Air-conditioning System

• Pressurization and air conditioning of aircraft are

necessary at high altitudes.

• In an aircraft, cooling systems are required to keep the

cabin temperatures at a comfortable level.

1
 Air-conditioning System

• Even though the outside temperatures are very low at

high altitudes, still cooling of cabin is required due to:

i. Large internal heat generation due to occupants,

equipment etc.
ii. Heat generation due to skin friction caused by the fast
moving aircraft.
iii. Solar radiation
iv. Engine heat

2
 Air-conditioning System
• The two basic methods of reducing the temperature of
aircraft are the air-cycle system and the vapor-cycle
system.

• The air-cycle machine uses the compression and

expansion of air to lower the temperature of the cabin
air.

• The vapor-cycle machine is a closed system using the

evaporation and condensation of freon to remove heat
from the cabin interior.
3
Air Cycle Cooling System
 Air Cycle Cooling System
• Modern large turbine-powered aircraft make use of air-
cycle machines to adjust the temperature of the air
directed into the passenger and crew compartments of
these large aircraft.

• These large aircraft utilize air-cycle cooling because of

its simplicity, freedom from troubles, and economy. In
these systems, the refrigerant is air.

5
 Air Cycle Cooling System
• Air cycle refrigeration systems belong to the general
class of gas cycle refrigeration systems, in which a gas is
used as the working fluid.

• The gas does not undergo any phase change during the
cycle.

• It makes use of engine bleed air or APU pneumatic air

during the air conditioning process.

6
 Air Cycle Cooling System
Working Principle

• When a gas (air) is compressed, it becomes heated, and

when the pressure is reduced, the gas becomes cooled.

• This cold air can then be used as a cooling agent.

• The turbine-compressor unit by which air is cooled is

called an air-cycle machine (ACM).

7
Air Cycle Cooling System

8
 Air Cycle Cooling System
• Hot compressed air from the compressor of one of the
turbine engines flows through the primary heat
exchanger.
• The heat exchanger is exposed to ram air, which
removes heat from the air.
• The cooled but still compressed air is then ducted to
the compressor inlet of the ACM.
• The compressor further compresses the air and causes
it to rise in temperature. This air is directed to the
secondary heat exchanger, which, being exposed to
ram air, removes heat from the compressed air.
9
 Air Cycle Cooling System
• The compressed air is then directed to the expansion
turbine. The expansion turbine absorbs energy from
the air and utilizes this energy to drive the compressor.

• As the air exits the expansion turbine, it enters a large

chamber, which allows the air to expand and causes a
further reduction in the air temperature.

• Thus the air leaving the turbine is cooled by the loss of

heat energy and by the expansion that takes place.
10
 Air Cycle Cooling System
• The great reduction in temperature causes the moisture
in the air to condense, and this moisture is removed by
means of a water separator.

• The dried, cold air is then routed to ducting to be

utilized as required to provide the desired temperature
in the cabin.

• A bypass duct with the cabin-temperature-control valve

will bypass air around the cooling system when cooling
is not required
11
 Air Cycle Cooling System
BOOTSTRAP SYSTEM
• The turbine of the cold air unit drives a compressor.
Both are mounted on a common shaft.
• It uses the work of expansion to assist the compression
process, which is referred to as bootstrap system.

12
Boeing 737 air cycle system

13
 Air Cycle Cooling System
ADVANTAGES

i. Air is cheap, safe, non-toxic and non-flammable.

Leakage of air is not a problem
ii. Cold air can directly be used for cooling thus
eliminating the low temperature heat exchanger
leading to lower weight
iii. The aircraft engine already consists of a high speed
turbo-compressor, hence separate compressor for
cooling system is not required.
iv. Design of the complete system is much simpler due to
low pressures. Maintenance required is also less.
14
Vapor Cycle Cooling System
 Vapor Cycle Cooling System
• The vapor-cycle air-conditioning system is used in
reciprocating engine-powered aircraft and in smaller
turboprop aircraft that do not make use of air-cycle
machines to reduce the cabin interior temperature.

