CHAPTER 8

The Solar System

and Beyond
Lesson 1
Earth and Sun . . . . . . 358
Lesson 2
Earth and Moon . . . . 368
Lesson 3
The Solar System . . 378
Lesson 4
Stars and
Constellations . . . . . 392

What objects are in the solar

system and beyond?

356 Milky Way Galaxy

 More Vocabulary
Key Vocabulary
rotation axis, p. 360
the complete spin of an orbit, p. 362
object around its axis
(p. 360) crater, p. 371
lunar eclipse, p. 374
solar eclipse, p. 374
revolution
planet, p. 380
one complete trip around
an object in a circular or gravity, p. 381
nearly circular path (p. 362)
telescope, p. 382
asteroid, p. 388

phase meteor, p. 388

an apparent change in the meteorite, p. 388
Moon’s shape (p. 373)
star, p. 394

solar system
the Sun and all the objects
that travel around it
(p. 380)

comet
a chunk of ice, rock, and
dust that moves around the
Sun (p. 388)

constellation
a group of stars that appear
to form a pattern in the
night sky (p. 396)

357
Lesson 1

Earth
and Sun
Blakeney Point, Norfolk, United Kingdom

Every day the Sun rises and sets. At dawn it

appears in the east. You’ll find it in the west
by sunset. Is the Sun really moving across the
sky? Is Earth moving?

358
ENGAGE
What causes day and night? Materials
Purpose
Explore why Earth has both day and night.

Procedure
Write I live here on a self-stick note. Place
the note over your home on the globe.
Make a Model Darken the room. Shine the
flashlight on the self-stick note. The flashlight
models the Sun.
Observe What part of the globe is lit? What
part is dark? Record your observations.
Form a Hypothesis What do you think • self-stick notes
causes Earth’s cycle of day and night? Write
• globe
a hypothesis that you can test.
• flashlight
Make two plans to test your hypothesis. You
can move the flashlight, the globe, or both.
Carry out your plans to test your idea.

Draw Conclusions
Step
Communicate Describe how you modeled
day and night. How did your tests differ?
Do you think one of your models is correct?
Which one? Why?
How much of Earth is lit during the day?
How much is lit at night?

Explore More
The Sun rose at a certain time this morning. It
will set at a certain time tonight. Does the Sun
rise and set at the same time everywhere on
Earth? Use your model to support your answer.

359
EXPLORE
 What causes day and night?
How can it be afternoon where you live and
▶ Main Idea nighttime in Asia? The answer is that Earth
Earth’s movement through
moves. Long ago, people thought that Earth
space causes day, night,
and the seasons. stood still while the Sun moved around it. Today
we know that Earth moves around the Sun.
▶ Vocabulary
rotation, p. 360
Earth Rotates
As Earth moves around the Sun, it also spins.
axis, p. 360
Rotation (roh•TAY•shuhn) is the act of spinning.
revolution, p. 362
The diagram shows how Earth rotates.
orbit, p. 362
The dotted line between the North Pole and
-Glossary the South Pole is Earth’s axis (AK•sis). An axis
www.macmillanmh.com
at
is a real or imaginary line that an object spins
around. Every day, Earth completes one rotation.
▶ Reading Skill
One rotation takes 24 hours. We divide each hour
Cause and Effect
into 60 minutes. Every minute has 60 seconds.
Cause Effect

Earth’s Rotation

North Pole

axis

Read a Diagram

Where on Earth will it

equator be night next?
Clue: The green arrow
sunlight
shows the direction of
Earth’s rotation.
South Pole

360
EXPLAIN
▲ When the Sun is high in the sky, ▲ When the Sun is low in the sky,
this antelope has a shorter shadow. the antelope has a longer shadow.

Apparent Motion Shadows

As Earth rotates, you see different Have you ever made a shadow
parts of space. During the day, the puppet? A shadow forms when
side of Earth where you live faces light is blocked. The light strikes an
the Sun. As that part turns away object but cannot pass through.
from the Sun, it becomes night. The You cast a shadow when your
rotation of Earth changes day into body blocks the sunlight. Your
night and night into day again. shadow always points away from
Apparent motion is the way the Sun. As the position of the Sun
something appears, or seems, to changes, your shadow changes too.
move. The Sun appears to rise in Early in the morning, your shadow
the east. It seems to set in the west. is long. It shrinks until midday. Then
Apparent motion is not real motion. it grows longer again until sunset.
Earth’s rotation causes the
Quick Check
apparent motion of many objects
in space. Stars only seem to move. Cause and Effect What causes
The Moon and planets do not Earth’s cycle of day and night?
always move in the same direction Critical Thinking How might
as their apparent motion. you use the Sun to estimate the
time of day?

FAC T The Sun is not always at its highest point in the sky at noon. 361
EXPLAIN
What causes seasons? Earth’s Tilted Axis
Earth’s axis is not straight up
Not only does Earth rotate
and down. It is tilted at an angle of
around its axis, it also revolves
23.5°. The tilt points in the same
(ri•VAHLVZ) around the Sun.
direction throughout Earth’s orbit.
Revolution is when one object
travels around another. This tilt causes sunlight to
strike Earth at different angles. At
The path a revolving object takes
any given time, each hemisphere
is its orbit. Earth’s orbit is shaped
(HEM•is•feer), or half, of Earth gets
like an ellipse (i•LIPS), or flattened
more or less sunlight. The seasons
circle. Earth’s orbit around the Sun
result from both Earth’s tilted axis
takes 365 41 days, or one year.
and its revolution around the Sun.

Earth’s Revolution
spring

summer

Sun
winter

fall

362
EXPLAIN
The Four Seasons
How does Earth’s tilt cause
summer, fall, spring, and winter? In Sun and Seasons
June, the North Pole tilts toward
Hold the bottom of a
the Sun. Sunlight hits the Northern flashlight 5 cm above
Hemisphere at steep angles. The a piece of graph paper.
Trace the circle of
light is more intense. It is summer.
light on the graph
In December, the North Pole tilts paper. Label the
circle A.
away from the Sun. Sunlight strikes
the Northern Hemisphere at low Tilt the flashlight as shown. Keep
it the same distance above the
angles. It is winter in the northern paper. Trace the circle of light.
part of the world. In the Southern Label it B.
Hemisphere, however, it is summer. Use Numbers Count the squares
on the graph paper that fall inside
or mostly inside each circle.

