Chapter 8

Animes Kumar Golder

Department of Chemical Engineering
 Learning Targets
 Understand the variables for a system:
a) Heat capacity at constant volume, Cv(T)
b) Heat capacity at constant pressure, CP(T)
c) Heat of fusion or heat of melting, ∆Ĥm
d) Heat of vaporization, ∆ĤV
e) Heat of solution or mixing, ∆ĤS
 Calculation of ∆Û and ∆Ĥ for the changes in the state of species
 Estimate the heat capacity of a liquid or solid species using Kopp’s rule
 Calculation of heat transfer Q or heat transfer rate
 for a nonreactive system
 Definition of dry-bulb temperature, wet-bulb temperature and humid
volume of humid air
 Explain the meaning of the apparently contradictory term adiabatic cooling
 Explain how spray cooling and humidification, spray dehumidification, and
spray drying work
 Perform material and energy balance calculations for a process that involves
solutions for which enthalpy–concentration charts are available
 Elements of Energy Balance Calculation
1. Reference State: Calculate ∆Û and ∆Ĥ for specified changes of state rather
than absolute value of Û and Ĥ. Arbitrarily choose a reference state for a species
and determine ∆Û = Û - Ûref for the transition from the reference state to a series
of other states. If we put Ûref equal to zero, then Û (= ∆Û ) for a specified state is
the specific internal energy at that state relative to the reference state.
2. Specific enthalpies at each state can then evaluated by Ĥ = Û + P  , provided that
the specific volume ( ) of the species at the given temperature and pressure is
known.
 Example: Û of water vapor at 400°°C and 10.0 bar is 2958 kJ/kg relative to water
at the reference state, or

H2O(l, 0.01°C, 0.00611 bar) H2O(v, 400°C, 10.0 bar), ∆Û =2958 kJ/kg

Relative to water at the same reference states, the specific enthalpy of

water vapor at 400°C and 10.0 bar is

Ĥ = Û + P
= 2958 kJ/kg + 10.0 bar 0.307 m3 103 L 8.314*10-3 (kJ/mol·K)
1Kg 1 m3 0.08314 L·bar/(mol·K)
=3264 kJ/Kg
2. Hypothetical Process Paths : When a species passes from one state
to another, both ∆Û and ∆Ĥ for the process are independent of
the path taken from the first state to the second one.
 For example, to calculate ∆Ĥ for a process in which solid phenol
at 25°C and 1 atm is converted to phenol vapor at 300°C and 3
atm. We could simply subtract Ĥ at initial state from Ĥ at final
state, or
∆Ĥ= Ĥ (vapor, 300°C, 3 atm) – Ĥ (solid, 25°C, 1 atm)
We choose the following hypothetical process path:
ph = phenol (C6H5OH)
ph(s, 25°C, 1 atm) (True path) ph(v, 300°C, 3 atm)
ph(s, 42.5°C, 1 atm) ∆Ĥ1 ∆Ĥ6
∆Ĥ =
ph(l, 42.5°C, 1 atm) ∆Ĥ2 ph(v, 25°C, 1 atm)
∆Ĥ1+ ∆Ĥ2 +
∆Ĥ3 ∆Ĥ5 ∆Ĥ3 +∆Ĥ4 +
ph(l, 181.4°C, 1 atm) ∆Ĥ4 ph(v, 181.4°C, 1 atm) ∆Ĥ5 +∆Ĥ6
 Notes (from Chapter 7):
1. Internal energy of a system depends almost entirely on the chemical
composition, state of aggregation (solid, liquid, or gas), and temperature of the
system materials. It is independent of pressure for ideal gases and nearly
independent of pressure for liquids and solids. If no temperature changes,
phase changes, or chemical reactions occur in a closed system and if pressure
changes are less than a few atmospheres, then ∆U≈ 0.
2. If a system is not accelerating, then ∆Ek≈ 0. If a system is not rising or falling,
then ∆Ep≈ 0.
3. If a system and its surroundings are at the same temperature or the system is
perfectly insulated, then Q≈ 0. The process is then termed Adiabatic.

