil deflects it
due to which the magnitude of the current or voltage is determined. The coil is mounted on the
rectangular former which is made up of aluminium. The former increases the radial and uniform
magnetic field between the air gap of the poles. The coil is wound with the silk cover copper wire
between the poles of a magnet. The coil is mounted on the rectangular former which is made up of
aluminium. The former increases the radial and uniform magnetic field between the air gap of the
poles. The coil is wound with the silk cover copper wire between the poles of a magnet.

Magnet System – The PMMC instrument using the permanent magnet for creating the stationary
magnets. The Alcomax and Alnico material are used for creating the permanent magnet because
this magnet has the high coercive force (The coercive force changes the magnetisation property of
the magnet). Also, the magnet has high field intensities.

Control – In PMMC instrument the controlling torque is because of the springs. The springs are
made up of phosphorous bronze and placed between the two jewel bearings. The spring also
provides the path to the lead current to flow in and out of the moving coil. The controlling torque is
mainly because of the suspension of the ribbon.

Damping – The damping torque is used for keeping the movement of the coil in rest. This
damping torque is induced because of the movement of the aluminium core which is moving
between the poles of the permanent magnet.

Pointer & Scale – The pointer is linked with the moving coil. The pointer notices the deflection of
the coil, and the magnitude of their deviation is shown on the scale. The pointer is made of the
lightweight material, and hence it is easily deflected with the movement of the coil. Sometimes the
parallax error occurs in the instrument which is easily reduced by correctly aligning the blade of the
pointer.

Torque Equation for PMMC Instrument

The deflecting torque induces because of the movement of the coil. The deflecting torque is
expressed by the equation shown below.

Where, N – Number of turns of coil

B – flux density in the air gap
L, d – the vertical and horizontal length of the side.
I – current through the coil.
Let

The spring provides the restoring torque to the moving coil which is expressed as

Where K = Spring constant.

For final deflection,

By substituting the value of equation (1) and (3) we get,

3
The above equation shows that the deflection torque is directly proportional to the current passing
through the coil.

Advantages of PMMC Instruments

The following are the advantages of the PMMC Instruments.
1. The scale of the PMMC instruments is correctly divided.
2. The power consumption of the devices is very less.
3. The PMMC instruments have high accuracy because of the high torque weight ratio.
4. The single device measures the different range of voltage and current. This can be done by the
use of multipliers and shunts.
5. The PMMC instruments use shelf shielding magnet which is useful for the aerospace
applications.
Disadvantages of PMMC Instruments
The following are the disadvantages of the PMMC instruments.
1. The PMMC instruments are only used for the direct current. The alternating current varies with
the time. The rapid variation of the current varies the torque of the coil. But the pointer cannot
follow the fast reversal and the deflection of the torque. Thus, it cannot use for AC.
2. The cost of the PPMC instruments is much higher as compared to the moving coil instruments.

2. Moving Iron or MI Instrument

Definition: The instrument in which the moving iron is used for measuring the flow of current or
voltage is known as the moving iron instrument. It works on the principle that the iron place near
the magnet attracts towards it. The force of attraction depends on the strength of the magnet field.
The magnetic field induces by the electromagnet whose strength depends on the magnitude of the
current passes through it.

Construction of Moving Iron Instrument

The plate or vane of soft iron is used as the moving element of the instrument. The vane is
so placed that it can freely move in the magnetic field of the stationary coil. The conductor makes
the stationary coil, and it is excited by the voltage or current whose magnitude is used to be
measured.
The moving iron instrument uses the stationary coil as an electromagnet. The electromagnet is the
temporary magnet whose magnetic field strength increases or decreases with the magnitude of the
current passes through it.

Working of the Moving Iron Instrument

The moving iron instruments use the stationary coil of copper or aluminium wire which acts
as an electromagnet when an electric current passes through it. The strength of the magnetic field
induces by the electromagnet is directly proportional to the current passes through it.
The plates or vane of the iron pass through the coil increases the inductance of the stationary coil
(the inductance is the property of the conductor which increases their electromotive force when the
varying current passes through it). The electromagnet attracts the iron vane. The vane passes
through the coil tries to occupy the minimum reluctance path (the reluctance is the property of the
magnet which opposes the flow of electric current). The vane passes through the coil experience a
4
force of repulsion caused by the electromagnet. The repulsion force increases the strength of the
coil inductance. This happens because the inductance and reluctances are inversely proportional to
each other.