16
 Vapor Cycle Cooling System
Working Principle
• As liquids change to a gas (or are vaporized), they
absorb heat. This heat is called the latent heat of
vaporization.
• As a given quantity of gas is condensed to a liquid, it
emits heat in the same amount that it absorbs when
being changed from a liquid to a gas.
• When a gas is compressed, its temperature increases,
and when the pressure on a gas is decreased, its
temperature decreases.
• Heat transfers only from a material having a given
temperature to a material having a lower temperature.
17
 Vapor Cycle Cooling System

Basic
vapor-cycle
cooling

18
 Vapor Cycle Cooling System
• A vapor-cycle cooling system uses two heat-exchangers
to control the temperature of the cockpit and cabin.
• One taking heat from the closed system, and is called
an evaporator. The other heat exchanger draws heat
from the air and adds it to the closed system. This heat
exchanger is called a condenser.
• Instead of water in the heat exchanger, a special fluid
called a refrigerant is used.
• The refrigerant, usually freon, takes two forms during
the cooling process. liquid and gas.

19
 Vapor Cycle Cooling System
• The cooling process starts at the compressor, where the
refrigerant is in a gaseous form.

• The function of the compressor is to push the

refrigerant, under pressure, through the entire system.

• As the gas enters the condenser, heat is drawn from the

refrigerant and passed to the atmosphere. The cooling
of the refrigerant causes it to condense into a liquid.
Because of the compressor, the liquid is under pressure.
20
 Vapor Cycle Cooling System
• The pressurized liquid is then metered into tiny droplets
by an expansion valve. Because of the change in form,
the pressure past the expansion valve is lowered.

• The droplets then enter the evaporator, where they

draw heat from the air and then change into a gas.

• As a result of heat being drawn from the air, the

temperature of the air is decreased. It is this cooler air
that is introduced to the cabin for cooling.
21
Typical vapor-cycle Cooling system

22
 Vapor Cycle Cooling System
• In the compressor the compression of the refrigerant gas,
which is comparatively cold and at a low pressure, takes
place.

• From the compressor, the hot, high-pressure gas (vapor)

flows into the condenser, which is a heat radiator through
which cool air is passed to remove heat from the vapor.

• As the refrigerant vapor is cooled in the condenser, it

becomes a liquid and flows to the receiver-dryer-filter
which is essentially a reservoir containing a filter and a
desiccant.
23
 Vapor Cycle Cooling System
• The high-pressure liquid refrigerant, after leaving the
receiver-dryer, passes through the thermal expansion
valve. This valve consists of a variable orifice through
which the high-pressure liquid is forced.

• As the liquid refrigerant passes through the expansion

valve into the low-pressure area, it begins to break up
into droplets. and by the time it leaves the evaporator,
it is a gas.

• When the liquid refrigerant becomes a gas, it absorbs

heat, thus producing the cooling effect desired.
24
 Vapor Cycle Cooling System
• After the gas leaves the evaporator, it flows to the
compressor and the cycle begins again.

• The evaporator provides the cooling for cabin air, and

the condenser dissipates the heat developed when the
gas is compressed.

25
 Vapor Cycle Cooling System

Cutaway drawing of a receiver-filter Expansion valve

Evaporative Airconditioning System

27
 Evaporative Airconditioning System
• Evaporative air conditioning systems are inexpensive
and offer an attractive alternative to the conventional
summer air conditioning systems in places, which are
hot and dry.

• Evaporative air conditioning systems also find

applications in hot industrial environments where the
use of conventional air conditioning systems becomes
prohibitively expensive.

28
 Evaporative Airconditioning System
• This system is based on the principle that when moist
but unsaturated air comes in contact with a wetted
surface whose temperature is higher than the dew
point temperature of air, some water from the wetted
surface evaporates into air.

• The latent heat of evaporation is taken from water.

• In this process, the air loses sensible heat but gains

latent heat due to transfer of water vapor. Thus the air
gets cooled and humidified. The cooled and humidified
air can be used for providing thermal comfort.
29
 Evaporative Airconditioning System
Classification of Evaporative cooling systems

The principle of evaporative cooling can be used in

several ways. Cooling can be provided by:

1. Direct evaporation process

2. Indirect evaporation process
3. A combination or multi-stage systems

30
 Evaporative Airconditioning System
Direct Evaporative cooling systems

• In direct evaporative cooling, the process or conditioned air

comes in direct contact with the wetted surface, and gets
cooled and humidified.

• Hot and dry outdoor air is first filtered and then is brought
in contact with the wetted surface or spray of water
droplets in the air washer.