4. Work done on or by a closed system is accomplished by movement of the

system boundary against a resisting force or the passage of an electrical
current or radiation across the system boundary. Examples of the first type of
work are motion of a piston or rotation of a shaft that projects through the
system boundary. If there are no moving in parts or electrical currents or
radiation at the system boundary, then W≈ 0.
3. Procedure for Energy Balance Calculations:
a) Perform all required material balance calculations
b) Write the appropriate form of the energy balance (closed or
open system) and delete any of the terms that are either zero
or negligible for the given process system
c) Choose a reference state—phase, temperature, and pressure—
for each species involved in the process
d) For a closed constant-volume system, construct a table with
columns for initial and final amounts of each species (mi or ni )
and specific internal energies relative to the chosen reference
states(Ûi) For an open system, construct a table with columns
for inlet and outlet stream component flow rates (  or  )
and specific enthalpies relative to the chosen reference states
(Ĥi)
e) Calculate all required values of Ûi (or Ĥi )
f) Calculate :

Closed system: ∆Û = ∑ ni Ûi - ∑ ni Ûi or ∑ ṁj Ûi - ∑ ṁj Ûi
final initial out in

Open system: ∆Ḣ = ∑ ṅi Ĥi - ∑ ṅi Ĥi or ∑ ṁj Ĥi - ∑ ṁi Ĥi
final initial out in

g) Calculate any work, kinetic energy, or potential energy terms

that we have not dropped from the energy balance

h) Solve the energy balance for whichever variable is unknown

(often Q or Q)

Closed system: Q – W = ∆U + ∆EK + ∆EP

Open system:  ̇ - Ẇs = ∆Ḣ + ∆Ėk + ∆Ėp

Problem 8.1-1 (Felder and Rousseau): Energy balance on a condenser

Acetone (denoted as Ac) is partially condensed out of a gas stream containing 66.9
mole % acetone vapor and the balance nitrogen. Process specification and material
balance calculations lead to the flow chart shown below.

36.45 mol/s
Q(J/s) 0.092 mol Ac (v)/mol
0.908 mol N2/mol
100 mol/s (basis) 20°C, 5 atm
0.669 mol Ac(v)/mol
0.331 mol N2/mol
65°C, 1 atm

63.55 mol Ac(l)/s

20°C, 5 atm

The process operates at steady state. Calculate the required cooling rate,
?.
Solutions
1. Perform required material balance calculations: Not required in this example

2. Write and simplify the energy balance.

3. Choose reference states for

acetone and nitrogen: Choice has no
effect on the calculated value of ∆Ḣ.

• Specific enthalpies of nitrogen relative

to N2 (g, 25°C, 1 atm), which makes
this state a convenient choice for
nitrogen.

• There are no tabulated enthalpy data

for acetone. We will choose one of the
process stream conditions as the
reference state Ac(l, 20°C, 5 atm)
 4. Construct an inlet–outlet enthalpy table

5. Calculate all unknown specific enthalpies

Heat capacity at constant pressure (Table B2):

Heat of vaporization (Table B1) for acetone (liquid o vapour), ∆  v (Tbp)=30.2

kJ/mol at normal boiling point (56.0°C)
 1=(-0.0297 + 4.68 + 30.2 + 0.753)= 35.7 kJ/mol

Following similar procedure:

7. Calculate nonzero work, kinetic energy, and potential energy terms:
Since there is no shaft work and neglect kinetic and potential energy
changes
 Changes in Pressure at Constant Temperature
• It has been observed experimentally that internal
energy is nearly independent of pressure for solids and
liquids at a fixed temperature, as is specific volume
• Therefore, if the pressure of a solid or liquid changes at
constant temperature, ∆Û ≈0 and
∆Ĥ [= ∆Û+∆(PV )] ≈ V
∆P

• Both Û and Ĥ are independent of pressure for ideal

gases. Consequently, we may generally assume ∆Û ≈0
and ∆Ĥ ≈0 for a gas undergoing an isothermal pressure
change unless gases at temperatures well below 0°C or
well above 1 atm are involved
Changes in Temperature
1. Sensible Heat and Heat capacities: The term ‘Sensible heat’
signifies heat that must be transferred to raise or lower the
temperature of a substance or mixture of substances. The
quantity of heat required to produce a temperature change in a
system can be determined from the appropriate form of the 1st
law of thermodynamics:

Q =∆Û (closed system) (1)

 =∆Ḣ (open system) (2)

• To determine the sensible heat requirement for a heating or cooling

process, we must therefore be able to determine ∆Û or ∆Ḣ for the
specified temperature change
The specific internal energy of a substance
depends strongly on temperature. If the
temperature is raised or lowered in such a way
that the system volume remains constant, the
specific internal energy might vary as shown in
the following plot:
V> =constant

Û(J/Kg) ∆Û

| ∆T |
| |

T1 T1+∆T
T(°C)
Heat capacity at constant volume is denoted by ‘CV’ .
 
 

CV (T)=   (3)
∆→ ∆  
Change in Û for a temperature rise from T to T+∆T at constant volume is
given from equation no.(3),
dÛ = CV (T) dT (4)
and the change ∆Û= Û2 – Û1 associated with a temperature change from T1
to T2 at constant volume is, accordingly
If both the temperature and the volume of a substance change:

∆Û ≈
T ∫
2 C (T) dT
v (5)
T1
Problem 8.3-1 (Felder and Rousseau)
Calculate the heat required to raise 200 kg of
nitrous oxide from 20°C to 150°C in a
constant-volume vessel. The constant-volume
heat capacity of N2O in this temperature range
is given by the equation
Cv (kJ/kg· °C) = 0.855 + 9.42×10-4 T
where T is in °C.
Solution of Problem 8.3-1 (Felder and Rousseau)

Equation 8.3-6:

Energy balance for this closed system:

Like internal energy, enthalpy depends strongly on
temperature. If ∆Ĥ is the change in specific enthalpy
resulting from a temperature increase at constant
pressure from T to T+∆T, then it is defined as the heat
capacity at constant pressure and denoted by ‘CP’ .

 

Cp (T)=  = (6)
∆→ ∆  

Change in ∆Ĥ for a temperature change at constant

pressure from T to T+∆T is given from equation no. (6),
dĤ = Cp (T) dT (7)
and so for a change from T1 to at T2 constant pressure

∆Ĥ ≈ ∫ T2 C
P (T) dT (8)
T1
For a process A(T1,P1) A(T2,P2), we may construct a
two−step process path:

A(T1,P1) ∆Ĥ1 A(T1,P2) ∆Ĥ2 A(T2,P2)

∆Ĥ
1st step: At constant Temperature, Pressure changes, So,
∆Ĥ1 = 0 (ideal gas)
≈ V> ∆P (solid or liquid) (9)
2nd step: Change in Temperature at constant Pressure,
so, ∆Ĥ2 is obtained from equation (8)
Finally, we obtain ∆Ĥ = ∆Ĥ1 + ∆Ĥ2 (10)
2.Heat Capacity Formulas : Heat capacities, CV ,
and CP are physical properties of materials and
expressed in any units of energy per unit
amount per unit temperature.
For example: J/(mol·K) or Btu/(lbm·°F)
• Heat capacities are functions of temperature
and are frequently expressed in polynomial
form (CP = a + bT + cT2 + dT3)
Simple relationship exist between CV and CP :
Liquids and Solids : CV≈ CP (11)
Ideal Gases : CP = CV + R (12)
Problem 8.3-2 (Felder and Rousseau)
Cooling of an Ideal Gas
Assuming ideal gas behavior, calculate the heat
that must be transferred in each of the following
cases.
(1). A stream of nitrogen (N2) flowing at a rate
of 100 mol/min is heated from 20°C to 100°C.

(2). Nitrogen (N2) contained in a 5-liter flask at

an initial pressure of 3 bar is cooled from 90°C
to 30°C.
Solution:
Neglect kinetic energy changes. Energy balance equation for the open system of part
1 is  =∆, and that for the closed system of part 2 is Q= ∆U.
(1). Heat capacity of N2 at a constant pressure of 1 atm (Table B2, T in °C):
(2).
Problem 8.3-3 (Felder and Rousseau)
Evaluation of ∆Ḣ using Heat Capacities and
Tabulated Enthalpies
Fifteen kmol/min of air is cooled from 430°C
to 100°C. Calculate the required heat removal
rate using:
(1). Heat capacity formulas from Table B.2 and
(2). Specific enthalpies from Table B.8.