Classification of the Moving Iron Instruments

The attraction and the repulsion are the types of the moving iron instruments. Their detail
explanation is shown below.
1. Attraction Type – The instrument in which the iron plate attracts from the weaker field towards
the stronger field such type of instrument is known as the attraction type instrument.

Construction of Attraction Type Instrument – The stationary coil of the attraction type instrument is
flat and has a narrow opening. The moving element is the flat disc of the iron core. The current flow
through the stationary coil produced the magnetic field which attracts the iron coil.

The iron vane deflects from the low magnetic field to the high magnetic field, and the strength of
the deflection is directly proportional to the magnitude of the current flow through it. In short, we
can say that the iron coil attracts towards in. The attraction type instruments use spring, which
provided the controlling torque. The deflection of the coil is reduced by the aluminium piston which
is attached to the moving coil.

2. Repulsion Type Instruments – The repulsion type instrument has two vanes or iron plates. One
is fixed, and the other one is movable. The vanes become magnetised when the current passes
through the stationary coil and the force of repulsion occur between them. Because of a repulsive
force, the moving coil starts moving away from the fixed vane.

The spring provides the controlling torque. The air friction induces the damping torque, which
opposes the movement of the coil. The repulsion type instrument is a non-polarized instrument, i.e.,
free from the direction of current passes through it. Thus, it is used for both AC and DC.
5
Advantages of the MI Instruments
The following are the advantages of the moving iron instruments.
1. Universal use – The MI instrument is independent of the direction of current and hence used for
both AC and DC.
2. Less Friction Error – The friction error is very less in the moving iron instrument because their
torque weight ratio is high. The torque weight ratio is high because their current carrying part is
stationary and the moving parts are lighter in weight.
3. Cheapness – The MI instruments require less number of turns as compared to PMMC
instrument. Thus, it is cheaper.
4. Robustness – The instrument is robust because of their simple construction. And also because
their current carrying part is stationary.
Disadvantages of Moving Iron Instruments.
The following are the disadvantages of Moving Iron Instrument.
1. Accuracy – The scale of the moving iron instruments is not uniform, and hence the accurate
result is not possible.
2. Errors – Some serious error occurs in the instruments because of the hysteresis, frequency and
stray magnetic field.
3. Waveform Error – In MI instrument the deflection torque is not directly proportional to the
square of the current. Because of which the waveforms error occurs in the instrument.
4. Difference between AC and DC calibration – The calibration of the AC and DC are differed
because of the effect of the inductance of meter and the eddy current which is used on AC. The
AC is calibrated on the frequency at which they use.

3. Electrodynamometer instrument

Construction of Electrodynamometer Wattmeter

The following are the important parts of the Electrodynamometer Wattmeter.
1. Fixed coil – The fixed coil connects in series with the load. It is considered as a current coil
because the load current flows through it. For making the construction easy the fixed coil
divide into two parts. And these two elements are parallel connected to each other. The fixed
coil produces the uniform electric field which is essentials for the working of the instruments.
The current coil of the instruments is designed to carry the current of approximately 20
amperes for saving the power. The coil should have rigid in construction. The coil is generally
varnished and baked to form a solid construction.
2. Moving Coil – moving coil is either self-sustaining or mounted on a non-metallic former. A
non- metallic former is used to reduce eliminate eddy current losses. A light weight and rigid
moving coil is used. Both fixed and moving coil are air cored.
3. Control – The control system provides the controlling torque to the instruments. The
gravity control and the spring control are the two types of control system. Out of two, the

6
 Electrodynamometer Wattmeter uses spring control system. The spring control system is used
for the movement of the pointer.
4. Damping – The damping is the effect which reduces the movement of the pointer. In this
Wattmeter the damping torque produces because of the air friction. The other types of
damping are not used in the system because they destroy the useful magnetic flux.
5. Scales and pointers – The instruments use a linear scale because their moving coil moves
linearly. The apparatus uses the knife edge pointer for removing the parallax error which
causes because of oversights.

Working of Electrodynamometer Wattmeter

When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field experiences a mechanical force.
This mechanical force deflects the pointer which is mounted on the calibrated scale.

4. Hot Wire Instrument

Definition: The instruments which use the heating effect of the current for knowing their
magnitude such type of instrument is known as the hot wire instrument. It works on the principle
that the length of the wire increases because of the heating effect of the current flow through it. The
hot wire instrument is used for both the AC and DC current.