Did tilting the flashlight change

the number of squares? How?

Infer How do your results help

explain the seasons?

summer fall winter spring

June 21–Sept. 22 Sept. 22–Dec. 21 Dec. 21–March 20 March 20–June 21

Read a Diagram Quick Check

Describe how sunlight changes in the Cause and Effect What causes
Southern Hemisphere in one year. the seasons?
Clue: Follow the red arrows. Look for the
shadow. Critical Thinking What would
happen to the seasons if Earth’s
Watch how Earth axis were not tilted?
revolves around the Sun at
www.macmillanmh.com 363
EXPLAIN
How does the Sun’s At the Poles
Near the poles, the Sun’s
apparent path change apparent path is very different
over the seasons? between seasons. In northern
The diagram shows the apparent Alaska, for instance, summer nights
path of the Sun during the day. are very short. During winter, the
Each yellow circle represents the Sun hardly ever appears.
Sun’s position at noon. How does
that position change from winter to
Making Predictions
The Sun’s apparent path changes
summer? The Sun rises much higher
in the same pattern every year.
in the sky during a summer day.
Scientists use these patterns to make
It also rises earlier and sets later.
predictions. They can predict the
At the Equator exact times the Sun will rise and set.
The diagram does not apply to
all parts of the world. Near the Quick Check
equator, the Sun’s apparent path Cause and Effect How does the
changes much less during the year. Sun’s apparent path change over
Temperatures there change little the year?
from season to season. All year long, Critical Thinking Why are the
sunlight strikes at similar angles. differences so large near the poles?
Apparent Path of the Sun

summer

spring and fall

winter

364
EXPLAIN
Visual Summary Think, Talk, and Write
Main Idea What are two ways Earth
Earth’s rotation
moves through space?
causes day and night.
Shadows change with Vocabulary Earth’s is the
the Sun’s apparent path it takes during its revolution.
motion across the sky.
Cause and Effect List the different
The tilt of Earth’s axis effects caused by Earth’s motion.
and Earth’s revolution Cause Effect
around the Sun cause
seasons to change
during the year.

The Sun’s apparent Critical Thinking How would Earth

path depends on the be different if its axis were not tilted?
tilt of Earth’s axis. The
path is different near Test Prep When does the Sun rise
the equator and poles. highest in the sky in the Northern
Hemisphere?
A March
Make a B June
Study Guide C September
Make a Three-Tab D December
Book. Use it to
summarize what Test Prep Which process takes Earth
you learned about 24 hours to complete?
the Sun and Earth. A rotation
B revolution
C shadows
D seasons

Math Link Social Studies Link

Use Multiplication Learn About Seasons in Other Places
A tree is 9 meters tall. In the Find your state on a globe. Where
morning, the tree casts a shadow on Earth is the cycle of day and
3 times its height. How long is the night the opposite from where you
tree’s shadow in the morning? live? Where is the cycle of seasons
the opposite?

-Review Summaries and quizzes online at www.macmillanmh.com 365

EVALUATE
It is the year 3528. Planet Mungo is in “If this continues,” argued the vice
conflict with Earth. Mungo’s scientists chief, “water won’t evaporate. We’ll
have built a huge device that blocks face floods and freezing.”
the Sun’s light from reaching Earth. “Get up, Lisa,” shouted Mom.
It happened 14 days ago. First, the Lisa opened her eyes. “Mom, I just had
sky darkened. Then, the air cooled. It the weirdest dream.” She looked out
became very still. Rain began to fall. It the window and smiled in the sunlight.
has been raining for 13 days.

The High Global Commission met. “We

must resolve our conflict with Mungo,” Fictional Story
said the commission chief. “Without A good fictional story
the Sun, plants cannot make food. The
▶ has an interesting beginning,
plants are dying. With no plants, all the middle, and end
animals will die!”
▶ describes a setting, telling
when and where a story
happens
Write About It
Fictional Story Write your own
story about what would happen
if sunlight could not reach Earth.

-Journal Research and write about it

online at www.macmillanmh.com

366
EXTEND
 Light travels about 10
trillion kilometers (km) in one
year. Light travels about 18
million km in one minute. The
Sun is about 150 million km
away from Earth.
Using this information, you
can figure how many minutes
it takes for sunlight to reach
Earth. Divide 150 million by
18 million to get the answer. Estimate Quotients
▶ You can use compatible
Instead of using long numbers to estimate
division to get an exact 150 18. What numbers
answer, you can make an close to these are easier
to divide?
estimate. Use numbers that
are close to the ones in the ▶ 18 is close to 20.
150 is between 140 and 160.
problem, but easier to divide. What is 140 divided by 20?

Think, 14 2 = 7
So, 140 20 = 7

What is 160 divided by 20?

Solve It
Think, 16 2 = 8
Mars is about 230 million km
So, 160 20 = 8
away from the Sun.
Estimate the number of It takes 7 to 8 minutes
for the Sun’s light to
minutes it takes for the
reach Earth.
Sun’s light to reach Mars.

367
EXTEND
Lesson 2

Earth and
Moon
moonrise, Tijerflue Mountain, Switzerland

When the Moon is full, you can see

shadowy places on its surface. Those
shadows are really large holes, or craters.
How did the Moon get those features?
Why are the craters different sizes?

368
ENGAGE
What affects the size of craters Materials
on the Moon?
Form a Hypothesis
When rocks moving through space hit the Moon,
they make holes called craters. Does a bigger
rock make a larger crater? Write a hypothesis.

Test Your Hypothesis

Make a Model Place a large dish or tray on a • large dish or tray
sheet of newspaper. Cover the inside of the
• newspaper
dish with wax paper. Pour in a layer of flour
about 3 cm thick. This models the surface of • wax paper
the Moon. Do not touch it! • flour
Press the clay into three balls. One ball • metric ruler
should have a diameter of about 1 cm. The • modeling clay
second should be about 3 cm. The third,
5 cm. These are your model space rocks. Step

Measure Drop a model rock onto the flour

from a height of 25 cm. Measure the width of
the hole it makes. Repeat three times. Record
your data in a chart.
Experiment Repeat step 3 with the other
models. Record these results in your chart.

Draw Conclusions
Interpret Data How does the size of the rock
affect the size of the hole that it makes?
Step
Infer How does this activity explain the
Moon’s appearance?

Explore More
What variable besides rock size affects the size
of craters? Form a hypothesis. Make a plan to
test it. Decide which variables will stay the same
and which variable will change. Try it!