Solution:

Neglecting, ∆Ė, ∆Ė and  , energy balance equation is:

1]. Hard way: Integrate the heat capacity formula in Table B.2

2]. Soft way: Use tabulated enthalpies from Table B.8

by linear
Interpolation
Table B8
3. Estimation of Heat Capacities:
Kopp’s rule is a simple empirical method for estimating the heat capacity of a
solid or liquid at or near 20°C. According to this rule, CP for a molecular
compound is the sum of contributions for each element in the compound.

For example, the heat capacity of solid calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 would be
estimated from Kopp’s rule as:

* The true value is 89.5 J/(mol.°C)

To calculate the enthalpy change associated with a change in
temperature undergone by a mixture of substances. We you may
use the following approximation:
Rule 1. For a mixture of gases or liquids, calculate the total enthalpy
change as the sum of the enthalpy changes for the pure mixture
components.
Rule 2. For highly dilute solutions of solids or gases in liquids, neglect
the enthalpy change of the solute.
Heat Capacity for the mixture is defined as:
(CP)mix(T) = ∑ yi CPi (T) (13)
where,
(CP)mix = heat capacity of the mixture
yi = mass or mole fraction of the i th component
CPi = heat capacity of i th component
∆Ĥ is calculate as per following manner in case of mixture:

∆Ĥ = ∫T 2 (CP)mix(T) dT (14)
T1
 Problem 8.3-4 (Felder and Rousseau)
Heat Capacity of a Mixture
Calculate the heat required to bring 150 mol/h of a stream containing 60%
C2H6 and 40% C3H8 by volume from 0°C to 400°C. Determine a heat
capacity for the mixture as part of the problem solution.

Solution: Use polynomial heat capacity formulas for ethane and propane given in
Table B.2 (T is in °C)

Neglecting potential and kinetic energy changes and shaft work, the energy
balance becomes:
4. Energy Balances on Single−Phase Systems:
If a process only involves heating or cooling a single
species from T1 to T2, the procedure to determine the
required heat transfer, Q , or heat transfer rate, Q͘ :
a) (Eqs. (5) and (8)).
b) For a closed system at constant volume, calculate
∆U = n∆Û (where n is the amount of the species being
heated or cooled)
c) For a closed system at constant pressure, calculate
∆H = n∆Ĥ
d) For an open system, calculate ∆Ḣ = n͘∆Ĥ, (where n͘
is the species flow rate)
e) Substitute for ∆U, ∆H, or ∆Ḣ in the appropriate
energy balance equation
Problem 8.3-5 (Felder and Rousseau)
Energy Balance on a Gas Preheater
A stream containing 10% CH4 and 90% air by volume is to
be heated from 20°C to 300°C. Calculate the required
rate of heat input in kilowatts if the flow rate of the gas is
2.00 × 103 liters (STP)/min.

2000 L (STP)/min, 20°C HEATER

n͘ (mol/min) n͘ (mol/min) , 300°C
0.100 mol CH4/mol 0.100 mol CH4/mol
0.900 mol air/mol 0.900 mol air/mol

Q (KW)
 Now,

(Neglecting, ∆Ė, ∆Ė and  ,   ∆)

Enthalpy
table

Specific enthalpy change for the process:

For pure methane at 1 atm (neglect effect of pressure on enthalpy and heat of mixing):
 o Enthalpies of air at the inlet and outlet conditions relative to air at the reference
state (Ĥ1 and Ĥ2)

Energy balance equation:

Problem 8.3-6 (Felder and Rousseau)
Energy Balance on a Waste Heat Boiler
A gas stream containing 8.0 mole% CO and 92.0 mole% CO2 at 500°C is fed to a
waste heat boiler, a large metal shell containing a bundle of small-diameter tubes.
The hot gas flows over the outside of the tubes. Liquid water at 25°C is fed to the
boiler in a ratio 0.200 mol feed-water/mol hot gas and flows inside the tubes. Heat is
transferred from the hot gas through the tube walls to the water, causing the gas to
cool and the water to heat to its boiling point and evaporate to form saturated steam
at 5.0 bar. The steam may be used for heating or power generation in the plant or
as the feed to another process unit. The gas leaving the boiler is flared (burned) and
discharged to the atmosphere. The boiler operates adiabatically—all the heat
transferred from the gas goes into the water, as opposed to some of it leaking
through the outside boiler wall. The flow chart for an assumed basis of 1.00 mol
feed gas is shown below and find out the exiting gas temperature.

?
Phase Change Operations
Phase changes such as melting and evaporation are usually
accompanied by large changes in internal energy and enthalpy.
1. Latent Heats: The specific enthalpy change associated with the
transition of a substance from one phase to another at constant
temperature and pressure is known as the latent heat of the phase
change.
Latent heats for the two most commonly encountered phase
changes are defined as follows:
a) Heat of fusion, (or heat of melting). ∆Ĥm(T, P) is the specific
enthalpy difference between the solid and liquid forms of a
species at T and P.
b) Heat of vaporization, ∆Ĥv(T, P) is the specific enthalpy difference
between the liquid and vapor forms of a species at T and P .
Problem 8.4-1 (Felder and Rousseau)
Heat of Vaporization
At what rate in kilowatts must heat be transferred to
a liquid stream of methanol at its normal boiling point
to generate 1500 g/min of saturated methanol vapor?

Problem 8.4-2 (Felder and Rousseau)

Vaporization and Heating
One hundred g-moles per hour of liquid n-hexane at
25°C and 7 bar is vaporized and heated to 300°C at
constant pressure. Neglecting the effect of pressure
on enthalpy, estimate the rate at which heat must be
supplied.
2. Estimation and Correlation of Latent Heats:
Trouton’s rule is used for estimating the standard heat of vaporization is
defined as :
∆Ĥv(KJ/mol)≈ 0.088 Tb (K) (nonpolar liquids) (15)
≈ 0.109 Tb (K) (water, low molecular weight alcohols)
where Tb is the normal boiling point of the liquid
Chen’ s equation :
∆Ĥv(KJ/mol) = Tb [0.0331( Tb /Tc ) − 0.0327 + 0.0297 log10 PC] (16)
1.07− ( Tb/Tc )

Where, Tb and Tc and are the normal boiling point and critical temperature in kelvin and
Pc is the critical pressure in atmospheres

A formula for approximating standard heat of fusion is :

≈ 0.0092 Tm (K) (metallic elements)
∆ Ĥm (KJ/mol) ≈ 0.0025 Tm (K) (inorganic compounds) (17)
≈ 0.050 Tm (K) (organic compounds)
Clausius–Clapeyron equation :
∆%
ln "∗  − +) (18)
&'

* (-.∗ ) ∆%
Clapeyron equation :  − (19)
*(021) 3

Heat of vaporization at a temperature T may be estimated from vapor

0
pressure data by plotting lnp* vs. .


Watson’’s correlation :
.89
5 64
∆   4 = ∆   0 (20)
5 60
Problem 8.4-3 (Felder and Rousseau)
Estimation of a Heat of Vaporization
The normal boiling point of methanol is 337.9 K, and
the critical temperature of this substance is 513.2 K.
Estimate the heat of vaporization of methanol at
200°C.
3. Energy Balances on Processes Involving Phase
Changes :
When writing an energy balance on a process
in which a component exists in two phases,
we must choose a reference state for that
component by specifying both a phase and a
temperature and calculate the specific
enthalpy of the component in all process
streams relative to this state.
Problem 8.4-4 (Felder and Rousseau)
Partial Vaporization of a Mixture
An equimolar liquid mixture of benzene (B) and toluene (T) at 10°C is fed
continuously to a vessel in which the mixture is heated to 50°C . The liquid
product is 40.0 mole% B, and the vapor product is 68.4 mole% B. How
much heat must be transferred to the mixture per g-mole of feed?
nV (mol), 50°C, 34.8 mmHg
0.684 mol B(v)/ mol, 0.316 mol T(v)/ mol
1 mol, 10°C
0.500 mol B(l)/ mol Q (J)
EVAPORATOR
0.500 mol T(l)/ mol