Construction of the Hot Wire Instrument

The construction of the hot-wire instruments is shown in the figure below. The current whose
magnitude is used to be determined is passed through the platinum-iridium wire. The hot wire
instrument uses two-wire.

The one wire is bonded between the two terminals. And the second terminal is bound between the
first wire and the third terminal shown in the figure above. The thread passes over the pulley and
attaches to the spring. This spring contract the platinum-iridium wire.

Hot Wire Instruments Working

When the current passes through the platinum iridium wire, it gets heated and expands. The heat
increases the sag of the wire. The wire regains their original position with the help of the spring.
The expansion and contraction of the thread rotate the pulley due to which the pointer deflects. The
expansion of the thread is equal to the square of the RMS value of the current.

Advantages of the Hot Wire Instrument

The following are the advantage of the hot wire instrument.
1. The instrument is used for both AC and DC measurement.
2. It is a transfer-type instrument i.e, the calibration is same for both the AC and DC measurement.
3. The hot wire instrument is free from the stray magnetic field.
4. Their construction is very simple and cheap.
7
Disadvantages of Hot Wire Instrument
The following are the disadvantages of the hot-wire instrument.
1. The Hot Wire instrument gives the slow response.
2. The instability occurs in the instruments because of the stretching of the wire.
3. The instrument consumes more power.
4. The instrument is not able to withstand under overload and mechanical shock.

5. Thermocouple
Definition: The thermocouple is a temperature measuring device. It uses for measuring the
temperature at one particular point. In other words, it is a type of sensor used for measuring the
temperature in the form of an electric current or the EMF.
The thermocouple consists two wires of different metals which are welded together at the ends. The
welded portion was creating the junction where the temperature is used to be measured. The
variation in temperature of the wire induces the voltages.
Working Principle of Thermocouple
The working principle of the thermocouple depends on the three effects.
See back Effect – The See back effect occurs between two different metals. When the heat
provides to any one of the metal, the electrons start flowing from hot metal to cold metal. Thus,
direct current induces in the circuit.

In short, it is a phenomenon in which the temperature difference between the two different metals
induces the potential differences between them. The See beck effect produces small voltages for per
Kelvin of temperature.
Peltier Effect – The Peltier effect is the inverse of the Seebeck effect. The Peltier effect state
that the temperature difference can be created between any two different conductors by applying the
potential difference between them.

Construction of Thermocouple
The thermocouple consists two dissimilar metals. These metals are welded together at the junction
point. This junction considers as the measuring point. The junction point categorises into three
types.
1. Ungrounded Junction – In ungrounded junction, the conductors are entirely isolated from
the protective sheath. It is used for high-pressure application works. The major advantage of
using such type of junction is that it reduces the effect of the stray magnetic field.
2. Grounded Junction – In such type of junction the metals and protective sheath are welded
together. The grounded junction use for measuring the temperature in the corrosive
environment. This junction provides resistance to the noise.
3. Exposed Junction – Such type of junction uses in the places where fast response requires. The
exposed junction is used for measuring the temperature of the gas.

8
The material uses for making the thermocouple depends on the measuring range of temperature.
Working of Thermocouple
The circuit of the thermocouple is shown in the figure below. The circuit consists two dissimilar
metals. These metals are joined together in such a manner that they are creating two junctions. The
metals are bounded to the junction through welding.

Let the P and Q are the two junctions of the thermocouples. The T 1 and T2 are the temperatures at
the junctions. As the temperature of the junctions is different from each other, the EMF generates in
the circuit.
If the temperature at the junction becomes equal, the equal and opposite EMF generates in the
circuit, and the zero current flows through it. If the temperatures of the junction become unequal,
the potential difference induces in the circuit. The magnitude of the EMF induces in the circuit
depends on the types of material used for making the thermocouple. The total current flowing
through the circuit is measured through the measuring devices.
The EMF induces in the thermocouple circuit is given by the equation

Where Δθ – temperature difference between the hot thermocouple junction and the reference
thermocouple junction.
a, b – constants

Measurement of Thermocouple Output

The output EMF obtained from the thermocouples can be measured through the following methods.
1. Multimeter – It is a simpler method of measuring the output EMF of the thermocouple. The
multimeter is connected to the cold junctions of the thermocouple. The deflection of the
multimeter pointer is equal to the current flowing through the meter.