369
EXPLORE
 What is the Moon like?
On many nights, the Moon appears to be the
largest, brightest object in the sky. Unlike stars,
▶ Main Idea
however, the Moon does not make its own light.
The Moon’s surface is
rocky and covered with
Why does the Moon shine? It reflects the light of
craters. As the Moon the Sun. Moonlight is reflected sunlight!
revolves around Earth, we
observe its phases.

▶ Vocabulary
crater, p. 371
phase, p. 373
lunar eclipse, p. 374
solar eclipse, p. 374

-Glossary
at www.macmillanmh.com

▶ Reading Skill
Compare and Contrast ▲ The Moon reflects light
Different Alike Different from the Sun.

Sunlight strikes the surface of

Earth as well as the Moon. The
Moon reflects its light to Earth.

Earth
Moon
sunlight

Sun

370
EXPLAIN
The Moon and Earth
The Moon is Earth’s
closest neighbor in space.
It is about 384,000
kilometers (240,000
miles) from Earth. This is
almost 400 times closer
to Earth than the Sun.
Rocks on the Moon are
similar to some Earth rocks.
However, there are many
differences between Earth and
the Moon. For one, the Moon is
much smaller than Earth. There is
no air or atmosphere. It has almost
no water either.
Because of these factors, the crater
Moon has an extreme range of
temperatures. In the daytime, it is Craters and Earth’s Atmosphere
hot enough to boil water. The nights If meteoroids are always crashing
are colder than any place on Earth. into things, why isn’t Earth covered
No wonder the Moon does not in craters? Earth’s atmosphere keeps
support life! them away. When meteoroids enter
Surface Features Earth’s atmosphere, they become
The Moon has a few tall very hot. Most of them burn up
mountains. It also has flat plains. before they hit Earth’s surface.
But most of its surface is covered
with craters (KRAY•tuhrz). A crater Quick Check
is a hollow area or pit in the ground. Compare and Contrast How are
Large rocks called meteoroids Earth and the Moon alike? How
(MEE•tee•uh•roydz) made many are they different?
of the Moon’s craters. Meteoroids
Critical Thinking Why do visitors
travel through space. They often to the Moon need to wear space
crash into other space objects. suits?

FAC T The Moon does not make its own light. 371
EXPLAIN
Phases of the Moon

Third Quarter Moon

The Moon is three quarters
Waning of the way around Earth. Waning
Crescent Moon Gibbous Moon
The left sliver of the Slightly less of
Moon is the only part the lighted side
you can see. can be seen.

New Moon Full Moon

The lighted side The entire
cannot be seen lighted side
from Earth. can be seen.

Waxing Waxing
Crescent Moon Gibbous Moon
Some of the lighted The Moon is
side can be seen. almost full.

First Quarter Moon

The Moon is a quarter of
the way around Earth.

Read a Diagram

You cannot see the Sun in this diagram,

but you can infer its position. Where is
the Sun?
Clue: Observe the small Moons along the
blue circle.

372
EXPLAIN
What are the phases
of the Moon?
Like the Sun, the Moon seems to
Moon and Earth
rise and set. The Sun does not move
Use a sticker to mark a spot on a
around Earth, but the Moon does! small ball.
As Earth revolves around the Sun, Make a Model Move the small
the Moon revolves around Earth. It ball in a revolution around a
completes one orbit around Earth in larger ball. Meanwhile, rotate the
small ball in the same direction.
just over 29 days. This is almost as Your rotation and revolution
long as an average month. In fact, should finish at the same time.
some of the earliest calendars were How does this model the Moon
based on the Moon’s motion. and Earth?

Infer Will you

Apparent Shapes
ever see a
As the Moon orbits Earth, its different side
appearance seems to change. The of the Moon
apparent shapes of the Moon in the from Earth?
Explain.
sky are called phases (FAYZ•ez).
During one complete orbit, the
Moon cycles through all of its
phases. At the same time, the Moon
completes about one rotation.
All this time, the Sun is shining. Earth’s Tides
It lights one half of the Moon at a The Moon’s gravity causes tides.
time. The other half is dark. During Tides are the daily rise and fall of
the Moon’s orbits, we see different the ocean’s surface. Most places on
fractions of its lighted half. Earth have high tides and low tides.

The Moon’s Gravity Quick Check

The Moon has gravity. It pulls
Compare and Contrast How is
slightly on Earth. On the side the Moon’s first quarter phase like
of Earth that faces the Moon, its third quarter phase?
the water or land bulges slightly
outward. The Moon pulls more than Critical Thinking How much
time passes between a full Moon
the Sun because it is closer to Earth.
and a new Moon?
373
EXPLAIN
 Two Kinds of Eclipses
Earth

Moon

Sun

lunar eclipse

solar eclipse
Earth
Moon

Sun

Read a Diagram

What role does the Moon play in

each kind of eclipse?
What is an eclipse? Clue: Observe the shadows.

An eclipse (i•KLIPS) is a shadow

cast by Earth or the Moon. The Eclipse Safety
diagram shows the two basic kinds. Only a lunar eclipse is safe to
observe. Looking at a solar eclipse
Lunar Eclipses will damage your eyes or cause
In a lunar eclipse, Earth casts a
blindness. Sunglasses do not help.
shadow on the Moon. This happens
For this reason, you should never
when Earth is directly between the
look directly at the Sun during an
Sun and the Moon. The Moon passes
eclipse. Scientists use special tools
through Earth’s shadow.
to observe solar eclipses safely.
Solar Eclipses
In a solar eclipse, the Moon casts Quick Check
a shadow on Earth. Solar eclipses Compare and Contrast How is a
happen only during the new Moon. lunar eclipse like a solar eclipse?
A partial solar eclipse is when part How is it different?
of the Sun is blocked. A total solar Critical Thinking Why is it safe
eclipse blocks all of the Sun. to observe a lunar eclipse?

374
EXPLAIN
Visual Summary Think, Talk, and Write
Main Idea Describe the movement of
The Moon is Earth’s
the Moon in space.
nearest neighbor in
space. It reflects the
Vocabulary During a(n) , the
Sun’s light. Craters
Moon’s shadow is cast onto Earth.
cover its surface.
Compare and Contrast Fill in the
The Moon revolves
Venn diagram to show how Earth and
around Earth about
the Moon are alike and different.
once every 29 days. As
Different Alike Different
the Moon revolves, we
see its different phases.