nL (mol), 50°C, 34.8 mmHg

0.400 mol B (l)/ mol
0.600 mol T (l)/ mol
4. Psychrometric Charts: On a psychrometric chart (or humidity
chart) several properties of a gas–vapor mixture are cross-plotted,
providing a concise compilation of a large quantity of physical property
data. The most common of these charts—that for the air-water system
at 1 atm is used extensively in the analysis of humidification, drying,
and air-conditioning processes.

• [1] Dry-bulb temperature, T − the abscissa of the chart. This is the air
temperature as measured by a thermometer, thermocouple, or other
conventional temperature-measuring instrument.

• [2] Absolute humidity (ha)/moisture content, [kg H2O (v)/kg dry air
(DA)] −the ordinate of the chart.
– This ratio can easily be calculated from or converted to the mass fraction of
water. If, for example, the absolute humidity is 0.0150 kg H2O (v)/kg DA,
then for every kilogram of dry air there is 0.015 kg of water vapor, for a
total of 1.015 kg. The mass fraction of water is (0.0150 kg H2O(v))/(1.015
kg humid air) =0.0148 kg H2O/kg.
• [3] Relative humidity, hr = [100 × pH2O /p*H20 (T)] − Curves on the
psychrometric chart correspond to specified values of hr (100%, 90%, 80%,
etc). Curve that forms the left boundary of the chart is the 100% relative
humidity curve, also known as the saturation curve.

• [4] Dew point, Tdp − the temperature at which humid air becomes saturated if it
is cooled at constant pressure (relative humidity is 100% with same absolute
humidity).

• [5] Humid volume, :  (m3 / kg DA) − The humid volume is the volume
occupied by 1 kg of dry air plus the water vapor that accompanies it. Lines of
constant humid volume on the psychrometric chart are steep and have
negative slopes.
To determine the volume of a given mass of wet air using the psychrometric chart, first
determine the corresponding mass of dry air from the absolute humidity, then multiply
 . For example, volume occupied by 150 kg of humid air at T=30°C
this mass by :
and hr=30%. From psychrometric chart, 0.0080 kg H2O(v)/kg DA
and : =0.87 m3/kg DA.
 [6] Wet-bulb temperature, Twb − The wet-bulb temperature of humid air depends
on both the dry-bulb temperature and the moisture content of the air. If the air is
saturated (100% relative humidity), no water evaporates from the wick, and
the wet-bulb and dry-bulb temperatures are the same. The lower the humidity,
the greater the difference between the two temperatures.
• For example, suppose you wish to determine
the wet-bulb temperature of air at 30°C (dry
bulb) with a relative humidity of 30%. Locate the
point on psychrometric chart at the intersection
of the vertical line corresponding to 30°C and
the curve corresponding to 30%. The diagonal
line through the point is the constant wet-bulb
temperature line for air at the given condition.
Follow that line upward to the left until you
reach the saturation curve. The temperature
value you read on the curve (or vertically down
from it on the abscissa) is the wet-bulb
temperature of the air. You should get a value
of 18°C.

• This means that if you wrap a wet wick around a thermometer bulb and blow air
with 30°C and 30% past the bulb, the thermometer reading will drop and eventually
stabilize at 18°C.
[7] Specific enthalpy of saturated air − The diagonal scale above the saturation
curve on the psychrometric chart shows the enthalpy of a unit mass (1 kg or 1
lbm) of dry air plus the water vapor it contains at saturation. Reference: 1 atm
and 0°C for both liquid water and dry air.
oFor example, saturated air at 25°C and 1 atm—which has an absolute humidity ha=
0.0202 kg H2O/kg DA—has a specific enthalpy of 76.5 kJ/kg DA. The enthalpy is the
sum of the enthalpy changes for 1.00 kg dry air and 0.0202 kg water going from their
reference conditions to 25°C.