9
 2. Potentiometer – The output of the thermocouple can also be measured with the help of the
DC potentiometer.
3. Amplifier with Output Devices – The output obtains from the thermocouples is amplified
through an amplifier and then feed to the recording or indicating instrument.
Advantages of Thermocouple
The following are the advantages of the thermocouples.
1. The thermocouple is cheaper than the other temperature measuring devices.
2. The thermocouple has the fast response time.
3. It has a wide temperature range.
Disadvantages of the Thermocouples
1. The thermocouple has low accuracy.
2. The recalibration of the thermocouple is difficult.
Nickel-alloy, platinum/rhodium alloy, Tungsten/rhenium-alloy, chromel-gold, iron-alloy are the
name of the alloys used for making the thermocouple.

Conclusion:-

Remark

Sign of Faculty

10
 Experiment No. 2

Aim: Study of Energy Meter.

Objectives:
1. Demonstration of working parts of Induction Type Energy Meter.
2. Demonstration for measuring an electrical energy.

Theory
Energy Meter

Definition: The meter which is used for measuring the energy utilises by the electric load is known
as the energy meter. The energy is the total power consumed and utilised by the load at a particular
interval of time. It is used in domestic and industrial AC circuit for measuring the power
consumption. The meter is less expensive and accurate.
Construction of Energy Meter
The construction of the single phase energy meter is shown in the figure below.

The energy meter has four main parts. They are the
1. Driving System
2. Moving System
3. Braking System
4. Registering System
The detail explanation of their parts is written below.
1. Driving System – The electromagnet is the main component of the driving system. It is the
temporary magnet which is excited by the current flow through their coil. The core of the
electromagnet is made up of silicon steel lamination. The driving system has two electromagnets.
The upper one is called the shunt electromagnet, and the lower one is called series electromagnet.
The series electromagnet is excited by the load current flow through the current coil. The coil of the
shunt electromagnet is directly connected with the supply and hence carry the current proportional
to the shunt voltage. This coil is called the pressure coil.

11
The centre limb of the magnet has the copper band. These bands are adjustable. The main function
of the copper band is to align the flux produced by the shunt magnet in such a way that it is exactly
perpendicular to the supplied voltage.
2. Moving System – The moving system is the aluminium disc mounted on the shaft of the alloy.
The disc is placed in the air gap of the two electromagnets. The eddy current is induced in the disc
because of the change of the magnetic field. This eddy current is cut by the magnetic flux. The
interaction of the flux and the disc induces the deflecting torque.
When the devices consume power, the aluminium disc starts rotating, and after some number of
rotations, the disc displays the unit used by the load. The number of rotations of the disc is counted
at particular interval of time. The disc measured the power consumption in kilowatt hours.
3. Braking system – The permanent magnet is used for reducing the rotation of the aluminium disc.
The aluminium disc induces the eddy current because of their rotation. The eddy current cut the
magnetic flux of the permanent magnet and hence produces the braking torque.
This braking torque opposes the movement of the disc, thus reduces their speed. The permanent
magnet is adjustable due to which the braking torque is also adjusted by shifting the magnet to the
other radial position.
4. Registration (Counting Mechanism) – The main function of the registration or counting
mechanism is to record the number of rotations of the aluminium disc. Their rotation is directly
proportional to the energy consumed by the loads in the kilowatt hour.
The rotation of the disc is transmitted to the pointers of the different dial for recording the different
readings. The reading in kWh is obtained by multiply the number of rotations of the disc with the
meter constant. The figure of the dial is shown below.

Working of the Energy Meter

The energy meter has the aluminium disc whose rotation determines the power consumption of the
load. The disc is placed between the air gap of the series and shunt electromagnet. The shunt
magnet has the pressure coil, and the series magnet has the current coil.
The pressure coil creates the magnetic field because of the supply voltage, and the current coil
produces it because of the current. The field induces by the voltage coil is lagging by 90º on the
magnetic field of the current coil because of which eddy current induced in the disc. The interaction
of the eddy current and the magnetic field causes torque, which exerts a force on the disc. Thus, the
disc starts rotating. The force on the disc is proportional to the current and voltage of the coil. The
permanent magnet controls Their rotation. The permanent magnet opposes the movement of the
disc and equalises it on the power consumption. The cyclometer counts the rotation of the disc.

12
Theory of Energy Meter
The pressure coil has the number of turns which makes it more inductive. The reluctance path of
their magnetic circuit is very less because of the small length air gap. The current Ip flows through
the pressure coil because of the supply voltage, and it lags by 90º.