An eclipse occurs
when a shadow is cast
by Earth or the Moon.
Critical Thinking You see a full Moon
A solar eclipse is not
in the night sky. Is there a new Moon
safe to view.
someplace else on Earth? Explain.

Test Prep What causes many of the

Make a craters on the Moon?
Study Guide
A meteoroids striking the Moon
Make a Trifold Book.
B earthquakes on the Moon
Use it to summarize
C landslides on the Moon
what you read about
Earth and Moon. D flooding on the Moon

Math Link Social Studies Link

Diameter and Radius Learn About the Apollo Program
The diameter of a circle is its width Research and report on NASA’s
at the widest point. The radius of a Apollo Program. Why was it
circle is one half of its diameter. A important to Americans in the
picture of the full Moon has a radius 1960s and 1970s? Try to interview
of 6 cm. What is its diameter? an adult who remembers the events.

-Review Summaries and quizzes online at www.macmillanmh.com 375

EVALUATE
Inquiry Skill: Interpret Data
During any month, you can see different phases of
the Moon. The changing positions of Earth and the Moon
cause these phases. Scientists can predict when the Moon
will be in any of its phases. To do so, they collect and
interpret data about the Moon.

▶ Learn It
When you interpret data, you use information that has been
gathered to answer questions or solve problems. Interpreting data
from a written report can be difficult. It’s better to organize your
data into a table, chart, or graph. These tools help you see and
understand your data at a glance. They help others understand
your data, too.

A calendar is a kind of table. The one below shows data about

the Moon’s phases during the month of May. Each drawing shows
the phase that was observed on that day. The pattern in the
calendar helps you predict other Moon phases.

376
EXTEND
▶ Try It
Interpret data in the Moon phase calendar on the opposite
page. Answer the following questions.
Materials Moon phase calendar

On which day or days was there a new Moon?

On which day or days was there a first quarter Moon?
On which day or days was there a gibbous Moon?
Is there a pattern of Moon phases in this calendar?
Describe it.

▶ Apply It
Interpret data by turning the information into a table like
the one shown here.

Make a table with two columns. In one column, draw the

Moon’s phases. You do not need to include the gibbous
phase. In the other column, tally the number of times each
phase appears in the calendar.
Find a new calendar at home or at school that shows
the Moon’s phases. Look at the month of May. Make
another table that shows the tally of Moon phases.
Compare the two tables. Are your tallies the
same in both cases? How are they different?
Look at the two Moon phase calendars.
Do the same phases of the Moon
occur on the same days in May?
Why or why not?

377
EXTEND
Lesson 3

The Solar
System

Is this a photograph taken from space? Look

at the distances between the three objects.
Are they really so close together in space?

378
ENGAGE
How do sizes of objects in Materials
the solar system compare?
Purpose
Explore how Earth’s size compares to the Moon’s
size and the sizes of other objects in the solar
system.

Procedure
Be Careful! Handle scissors carefully. • scissors

Use Numbers Study the table. Compare the • construction paper

diameters of the different objects. • metric ruler

Measure Cut a paper circle with a diameter • marker

of 16 cm. This circle models Earth. Measure
and cut circles to model the other objects in
the table. Label each object. For at least one Step

of the models, you will need to tape two or

more sheets of construction paper together.
Classify Arrange the objects in a way that
lets you compare their sizes.

Draw Conclusions
Communicate How do the sizes of the
different objects compare?
Infer Why does the Moon appear larger than
Mars in Earth’s night sky? Why does the Sun Comparing Diameters
seem larger and brighter than other stars? Object Size in Earth Diameters

Explore More Earth 1

Research the sizes of other objects in the solar Moon

1
4
system. Make large and small circles to represent
1
them. Find out how these objects are arranged Mars 2
in the solar system. Then arrange your models to
Uranus 4
represent those locations.

379
EXPLORE
 What is the solar system?
You probably know that several satellites
▶ Main Idea (SAT•uh•lites) orbit Earth. Did you know that the
The Sun is at the center of
Moon is a satellite? A satellite is any object that
the solar system. Planets,
moons, and other objects moves in orbit around another, larger body.
orbit around the Sun.
The Sun has many satellites. The Sun and all
▶ Vocabulary the objects in orbit around it make up our solar
solar system, p. 380
system. The solar system is millions of kilometers
wide. At its center is the Sun.
planet, p. 380
gravity, p. 381 Planets
telescope, p. 382 On a clear night, you may see a planet or two
comet, p. 388
in the sky. Planets are round objects in space that
are satellites of the Sun. Scientists have identified
asteroid, p. 388
eight planets in our solar system.
meteor, p. 388
Planets are smaller and cooler than stars. Like
meteorite, p. 388
the Moon, planets cannot make their own light.
-Glossary They reflect the light of the Sun.
at www.macmillanmh.com
The Solar System
▶ Reading Skill
Main Idea and Details
Main Idea Details

Sun Mercury
Venus Earth Mars

380
EXPLAIN
Orbiting the Sun This instrument models
how the planets move
In the 1500s, a Polish scientist
in the solar system.
named Nicolaus Copernicus studied
the planets. He found that they orbit
the Sun. One hundred years later, a
German scientist named Johannes
Kepler showed that those orbits are
ellipses (i•LIP•seez). An ellipse is a
slightly flattened circle, or oval.
The English scientist Sir Isaac
Newton lived in the late 1600s. He
described how the planets stay in
their orbits. Newton said it was a Quick Check
balance between gravity and inertia Main Idea and Details How do
(i•NUR•shuh). Gravity is a force of planets move in the solar system?
attraction between all objects. It
Critical Thinking Why is Earth’s
pulls planets toward the Sun. Inertia Moon a satellite?
is the tendency of a moving object
to keep moving in a straight line.
Read a Diagram

Which planet has the shortest

journey around the Sun?
Clue: Trace each line of orbit.