oThe computation shown below uses heat capacity data from Table B.2 for air and
data from the steam tables (Table B.5) for water.
[8] Enthalpy deviation
The remaining curves on the psychrometric chart are almost vertical and convex
to the left, with labelled values (on psychrometric chart) of -0.05, -0.1, -0.2, and so
on. (The units of these numbers are kJ/kg DA). These curves are used to
determine the enthalpy of humid air that is not saturated. The procedure is as
follows: (a) locate the point on the chart corresponding to air at its specified
condition; (b) interpolate to estimate the enthalpy deviation at this point; (c) follow
the constant wet-bulb temperature line to the enthalpy scale above the saturation
curve, read the value on that scale, and add the enthalpy deviation to it.

For example, air at 35°C and 10% relative humidity has an enthalpy deviation of
about 0.52 kJ/kg DA. The specific enthalpy of saturated air at the same wet-bulb
temperature is 45.0 kJ/kg DA. The specific enthalpy of the humid air at the given
condition is therefore (45.0- 0.52) kJ/kg DA= 44.5 kJ/kg DA.
Problem 8.4-5 (Felder and Rousseau)
The Psychrometric Chart
Use the psychrometric chart to estimate:
(1) Determine the absolute humidity, wet-bulb temperature,
humid volume, dew point, and specific enthalpy of humid air
at 41°C and 10% relative humidity, and
(2) the amount of water in 150 m3 of air at these conditions.
(1). Solution Problem 8.4-5 (Felder and Rousseau)

(2). Moles of humid air: Humid volume of the air is 0.897 m3/kg DA
Problem 8.4-6 (Felder and Rousseau)
Material and Energy Balances on an Air Conditioner
Air at 80°F and 80% relative humidity is cooled to 51°F at a
constant pressure of 1 atm. Use the psychrometric chart to
calculate the fraction of the water that condenses and the
rate at which heat must be removed to deliver 1000 ft3/min of
humid air at the final condition.
5. Adiabatic Cooling : In adiabatic cooling, a warm gas is brought
into contact with a cold liquid, causing the gas to cool and
some of the liquid to evaporate. Heat is transferred from the
gas to the liquid but no heat is transferred between the gas–
liquid system and its surroundings (hence “adiabatic” cooling).

Some common processes of this type are mentioned below :

• Spray cooling, Spray humidification : Liquid water is sprayed
into a relatively dry warm air stream. Some of the water
evaporates and the temperature of the air and of the
unevaporated liquid both decrease. If the object is to cool the
water or the air, the operation is called spray cooling; if the
point is to increase the moisture content of the air, the
operation is spray humidification.

• Spray dehumidification : Warm humid air is dehumidified by

spraying cold water into it. Provided that the liquid temperature
is low enough, the air is cooled below its dew point, causing
some of the water vapor in it to condense.
• Drying : The water evaporates, leaving a dry solid product. Drying is
the last step in the production of most crystalline products and
powders, including many pharmaceuticals and food products.

• Spray drying : A suspension of small solid particles in water is

sprayed as a fine mist into a stream of hot air. The water
evaporates, larger solid particles settle out of the air and are
removed by a conveyor, and fine suspended particles are separated
from the air by a bag filter or cyclone separator. Dried milk is
produced in this manner.
Problem 8.4-7 (Felder and Rousseau)
Adiabatic Humidification
A stream of air at 30°C and 10% relative humidity is humidified in an
adiabatic spray tower operating at
P ≈ 1 atm. The emerging air is to have a relative humidity of 40%.