The Ip produces the two Φp which is again divided into Φp1 and Φp2. The major portion of the flux
Φp1 passes through the side gap because of low reluctance. The flux Φp2 goes through the disc and
induces the driving torque which rotates the aluminium disc.
The flux Φp is proportional to the applied voltage, and it is lagged by an angle of 90º. The flux is
alternating and hence induces an eddy current Iep in the disc.
The load current passes through the current coil induces the flux Φ s. This flux causes the eddy
current Ies on the disc. The eddy current Ies interacts with the flux Φp, and the eddy current
Iep interacts with Φs to produce the another torque. These torques are opposite in direction, and the
net torque is the difference between these two.
The phasor diagram of the energy meter is shown in the figure below.

Let
V – applied voltage
I – load current
∅ – the phase angle of load current
Ip – pressure angle of load
Δ – the phase angle between supply voltage and pressure coil flux
f – frequency
Z – impedance of eddy current
13
∝ – the phase angle of eddy current paths
Eep – eddy current induced by flux
Iep – eddy current due to flux
Eev – eddy current due to flux
Ies – eddy current due to flux
The net driving torque of the dis is expressed as

where K1 – constant
Φ1 and Φ2 are the phase angle between the fluxes. For energy meter, we take Φp and Φs.
β – phase angle between fluxes Φp and Φp = (Δ – Φ), therefore

If f, Z and α are constants,

If N is steady speed, braking torque

At steady state, the speed of the driving torque is equal to the braking torque.

If Δ = 90º,

Speed,
The speed of the rotation is directly proportional to the power.

14
If Δ = 90º, total number of revolutions

The three phase energy meter is used for measuring the large power consumption.

Conclusion:-

Remark

Sign of Faculty

15
 Experiment No. 3

Aim: Measurement of three phase power by Two Wattmeter method.

Objectives: -
1. To measure three phase power and power factor in a balanced three phase circuit using two single-
phase wattmeter.
2. Calculate the three phase power for unbalance load condition.

Apparatus: -

SL.NO NAME OF EQUIPMENT RANGE QUANTITY

1 Testing panel - 1
2 3ϕ Load Bank - 1
3 Ammeter 0-10A MI 1
4 Voltmeter 0-600V MI 1
5 Wattmeter 0-600V, 10A, UPF 2
6 Connecting wires - As required

Theory:-
Single phase power can be measured using single wattmeter, But for measurement of 3 phase power
can be done using following methods:
1. One wattmeter method.
2. Two wattmeter method.
3. Three wattmeter method.

Two wattmeter method

This method is commonly used for the power measurement in the 3 phase circuits. Here as name
suggests, only two wattmeters are used. The current coils of the two wattmeters are connected in
series on any two lines. The corresponding pressure coils are connected between these lines and
the third line on which no wattmeter is connected. The two wattmeter method is used for the power
measurement in the 3-phase systems, irrespective of whether the load is balanced or unbalanced,
star or delta connected.

16
For Unbalance Load Condition:

PROCEDURE
1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram shown in Fig 5.1.
2. Switch ON 3 phase AC supply.
3. Apply load and measure the values of wattmeters, ammeter and voltmeter.
4. Switch OFF all the loads and supply
PRECAUTIONS:
1. All the connections should be tight and clean.
17
 2. The readings in ammeters should not exceed the current ratings of wattmeters.
3. With negative deflection in the wattmeter the connection should be reversed.

Circuit Diagram:-

Observation
Table:-

Sl. Total Power Calculated

VL (V) IL (A) W1 (W) W2 (W) Cos Ø
No. W= W1+ W2 Power

CALCULATION:
Total Power, P = W1 + W2 Watts.

√3( W1 – W2)
Power Factor Cos Ø = Cos [ tan-1{ W1+W2 }]
Calculated Power =√3 VL*IL*Cosϕ

18
Conclusion:-

Remark

Sign of Faculty

19
 Experiment No. 4

Aim: Measurement of Medium range resistance using Wheatstone’s bridge

Objective: - 1. To study working principle of Wheatstone bridge
2. To determine the unknown value of resistance using Wheatstone’s bridge.

Apparatus: -
1. Wheatstone bridge kit- 01
2. Unknown resistance- few

Theory:-
What is Wheatstone Bridge?
Wheatstone bridge, also known as the resistance bridge, calculates the unknown resistance by
balancing two legs of the bridge circuit. One leg includes the component of unknown resistance.
The Wheatstone Bridge Circuit comprises two known resistors, one unknown resistor and one
variable resistor connected in the form of a bridge. This bridge is very reliable as it gives accurate
measurements.