Jupiter

Uranus

Neptune

Saturn

381
EXPLAIN
How do we learn about Clouds and city lights make it
hard to see through telescopes. For
the solar system? this reason, many telescopes are
While Kepler studied the planets located in clear, deserted areas or
using math, an Italian scientist was on mountaintops. One of the best
also at work. His name was Galileo places for telescopes is space itself!
Galilei. He arranged curved pieces
of glass, or lenses, inside a tube. The Astronauts
lenses helped him peer into space. Many countries have programs to
explore space. The United States has
Telescopes NASA—the National Aeronautic
Do you know what Galileo (ayr•uh•NAW•tik) and Space
used to look into space? It was a Administration. In the 1960s, NASA
telescope. Telescopes make faraway launched rockets that took people
objects seem closer. Galileo found into space. Those people were
objects in space that no one had the first astronauts
seen before. He was able to show (AS•truh•nawts).
that Copernicus’s model of the solar
system was correct. Some of today’s
telescopes work much like larger
versions of the ones Galileo made.
Others used curved mirrors.

New and Old Telescopes

radio telescopes
Galileo’s
telescope

Read a Photo

How has technology for

learning about space changed
since Galileo’s time?
Clue: Compare the telescopes
in the photographs.

382
EXPLAIN
Shuttles and Space Stations
Space shuttles help astronauts
conduct experiments and launch
satellites. Many countries, including
the United States, also use the
International Space Station. Unlike
shuttles, the space station remains
in space for a long time.

Probes
Space probes are safer and less
expensive than sending astronauts
to space. A probe is an unmanned
spacecraft that leaves Earth’s orbit.
NASA has launched probes to
planets, moons, and other objects.
The probes send pictures and other
data from space to Earth.
In 2004 a space probe landed on
Mars. Two robot explorers, called ▲ The Cassini spacecraft is exploring
the planet Saturn and its moons.
Mars rovers, studied the surface and
recorded data. The names of these
rovers are Spirit and Opportunity.
Because the solar system is so
This drawing shows a Mars rover
large, some probes need many years
on the surface of Mars.
to reach their target. In 2006, NASA
launched a probe to Pluto. It will
reach Pluto in the year 2015.

Quick Check
Main Idea and Details How do
scientists learn about space?
Critical Thinking Why is NASA
exploring planets with space
probes instead of astronauts?
383
EXPLAIN
 What are the rocky
planets?
The four planets closest to the
Model the Solar System Sun are called the rocky planets.
As a class, discuss how to best They have much in common. Each
model the solar system.
is made up mostly of rock. They
Have each class member pick an also seem to have solid cores made
object to model.
of iron. There are also important
Make a Model Carry out the plan differences between these planets.
in an open space. Observe the
model in motion. Mercury
What did the class model show Mercury is the closest planet to
about the solar system? How the Sun. That makes it very hot. It
could the model be improved?
has almost no water and very little
air. The surface has many craters
like Earth’s Moon. It is also the
smallest rocky planet. At its equator,
it is less than half the size of Earth.
Mercury does not have a moon.

Mercury Venus

Distance to the Sun: 58 million km Distance to the Sun: 108 million km

Diameter: 4,880 km Diameter: 12,100 km
Rotation Time: 59 Earth days Rotation Time: 243 Earth days
Revolution Time: 88 Earth days Revolution Time: 225 Earth days
Fast Fact: Mercury’s surface is Fast Fact: Temperatures on Venus
covered with craters. can reach 500˚C.

384
EXPLAIN
Venus Mars
Venus is the second closest Of all the planets, Mars is the
planet to the Sun. It has a thick most like Earth. It has two small
atmosphere, mostly of carbon moons, and a thin atmosphere.
dioxide. The atmosphere does not Mars has volcanoes, but they are
allow heat to easily escape. This no longer active. The surface has
makes Venus the hottest planet. many features that show evidence of
There are many volcanoes on Venus. erosion by floods and rivers. Today,
Its surface is covered in lava flows. Mars is much colder than Earth. Its
Venus also does not have a moon. water is frozen in ice caps near both
poles. In addition to probes, NASA
Earth hopes to send astronauts to Mars.
Earth is unique in our solar
system. It has oxygen and liquid Quick Check
water. Earth’s atmosphere keeps Main Idea and Details Name
temperatures from getting too hot or and describe the rocky planets.
too cold. These conditions are just
Critical Thinking Why would
right for life. Earth is the only planet
Earth’s living things be unable to
we know of that supports life.
live on the other rocky planets?

Earth Mars

Distance to the Sun: 150 million km Distance to the Sun: 228 million km
Diameter: 12,756 km Diameter: 6,794 km
Rotation Time: 1 Earth day Rotation Time: About 1 Earth day
Revolution Time: 365 Earth days Revolution Time: 687 Earth days
Fast Fact: Earth’s atmosphere Fast Fact: Iron oxide, or rust, gives
makes it suitable for life. Mars its reddish color.

385
EXPLAIN
What are the other Jupiter
Jupiter is the largest planet in the
planets? solar system. Scientists have seen at
The four planets beyond Mars least 63 moons in orbit around it.
are called gas giants. Can you guess This planet’s atmosphere is divided
why? They are huge in size and into bands. Each band has winds
made mostly of gases. The nearest, blowing in opposite directions. One
Jupiter, is five times farther from the band has a large red spot that is the
Sun than Earth. size of Earth. It is a giant storm that
The gas giants do not have solid has been raging for over 300 years!
surfaces. They are mostly made up
Saturn
of hydrogen and helium. Scientists
Saturn is the second largest
think that they may have some rock
planet. It is famous for its large
and ice at their core.
rings. The rings are made of pieces
Each has a ring system, although of ice and rock. Most of these pieces
most are difficult to see. They also are less than a couple of meters
have many moons. Some are like the in diameter. Saturn has at least 34
rocky planets and have atmospheres. moons. The largest is named Titan.

Jupiter Saturn

Distance to the Sun: 778 million km Distance to the Sun: 1 billion,

Diameter: 143,000 km 429 million km
Rotation Time: 10 Earth hours Diameter: 120,536 km
Revolution Time: 4333 Earth days Rotation Time: 10 Earth hours
Fast Fact: Jupiter’s four largest Revolution Time: 10,759 Earth days
moons were first observed by Fast Fact: Winds on Saturn can
Galileo in 1610. blow at 500 meters per second.

386
EXPLAIN
Uranus Dwarf Planets
Have you ever heard of a Scientists have been discovering
“sideways” planet? The axis of smaller and smaller planets in the
Uranus is tilted so much that it solar system. These are called dwarf
rotates on its side! This means that planets. Most are round and made
one pole faces the Sun during parts of rock and ice. Their orbits cross
of Uranus’s orbit. The unusual color the orbits of other objects.
of this planet is due to gases in its Pluto is the best known dwarf
upper atmosphere. Uranus has at planet. For 76 years, it was considered
least 27 moons. the ninth planet. Scientists changed
Neptune Pluto’s classification in 2006.
Neptune is the farthest gas giant
from the Sun. Winds on Neptune
Quick Check
can blow at speeds of 2,000 km
(1,200 mi) per hour! Scientists Main Idea and Details Name
have observed 13 moons orbiting and describe the gas giants.
Neptune. Triton is the largest moon. Critical Thinking Could humans
It is known to have volcanoes. live on the gas giants? Explain.