1. Determine the absolute humidity and the adiabatic saturation

temperature of the entering air.
2. Use the psychrometric chart to calculate:
(i) the rate at which water must be added to humidify 1000 kg/h of
the entering air, and
(ii) the temperature of the exiting air.
Mixing and Solution
An ideal mixture is one for which the heat of mixing or
solution is negligible and so Hmixture ≈ ∑ niĤi, where ni is the
amount of mixture component i and Ĥi is the specific
enthalpy of the pure component at the temperature and
pressure of the mixture.
1. Heats of Solution and Mixing: The heat of solution
∆Ĥs(T, r) is defined as the change in enthalpy for a
process in which 1 mole of a solute (gas or solid) is
dissolved in r moles of a liquid solvent at a constant
temperature T. As r becomes large, ∆Ĥs approaches a
limiting value known as the heat of solution at infinite
dilution.
The heat of mixing has the same meaning as the heat
of solution when the process involves mixing two fluids
rather than dissolving a gas or solid in a liquid.
2. Balances on Dissolution and Mixing Processes :
When setting up an energy balance on a process that
involves forming, concentrating, or diluting a solution for
which the heat of solution or mixing cannot be
neglected, prepare an inlet – outlet enthalpy table
considering the solution as a single substance and the
pure components at 25°C as reference states.
To calculate the enthalpy of the solution at a
temperature T ≠ 25°C, first calculate its enthalpy at 25°C
from tabulated heat of solution data, then add the
enthalpy change for the heating or cooling of the
solution from 25°C to T . The enthalpy change for the
latter step should be calculated from tabulated solution
heat capacities if they are available.
Problem 8.5-1 (Felder and Rousseau)
Production of Hydrochloric Acid
Hydrochloric acid is produced by absorbing gaseous HCl
(hydrogen chloride) in water. Calculate the heat that must be
transferred to or from an absorption unit if HCl(g) at 100°C
and H2O(l) at 25°C are fed to produce 1000 kg/h of 20.0 wt%
HCl(aq) at 40°C.
3. Enthalpy–Concentration Charts—Single Liquid Phase:
Energy balance calculations on liquid-phase systems
involving mixtures can be cumbersome when heats
of mixing are significant.

The calculations can be simplified for binary (two-

component) systems by using an enthalpy–
concentration chart, a plot of specific enthalpy
versus mole fraction (or mole percent) or mass
fraction (or weight percent) of one component.
Problem 8.5-2 (Felder and Rousseau)
Concentration of an Aqueous H2SO4 Solution
A 5.0 wt% H2SO4 solution at 60°F is to be concentrated to
40.0 wt% by evaporation of water. The concentrated
solution and water vapor emerge from the evaporator at
180°F and 1 atm. Calculate the rate at which heat must be
transferred to the evaporator to process 1000 lbm /h of the
feed solution.

Problem 8.5-3 (Felder and Rousseau)

Adiabatic Mixing
Pure water at 60°F is mixed with 100 g of an aqueous 80 wt%
H2SO4 solution, also at 60°F. The mixing vessel is insulated well
enough to be considered adiabatic.
1. If 250g H2O is mixed with the acid, what will the final solution
temperature be?
2. What is the maximum attainable solution temperature and
how much water must be added to achieve it?
4. Using Enthalpy−ConcentraWon Charts for
Vapor−Liquid Equilibrium CalculaWons :
Enthalpy−concentraWon charts are particularly useful
for two-component systems in which vapor and
liquid phases are in equilibrium. The Gibbs phase
rule specifies that such a system has (2 + 2 − 2) = 2
degrees of freedom.
If as before we fix the system pressure, then
specifying only one more intensive variable−the
system temperature, or the mass or mole fraction of
either component in either phase−fixes the values of
all other intensive variables in both phases .
Problem 8.5-4 (Felder and Rousseau)
Use of the Enthalpy–Concentration Chart for a Two-Phase System
An aqueous ammonia solution is in equilibrium with a vapor phase
in a closed system at 160°F and 1 atm. The liquid phase accounts for
95% of the total mass of the system contents. Use Figure drawn
below to determine the weight percent of NH3 in each phase and
the enthalpy of the system per unit mass of the system contents.
Problem 8.5-5 (Felder and Rousseau)
Equilibrium Flash Vaporization
A 30 wt% NH3 solution at 100 psia is fed at a rate of 100 lbm /h to a tank in
which the pressure is 1 atm. The enthalpy of the feed solution relative to
the reference conditions used to construct Figure drawn below is 100
Btu/lbm . The vapor composition is to be 89 wt% NH3 . Determine the
temperature of the stream leaving the tank, the mass fraction of NH3 in
the liquid product, the flow rates of the liquid and vapor product streams,
and the rate at which heat must be transferred to the vaporizer .
Thanks..
| End of Chapter 8 |