Construction of Wheatstone Bridge

A Wheatstone bridge circuit consists of four arms, of which two arms consist of known resistances
while the other two arms consist of an unknown resistance and a variable resistance. The circuit
also consists of a galvanometer and an electromotive force source. The emf source is attached
between points a and b while the galvanometer is connected between points c and d. The current
that flows through the galvanometer depends on its potential difference.

Wheatstone Bridge Principle:-

The Wheatstone bridge works on the principle of null deflection, i.e. the ratio of their resistances is
equal, and no current flows through the circuit. Under normal conditions, the bridge is in an
unbalanced condition where current flows through the galvanometer. The bridge is said to be
balanced when no current flows through the galvanometer. This condition can be achieved by
adjusting the known resistance and variable resistance.

Wheatstone Bridge Derivation

When SW1 is closed, current flows and divides into the two arms at point A, i.e. I 1 and I2. The
bridge is balanced when there is no current through the galvanometer, or when the potential
difference at points C and D is equal, i.e. the potential across the galvanometer is zero.

20
To obtain the bridge balance equation, we have from the Fig. 11.1.

For the galvanometer current to be zero, the following conditions should be satisfied.

Substituting in Eq. (1)

This is the equation for the bridge to be balanced.

In a practical Wheatstone Bridge diagram, at least one of the resistance is made adjustable, to
permit balancing. When the bridge is balanced, the unknown resistance (normally connected at R4)
may be determined from the setting of the adjustable resistor, which is called a standard resistor
because it is a precision device having very small tolerance.

Hence

Equation (4) determines the value of the unknown resistance.

Circuit Diagram:-

21
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram.
2. Connect the unknown resistance whose value is to be measured.
3. Make a adjustment to get null deflection on the null detector i.e. balanced the bridge to get
null deflection.
4. Calculate the value of unknown resistance by using formula.

Observation table:

Unknown 𝑅2𝑅3
Sr.No. R1 Ω R2 Ω R3 Ω Rx = Ω % error
Resistance 𝑅1
Rx Ω

Calculation:
𝑅2𝑅3
1. Rx = Ω
𝑅1

𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒−𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

2. % error = 𝑥 100
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

Conclusion:

Remark

Sign of Faculty

22
 Experiment No. 5

Aim: Characterize the strain gauge sensor

Objective:
a) To Study the characteristics of Strain gauge
b) To study the working principle of strain gauge.
c) Study of effect of change in position of weight applied on Strain Gauge performance

Apparatus Required:

1. Strain Gauge Kit

2. Cantilever Beam
3. Weights
4. Multimeter

Theory

A strain gauge is a resistor used to measure strain on an object. When an external force is applied
on an object, due to which there is a deformation occurs in the shape of the object. This deformation
in the shape is both compressive or tensile is called strain, and it is measured by the strain gauge.
When an object deforms within the limit of elasticity, either it becomes narrower and longer or it
become shorter and broadens. As a result of it, there is a change in resistance end-to-end. The strain
gauge is sensitive to that small changes occur in the geometry of an object. By measuring the
change in resistance of an object, the amount of induced stress can be calculated.

The change in resistance normally has very small value, and to sense that small change, strain
gauge has a long thin metallic strip arrange in a zigzag pattern on a non-conducting material called
the carrier, as shown below, so that it can enlarge the small amount of stress in the group of parallel
lines and could be measured with high accuracy. The gauge is literally glued onto the device by an
adhesive. When an object shows physical deformation, its electrical resistance gets change and that
change is then measured by gage.

23
Set up: The strain gauge module consists of a cantilever beam which is fixed on a rigid body. Four
strain gauges are placed on the surface of the beam. Two strain gauges are placed over the beam
and two are beneath the beam. A connector connects the strain gauges with the signal conditioning
unit. There is a hook which is attached to the cantilever beam, through which the load is applied to
the beam. In signal conditioning circuit there is a instrumentation amplifier and a gain amplifier
with some associated circuit which calibrates the load in terms of micro strain with the help of zero
and gain adjustment pot. A four digit seven segment display is provided, that displays the amount of
load in terms of micro strain.