Uranus Neptune

Distance to the Sun: 2 billion, Distance to the Sun: 4 billion,

871 million km 504 million km
Diameter: 51,118 km Diameter: 49,528 km
Rotation Time: 17 Earth hours Rotation Time: 16 Earth hours
Revolution Time: 30,684 Earth days Revolution Time: 60,190 Earth days
Fast Fact: The axis of Uranus is Fast Fact: Neptune takes 165 Earth
tilted toward the Sun. years to orbit the Sun.

387
EXPLAIN
 Comet Hale-Bopp last approached
the Sun in the 1990s.

What else is in our Meteoroids

When asteroids collide, pieces of
solar system? rock or metal may break off. These
Not all objects in the solar system smaller pieces are called meteoroids
are planets or moons. Smaller (MEE•tee•uh•roydz).
objects also revolve around the Sun.
If a meteoroid enters Earth’s
Comets atmosphere, it is called a meteor.
A comet is mostly ice mixed with Small meteors burn up in the
rocks and dust. It moves in a long, atmosphere, leaving streaks of
narrow orbit. When a comet nears light across the sky. We call them
the Sun, it heats up very quickly. shooting stars, but they are not stars
This forms a tail of gas and dust at all! If a meteor reaches Earth’s
pointing away from the Sun. surface, it is called a meteorite.
Asteroids
Quick Check
Asteroids (AS•tuh•roydz) are large
chunks of rock or metal in space. Main Idea and Details Describe
The solar system has thousands of the smaller solar system objects.
asteroids. Most of them lie in a belt Critical Thinking How do planets
between Mars and Jupiter. compare to asteroids and comets?

FAC T Comets only have a tail when they are near the Sun.
388
EXPLAIN
Visual Summary Think, Talk, and Write
Main Idea Compare Earth to the
The solar system is
other planets in the solar system.
made up of planets,
moons, and other
Vocabulary The large rocks that
objects that orbit the
are found in a belt between Mars and
Sun in space.
Jupiter are called .
The planets are round
Main Idea and Details Extend and
objects in space that
fill in the graphic organizer to show
are satellites of the Sun.
the parts of the solar system.
They include gas giants
and dwarf planets. Main Idea Details

Smaller objects in the

solar system include
comets, asteroids, Critical Thinking Why might it be
meteoroids, and better for some experiments to be
meteors. done in space or someplace else
away from Earth? Give an example
of a variable that such an experiment
Make a might test.
Study Guide
Make a Three-Tab Test Prep Which is the largest
Book. Use it to planet in the solar system?
summarize what A Mars
you learned about B Jupiter
the solar system.
C Saturn
D Earth

Writing Link Social Studies Link

Write a Report Learn About a NASA Probe
Research how the planets received In early 2006, NASA launched
their names. Present what you learn a probe to Pluto. Research the
in a written report. progress of this probe. What do
scientists hope to learn from it?

-Review Summaries and quizzes online at www.macmillanmh.com

 How have scientists explored our solar system?
For thousands of years, people used their unaided
eyes. Then about 400 years ago, scientists
developed telescopes. In recent history, spacecrafts
have landed robots and people on the Moon. What
we learn about the Moon may help us understand
and explore other objects in the solar system.

1959 Luna 1 is the first

spacecraft to approach
the Moon closely. Luna 2 lands on

1957 Sputnik I is the

first spacecraft
to travel into space.
the Moon. Luna 3 sends pictures
of the Moon to Earth. This is the
first time anyone can see what the
far side of the Moon looks like.

390
EXTEND
 History of Science

NASA plans to send expeditions

back to the Moon to learn more
about it and what it takes to live
in its extreme environment.

1972 Apollo 17 is the last

manned mission to the
Moon. The crew spends 75 hours
there. Astronauts Gene Cernan
and Harrison Schmitt drive a lunar
roving vehicle around the surface
of the Moon to collect samples.

1969 Apollo 11 mission

is the first to
land a person on the
Moon. Neil Armstrong and
Buzz Aldrin are the first
astronauts to walk on the
Moon and collect samples.

Main Idea and Details

▶ The main idea tells what the
article is mostly about.

▶ Details, facts, and examples

support the main idea.
Write About It
Main Idea and Details Reread the introduction and the
captions on the time line. Then write a paragraph that
explains the main idea and details of this article. Be sure
to include facts and examples in your paragraph.

-Journal Research and write about it online

at www.macmillanmh.com
391
EXTEND
Lesson 4

Stars and
Constellations
Kitt Peak National Observatory, Arizona

High above the Sonoran Desert is the

largest collection of telescopes in the world.
What can they tell us about the night sky?

392
ENGAGE
Why do some stars seem Materials
brighter than others?
Form a Hypothesis
How does distance affect the apparent
brightness of stars? Write a hypothesis.

Test Your Hypothesis

Tape one end of a cardboard tube to the
flashlight as shown.
Measure Hold the other end of the tube
• masking tape
10 cm above the center of the graph paper.
Turn the flashlight on. Have a partner trace • cardboard tube
the circle of light on the paper. Label the • flashlight
circle 10 cm. • graph paper
Repeat step 2 at a distance of 20 cm. Repeat • meterstick
again at 40 cm, then at 80 cm. Label the
circle each time. You may need to place the Step
paper on the floor for the last tests.

Draw Conclusions
Use Numbers Count the number of squares
filling each labeled circle on the graph paper.
Interpret Data How did the light change as
you moved farther from the paper? Step

Infer Why do you think some stars in the

night sky seem brighter than others?

Explore More
Does the source of a light affect the apparent
brightness? Form a hypothesis. Design a test to
compare different sources of light. Predict how
the number of lighted squares might change. Try it!

393
EXPLORE
 What are stars?
For thousands of years, people have observed
▶ Main Idea stars shining brightly in the night sky. A star is a
Stars are spheres of
sphere of hot gases that gives off light and heat.
hot gases that give off
light and heat. Stars The only star you can see in the daytime is
can be grouped into
the Sun. The Sun might look different from other
constellations.
stars, but it is rather ordinary.
▶ Vocabulary Compared to other stars, the Sun has an
star, p. 394 average size. Its surface temperature is average
constellation, p. 396 too. Why does the Sun look bigger and brighter
than any other star? The Sun is the closest star to
-Glossary Earth. Other stars are much farther away.
at www.macmillanmh.com

▶ Reading Skill Colors and Temperature

Fact and Opinion
Have you ever noticed different colors of stars?
The colors are due to temperature. The Sun’s
Fact Opinion
temperature makes it look yellow. Cooler stars are
red or orange. Warmer stars are white or blue.
A star glows for a very long time. Our Sun is
The Andromeda Galaxy
about five billion years old. Scientists think it will
is wider than our own glow for five billion more years!
Milky Way. ▼

394
EXPLAIN
 Nearest Stars to Earth
Earth Alpha Centauri
4.2 light-years Sirius A Ross 154 Procyon A
8.6 light-years 9.5 light-years 11.4 light-years

Sun

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Light-Years

Read a Diagram

In this diagram, Earth is right next to the Sun at 0.

How long does it take for light from Alpha Centauri to
reach Earth? From Procyon A to Earth?
Clue: It takes one year for light to travel one light-year.

Light-Years Galaxies
When you observe the night sky, Throughout the universe, stars
one star may seem brighter than are found in large groups called
another. Does that star give off more galaxies (GAL•uhk•seez). Our Sun
energy? Maybe not! It may simply is near the edge of a galaxy with
be closer to Earth than others. billions of other stars. You know
The Sun is about 150 million this galaxy as the Milky Way.
kilometers from Earth. It takes Our galaxy’s nearest neighbor is
about eight minutes for its light to the Andromeda (an•DROM•i•duh)
reach Earth. Most stars are much Galaxy. It is shaped like a spiral.
further away. They are so far that The universe may have many more
scientists measure their distance in galaxies, each with billions of stars.
light-years. One light-year is the These are yet to be discovered.
distance light travels in one year.
That is nearly ten trillion kilometers! Quick Check
When you see a distant star, Fact and Opinion Temperature
you are seeing what it looked like determines a star’s color. Is this a
millions of years ago! A star you see fact or an opinion? Explain.
today may have stopped glowing Critical Thinking How far away
long ago. However, its light is still are stars? Use your own words to
making its way to Earth. describe the distance.
395
EXPLAIN
Constellations
Read a Diagram

Which constellations appear in

both the Northern and Southern
Hemispheres?
Clue: Compare the shapes and names
in both circles.

Northern Hemisphere

What are constellations?

Billions of stars? How could
you make sense of them all? One way
is to group them into constellations
(kon•stuh•LAY•shuhnz). A constellation
is a group of stars that make a pattern Southern Hemisphere

or picture in the sky.

Our constellations make sense Patterns of Stars
only to an observer on Earth. As Earth travels in its orbit
Stars that seem close together may around the Sun, we see different
actually be very far apart. If you constellations. The constellations
move to a different part of the appear to move across the sky
universe, those patterns change. throughout the year. In fact, they
Constellations also depend on the always remain in the same patterns.
position of the observer on Earth. People named constellations after
The night sky looks different in the the pictures they saw in the sky. Draco
Northern Hemisphere than it does is the Latin word for “dragon.” The
in the Southern Hemisphere. Still, a Draco constellation looks like a
few constellations appear in both. dragon to some people.
396
EXPLAIN
 Modeling Constellations
Be Careful! Handle scissors
with care. Remove one end of a
cardboard shoe box. Cut a piece
of black construction paper the
same size as the cardboard piece.

Make a Model Choose one of

This ancient tool the constellations. Draw it on the
helped people tell black paper. Use a pencil to punch
time by the stars. out one hole for each star.

Cut a circle from the other end

of the shoe box. Make it just big
enough to fit a flashlight. Tape
the paper from step 2 over the
Marking Time and Seasons opposite end of the box.
Once there were no clocks to Observe Dim the lights.
tell time. There were no satellites to Turn the flashlight on.
help you find your position. Instead, Shine it through
the hole in the
people used constellations. box.
Farmers studied constellations Share your
to mark the seasons. The stars’ observations
with the
positions helped them decide when
class.
to plant or harvest crops. Sailors
used constellations to steer their
ships at night. They knew which
stars on the Big Dipper point to the
North Star. The North Star is always Quick Check
in the northern sky.
Fact and Opinion Draco is
Today scientists group the stars the best constellation. Is this
into 88 constellations. You can study statement a fact or an opinion?
constellations too. Star charts help Explain your answer.
you know where to look. Telescopes Critical Thinking Why does a
help you see each star. You can visit constellation appear to move
a local observatory to learn more. across the sky every night?
397
EXPLAIN
What is the Sun like? Power for the Water Cycle
The Sun’s heat makes water
Like Earth, the Sun is made of
evaporate. Evaporation is part
layers. The outermost parts are the
of the water cycle that includes
hottest. They can be seen from Earth
condensation and precipitation.
only during a total solar eclipse.
The Sun also drives winds, ocean
Unlike Earth, the Sun releases currents, storms, and other weather.
light into space. After all, the Sun is
a star. The center, or core, of the Sun Sun Safety
is the source of all of its energy. Never look directly at the Sun.
The energy the Sun releases could
Light and Heat Energy damage your eyes forever. Always
Some of the Sun’s energy is light wear sunscreen when you are
that we can see. Much of the energy outside. Even on a cloudy day, the
is released as heat. Earth receives Sun’s energy can cause a sunburn.
just a fraction of the Sun’s total
energy. Yet that is enough to provide Quick Check
energy for nearly all living things.
Fact and Opinion Is the Sun’s
Producers turn the Sun’s energy into energy good or bad for Earth?
food. Consumers take in the Sun’s Support your answer with facts.
energy when they eat food.
Critical Thinking How is the Sun
like Earth? How is it different?
Here you see parts of the Sun
that you cannot see from Earth.