Working:

The four strain gauges which are fixed with the cantilever beam makes four arm of a wheat stone
bridge, making it a full bridge. The strain gauges which are fixed above the beam detects the
longitudinal strain and which are fixed below the beam detects transverse strain. When the load is
applied on the end of the beam, a downward force is exerted. It tends to change the dimension of
the beam. This dimensional changes are sensed by strain gauges fixed with the beam. A strain
occurred on the beam is calculated by the given formula.
6PL
Strain = 2
B𝑡 Y
Where
P = Applied load in Kg.
L = Length of the beam in cm. = 21 cm
B = Breadth of the beam in cm. = 2 cm
t = Thickness of the beam in cm. = 0.25cm
Y = Young’s modules of the material to be used in Kg/cm2. = 2X106

The resistances of the strain gauges are changed due to the dimensional changes in beam when the
load is applied. Due to this resistance changes an unbalanced voltage is developed in the bridge
output. This unbalanced voltage are further processed and calibrated to give the strain directly on
the display.

Procedure:

1. Connect the hook on the cantilever beam and interface connector with the kit.
2. Switch ON the module.
3. Initially unload the beam and nullify the bridge voltage/ strain displayed on DPM by using
zero adjust pot.
4. Then apply loads & take the readings
5. Gradually increase the load 100gm in step on the beam and note down applied load and the
bridge voltage (mV).
6. Tabulate the values of applied load, theoretical strain and the bridge voltage (mV).
7. Plot a graph between theoretical strain versus bridge voltage (mV).

24
Observation Table:

Sr. Applied Load kg DPM reading Bridge Voltage Theoretical Strain

No. (Measured weight) kg (mV)

Calculation:-

Remark

Sign of Faculty

Result and conclusion:-

25
 Experiment No. 6

Aim: Characterize the LVDT sensor

Objective:
a) To Study the characteristics of LVDT.
b) To study the working principle of LVDT.
c) Measurement of displacement using LVDT.

Apparatus Required:

1. LVDT Kit
2. Multimeter,
3. Connecting Wires
THEORY: - LVDT is basically a mutual inductance type transformer with variable coupling
between the primary and two secondary coils. It is equivalent to E. Pick off in its operation except
the reluctance of magnetic path is mostly due to air path. Uniformly wound over a certain length of
transducer and two identical secondary coil systematically wound on either side of the primary coils
and away from centre. The iron rod is free to move inside the coil in either direction from the null
point when primary coil is excitedly AC supply the induced emf of secondary are equal to each
other with the core lying in null position. The secondary are connected in series with but in phase
opposition so that resultant output voltage is zero. Displacement of core in either direction from the
null position results in output voltage as read by an AC rms voltmeter and it is observed that there is
a residual voltage at the null position. Due to capacitance coupling between primary and secondary
and the characteristics of a linear over a limited displacement.

Diagram:

26
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit according to circuit diagram.
2. Switch on the power supply.
3. The core is initially brought to null position.
4. First turn the nut in clockwise direction to move core inwards i.e. left of null position & take
respective voltage readings on the voltmeter.
5. Now turn nut in anticlockwise direction to move the core towards right of null point & again take
respective voltage reading from voltmeter.
6. Plot the graph from the observations taken.

Observation Table:-

Input Output Input Output

S. % S. %
Displacement Displacement Displacement Displacement
No. Error No. Error
in mm In mm in mm In mm

Output Displacement−Input Displacement

% Error = 𝑋100
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

27
 Experiment No.7

AIM:
Measurement of temperature using thermocouple.

Objective:
1. To study working principle of thermocouple.
2. To measure change in temperature by using thermocouple.

APPARTUS:
Thermometer, thermocouple, sensor, vessel and water, multimeter and conducting
rod.

THEORY:
Thermocouple is a transducer based on the seeback effect. it is most widely used and
common signal device for temperature measurement in industrial application. For the
range of O-400 F. Thermocouple is a self-generating transducer and is basically a pair of
dissimilar metal conductors joined so as to produce an emf when the junction are kept at
different temperatures and material of conductors. Combination used for base metal
thermocouples are
Copper-Constantan (-300F to 600F)
Iron-Constantan (-300F to -1500F) etc.
Thermocouples are cheap, reliable in service, are easily used, wide range of temperature
measurement and have a very good time of response characteristics(low thermal mass)
but they are not perfectly linear over centre range, require cold junction compensation.