398
EXPLAIN
Visual Summary Think, Talk, and Write
Main Idea What are stars?
Stars are spheres of
hot gases that give off Vocabulary What is a constellation?
light and heat. Most
stars are light-years Fact and Opinion Are constellations
away from Earth. useful to people today? State your
opinion. Support your opinion with at
Stars can be grouped least one fact.
into constellations. Fact Opinion
Constellations help
people tell time and
position on Earth.
Critical Thinking Why do some
The Sun is the closest
constellations appear only during
star to Earth. It
certain seasons?
provides energy for life,
the water cycle, winds, Test Prep How far away is the Sun
currents, and weather. from Earth?
A 8 thousand kilometers
B 150 million kilometers
Make a
C 1 light-year
Study Guide
D 71 million light-years
Make a Trifold
Book. Use it Test Prep Compared to other stars
to summarize in the universe, the Sun is
what you read
A much larger and hotter.
about stars and
B much smaller and colder.
constellations.
C much older and more massive.
D about average.

Writing Link Math Link

Write a Report Compare and Order Numbers
Write about a story, movie, or poem Write the following as numbers—
in which people travel among the four million, five trillion, two billion,
stars. Discuss whether you think eight thousand. Order them from
such travel is possible. smallest to largest.

-Review Summaries and quizzes online at www.macmillanmh.com 399

EVALUATE
 Structured Inquiry
Materials
Why do some distant stars
appear close together?
aluminum foil Form a Hypothesis
Stars that are light-years apart can seem very close
together. Does your viewing position affect how you see
stars in the sky? Write a hypothesis in the form, “If I view a
constellation from different positions, then I will observe . . .”
clear tape
Test Your Hypothesis
Make a Model Make seven small balls of aluminum foil.
These will model the stars in the Big Dipper.
Tape the Big Dipper template to the cardboard.
Measure Tape each length of string to the dot on the
template marked with that length.
Big Dipper template
Open each foil ball partway. Insert the loose end of
each string into a foil ball. Squeeze each ball tightly so
that its string will stay in.
Observe Hold the Step
piece of cardboard cardboard up so the stars
hang below it. Keep it
one arm’s length away.
Observe the “stars.”
Rotate your model one
turn to the left. Repeat
step 5. Continue turning
and observing until you
precut pieces of string have viewed the model
from all four sides.

Step

400
EXTEND
Draw Conclusions
What did your group of stars look like in step 5?
What changes did you observe each time you turned the
model?
Infer When viewed from Earth, the stars in a constellation may
seem close together. In space, those stars may be light-years
apart. What can you infer about the stars in the Big Dipper?

Guided Inquiry Open Inquiry

How does distance from What else can you learn about stars?
For example, what constellations can
Earth affect a star’s you see during different seasons?
apparent brightness? Design an investigation to answer
your question. Use reference materials
Form a Hypothesis to plan your activity. Write your
How does a star’s distance from Earth procedure so that another group
affect how bright it appears? Write a can complete the same activity by
hypothesis. following your instructions.

Test Your Hypothesis

Make a plan to model how the distance
from Earth affects the apparent
brightness of a star. Write out the Remember to follow
materials you need and the steps you the steps of the
will follow. Record your results and scientific process.
observations.
Ask a Question
Draw Conclusions
Did your results support your
Form a Hypothesis
hypothesis? Why or why not? Explain
how you set up the experiment to test
for only one variable. Test Your Hypothesis

Draw Conclusions

401
EXTEND
CHAPTER 8 Review
Fill each blank with the best term
Visual Summary from the list.
Lesson 1 Earth’s comet, p. 388 planet, p. 380
movement through
space causes day, crater, p. 371 revolution, p. 362
night, and the seasons. lunar eclipse, p. 374 rotation, p. 360

meteor, p. 388 star, p. 394

Lesson 2 As the Moon
revolves around Earth, 1. Every 24 hours, Earth completes
we observe its different one .
phases.
2. Each year, Earth completes one
around the Sun.

Lesson 3 The Sun is at 3. Earth casts a shadow on the Moon

the center of the solar during a .
system. Planets, moons, 4. A chunk of ice, rocks, and dust that
and other objects orbit orbits the Sun is a .
around the Sun.
5. If a meteorite enters Earth’s
atmosphere, it is called a .
Lesson 4 Stars are
spheres of hot gases 6. A glowing sphere of gases that
that give off light and gives off heat and light energy is a
heat energy. .
7. A large, round object that orbits the
Sun is called a .

Make a 8. When a meteor strikes the Moon a

can form.
Study Guide
Tape your lesson study
guides to a piece of
paper as shown. Use
your study guide to
review what you have
learned in this chapter.

402 -Review Summaries and quizzes online at www.macmillanmh.com

Answer each of the following in
complete sentences. Star Research
9. Cause and Effect What causes a 1. Choose and research a constellation.
Explain what you find interesting
solar eclipse?
about it.
2. Illustrate your constellation. Include
labels for all its stars.
3. Make a chart with details about your
constellation. Include facts such as
when it is visible in the sky and how
it got its name. Also include the
distance from Earth to the nearest
star in the constellation.
4. Present your illustration and chart to
the class.
10. Interpret Data Make a table
showing how long it takes each
planet to complete one rotation and
one revolution. Does the planet with
the shortest revolution also have the
shortest rotation?
11. Critical Thinking Some people refer
to comets as “dirty snowballs.” Why
might they do so?
12. Fictional Narrative Suppose you
moved to a new home near the
South Pole. Write a story about the
change of seasons there. Describe
how those seasons differ from the
ones where you live now.

1. What process does this illustration

show?
13. What objects are in the solar A Earth’s hemisphere
system and beyond?
B Earth’s revolution
C solar eclipse
D lunar eclipse

403
Planetarium Technician
Would you like to make star shows
that are both educational and fun? Think
about being a planetarium technician. A
planetarium is a place where people can
watch representations of the solar system.
These are usually light shows that are
projected onto the ceiling and narrated.
As a planetarium technician, you would
operate the audio and light equipment for
the shows. You might work with teachers to
help plan the programs. You would also get
to see and hear the results of your work!
▲ A planetarium technician helps
plan exciting star shows.

Air Traffic Controller

People depend on air traffic controllers
to keep them safe during air travel. Some
air traffic controllers direct planes on the
runways. Others direct traffic between
airports. All controllers make sure that
airplanes keep a safe distance apart.
What does it take to become an air
traffic controller? First, you need to be
good at math. You should also have good
speaking and computer skills. After college,
you would train at the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) Academy. Most
graduates of this program have a lifelong
▲ An air traffic controller keeps
career with the FAA.
flight travel safe.

404
-Careers at www.macmillanmh.com