Let the P and Q are the two junctions of the thermocouples. The T 1 and T2 are the temperatures at
the junctions. As the temperature of the junctions is different from each other, the EMF generates in
the circuit.
If the temperature at the junction becomes equal, the equal and opposite EMF generates in the
circuit, and the zero current flows through it. If the temperatures of the junction become unequal,
the potential difference induces in the circuit. The magnitude of the EMF induces in the circuit
depends on the types of material used for making the thermocouple. The total current flowing
through the circuit is measured through the measuring devices.
The EMF induces in the thermocouple circuit is given by the equation

28
Where Δθ – temperature difference between the hot thermocouple junction and the reference
thermocouple junction.
a, b – constants

Circuit Diagram:

PROCEDURE:
1. Switch on the power supply of tutor.
2. Ensure that the water heater is ready and contains sufficient amount of water.
3. Keep the thermocouple in air at room temperature indicator wi!l display room
temperature at this point, measure the voltage across thermocouple.
4. Keep on the thermocouple in water kept on be boiled and measure the voltage and also
temperature with the help of thermometer, down the display reading.
5. By adding the cold water, get the reading of different temperatures of water.

PRECAUTION:
1. While connecting the thermocouple to the input terminals, observe correct polarity.
2. A broken or unconnected thermocouple will give out of scale reading.

Observation Table:

Sr. No. Thermometer Output Display EMF (mV)

Reading Reading

Conclusion:-

29
 Experiment No.8

AIM: -To measure temperature using RTD sensor.

Objective: -
1. To study working principle of RTD
2. To measure change in temperature by using RTD.

APPRATUS: -
Thermometer, RTD sensor, heater, vessel, multimeter and conductive metal rod.
RTD

THEORY : -
A Resistance Temperature Detector (also known as a Resistance
Thermometer or RTD) is an electronic device used to determine the temperature
by measuring the resistance of an electrical wire. This wire is referred to as a
temperature sensor. If we want to measure temperature with high accuracy, an
RTD is the ideal solution, as it has good linear characteristics over a wide range
of temperatures

The principle operation of resistance temperature detect is based on the fact that electrical
resistance of many metals increases almost directly with temperature and is reciprocal to
high degree of accuracy. The term used to express this characteristic is well known as
coefficient of resistance and is defined by formula
Rt =Ro(1 + α t)

Where,
α =temperature coefficient of resistance.
Ro=Resistance of wire at zero degree.
Rt’ =Resistance of wire at any temperature.

Platinum, Copper, Nickel are used as RTD elements which are further used as transducer
for temperature measurement.

1. The resistance of RTD increases as temperature increases.

2. Resistance thermometer are larger in size and less convenient to apply than
thermocouple. They are massive & hcnce exhibit poor time response characteristics.
3. They require bridge balance circuitry and hence rather restricted upper temperature
30
range.
4. They require higher accuracy, reliability than thermocouple.

PROCEDURE -
1. Switch ‘ON’ the power supply, the red LED glows on the front panel.
2. Give the zero degree Celsius temperature of RTD by keeping it with ice. Adjust the
zero on the display by adjusting through potentiometer.
3. Keeping the RTD into the boiling water and adjust display reading to 100 by adjusting
through span potential.
4. Keep the RTD in air at room temperature. The indicator will display room temperature.
Calculate the resistance of RID with the help of multimeter.
5. By keeping the RID in the heater at different temperature, note down the display
temperature.

PRECAUTIONS :
1. Maintain the room temperature.
2. The environment would be dust proof and humidity proof

Observation table:

Sr. Thermometer reading RTD reading Voltage (mV)

No.

Graph:-

Conclusion:-

31
 Experiment No - 9

Aim: Measurement of phase difference and frequency of a sinusoidal ac voltage using C.R.O

Objective: To measure the voltage, time period & frequency of an sinusoidal signal using
CRO

Apparatus Required:
Function Generator
CROCRO
Connecting Probes

Theory:
Measurement of AC Voltage

A voltage can be measured by noting the Y deflection produced by the voltage, using this deflection
in conjunction with the volts / div setting; the voltage can be calculated as follows:

V = (no. of divisions in Y axis.) x (selected Volts/div scale)

Measurement of Time period of AC Voltage

Time Period:

T=(no. of divisions in X axis.) x (selected time/ div scale)

Measurement of frequency of AC Voltage

1
F=𝑇 in Hertz

Observation table:
32
 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
S. No. FG No. of Volts Vrms= Time Time / Time Frequency
Freq div in Y / Div Vpp (No. Div Period 𝟏
Vpp/2 F=𝑻 in
Axis Voltage of div 7 *8
Hertz
Magnit in X
ude Axis)
(3*4)

Model Calculation

Conclusion:

33