• The air gets cooled and dehumidified due to simultaneous

transfer of sensible and latent heats between air and water.
31
 Evaporative Airconditioning System
Direct Evaporative cooling systems

• The cooled and humidified air is supplied to the

conditioned space, where it extracts the sensible and
latent heat from the conditioned space.

• Finally the air is exhausted.

32
Evaporative Airconditioning System
Direct Evaporative cooling systems

33
Evaporative Airconditioning System
Direct Evaporative cooling systems

34
 Evaporative Airconditioning System
Indirect Evaporative cooling systems

• In an indirect evaporative cooling process, two streams

of air - primary and secondary are used.

• The primary air stream becomes cooled and humidified

by coming in direct contact with the wetted surface,
while the secondary stream which is used as supply air
to the conditioned space, decreases its temperature by
exchanging only sensible heat with the cooled and
humidified air stream.
35
Evaporative Airconditioning System
Indirect Evaporative cooling systems

36
 Evaporative Airconditioning System
Indirect Evaporative cooling systems

• Thus the moisture content of the supply air remains

constant in an indirect evaporative cooling system,
while its temperature drops. This may provide greater
degree of comfort in regions with higher humidity ratio.

37
 Evaporative Airconditioning System
Indirect Evaporative cooling systems

• In modern day indirect evaporative coolers, the conditioned

air flows through tubes or plates made of non-corroding
plastic materials such as polystyrene (PS) or polyvinyl
chloride (PVC).

• On the outside of the plastic tubes or plates thin film of

water is maintained. Water from the liquid film on the
outside of the tubes or plates evaporates into the air
blowing over it (primary air) and cools the conditioned air
flowing through the tubes or plates sensibly.

38
Evaporative Airconditioning System
Direct and Indirect Evaporative cooling systems

39
 Evaporative Airconditioning System
Multi-stage Evaporative cooling systems

• Several modifications are possible which improve efficiency

of the evaporative cooling systems significantly.
•
• In a typical two-stage evaporative cooling system, the first
stage the primary air cooled and humidified due to direct
contact with a wet surface cools the secondary air sensibly
in a heat exchanger.

• In the second stage, the secondary air stream is further

cooled by a direct evaporation process.
40
Evaporative Airconditioning System
Multi-stage Evaporative cooling systems

41
Evaporative Airconditioning System
Multi-stage Evaporative cooling systems

42
 Evaporative Airconditioning System
ADVANTAGES

1. Lower equipment and installation costs

2. Low power- Energy savings can be as high as 75 %
3. Ease of fabrication and installation
4. Lower maintenance costs
5. Ensures a very good ventilation due to the large air
flow rates involved, hence, are very good especially in
100 % outdoor air applications
6.Very environment friendly as no harmful chemicals are
used
43
 Evaporative Airconditioning System
DISADVANTAGES
1. The moisture level in the conditioned space could be
higher, hence, direct evaporative coolers are not good
when low humidity levels in the conditioned space is
required.
2. Since the required air flow rates are much larger, this
may create high noise levels in the conditioned space.
3. Precise control of temperature and humidity in the
conditioned space is not possible
4. May lead to health problems due to micro-organisms if
the water used is not clean or the wetted surfaces are
not maintained properly.
44
 Fire Protection Systems
• Because fire is one of the most dangerous threats to an
aircraft, the potential fire zones of modern multiengine
aircraft are protected by a fixed fire protection system.

• A fire zone is an area, or region, of an aircraft designed

by the manufacturer to require fire detection and/or
fire extinguishing equipment and a high degree of
inherent fire resistance.

45
 Fire Protection Systems
• Typical zones on aircraft that have a fixed fire detection
and/or fire extinguisher system are:

1. Engines and auxiliary power unit (APU)

2. Cargo and baggage compartments
3. Lavatories on transport aircraft
4. Electronic bays
5. Wheel wells
6. Bleed air ducts
46
 Fire Protection Systems
• The complete aircraft fire protection systems of most
large turbine-engine aircraft incorporate several of
these different detection methods.
1. Rate-of-temperature-rise detectors
2. Radiation sensing detectors
3. Smoke detectors
4. Overheat detectors
5. Carbon monoxide detectors
6. Combustible mixture detectors
7. Optical detectors
8. Observation of crew or passengers
47
 Classes of Fires
• The following classes of fires are defined by the U.S.
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA):
• Class A—fires involving ordinary combustible materials,
such as wood, cloth, paper, rubber, and plastics.
• Class B—fires involving flammable liquids, petroleum oils,
greases, tars, oil-based paints, lacquers, solvents, alcohols,
and flammable gases.
• Class C—fires involving energized electrical equipment in
which the use of an extinguishing media that is electrically
nonconductive is important.
• Class D—fires involving combustible metals, such as
magnesium, titanium, zirconium, sodium, lithium, and
potassium.
48
 Fire Protection Systems
REQUREMENTS:

1. No false warnings under any flight or ground condition.

2. Rapid indication of a fire and accurate location of the
fire.
3. Accurate indication that a fire is out.
4. Indication that a fire has re-ignited.
5. Continuous indication for duration of a fire.
6. Means for electrically testing the detector system from
the aircraft cockpit.
49
 Fire Protection Systems
7. Resists damage from exposure to oil, water, vibration,
extreme temperatures, or handling.
8. Light in weight and easily adaptable to any mounting
position.
9. Circuitry that operates directly from the aircraft power
system without inverters.
10.Minimum electrical current requirements when not
indicating a fire.
11. Cockpit light that illuminates, indicating the location
of the fire, and with an audible alarm system.
12. A separate detector system for each engine.
50
 Fire Detection Systems
Three detector system types in common use are:

• Thermal switch
• Thermocouple
• Continuous loop

51
 Thermal Switch Systems
• These thermal switches are heat-sensitive units that
complete electrical circuits at a certain temperature.

• They are connected in parallel with each other but in

series with the indicator lights.

• If the temperature rises above a set value in any one

section of the circuit, the thermal witch will close,
completing the light circuit to indicate a fire or overheat
condition.
52
Thermal Switch Systems

Thermal switch fire circuit.

53
 Thermal Switch Systems
• Energizing the test relay completes a series circuit and
checks all the wiring and the light bulb.

• Also included in the circuit, a dimming relay. By

energizing the dimming relay, the circuit is altered to
include a resistor in series with the light.

• In some installations, several circuits are wired through

the dimming relay, and all the warning lights may be
dimmed at the same time.
54
 Thermocouple Systems
• A thermocouple depends on the rate of temperature
rise and does not give a warning when an engine slowly
overheats or a short circuit develops. The system
consists of a relay box, warning lights, and
thermocouples.

• The wiring system of these units may be divided into

the following circuits:
1. Detector circuit
2. Alarm circuit
3. Test circuit
55
Thermocouple Systems

Thermocouple fire warning circuit. 56

 Thermocouple Systems
• The relay box contains two relays, the sensitive relay
and the slave relay, and the thermal test unit.

• Such a box may contain from one to eight identical

circuits, depending on the number of potential fire
zones.

• The relays control the warning lights. In turn, the

thermocouples control the operation of the relays.

• The circuit consists of several thermo-couples in series

with each other and with the sensitive relay. 57
 Thermocouple Systems
• The thermocouple is constructed of two dissimilar
metals such as chrome1 and constantan.

• The point where these metals are joined and will be

exposed to the heat of a fire is called a hot junction.
There is also a reference junction enclosed in a dead air
space between two insulation blocks.

• If the temperature rises rapidly, the thermocouple

produces a voltage because of the temperature
difference between the reference junction and the hot
junction.
58
 Thermocouple Systems
• This causes a current to flow within the detector circuit.
Any time the current is greater than 4 mA, the sensitive
relay will close.

• This will complete a circuit from the aircraft power

system to the coil of the slave relay. The slave relay will
then close and complete the circuit to the warning light
to give a visual fire warning.

• The total number of thermocouples used in individual

detector circuits depends on the size of the fire zones.
59
 Continuous Loop Systems
• Two widely used types of continuous-loop systems are
the thermistor type detectors, such as the Fenwal and
Kidde systems.
Fenwal System
• The Fenwal system uses a slender Inconel (nickel-
chromium-iron based alloy) tube packed with thermally
sensitive eutectic salt and a nickel wire center
Conductor.

60
 Continuous Loop Systems
• Lengths of these sensing elements are connected in series
to a control unit. The control unit, operating directly from
the power source, impresses a small voltage on the sensing
elements.

• When an overheat condition occurs at any point along the

element length, the resistance of the eutectic salt within the
sensing element drops sharply, causing current to flow
between the outer sheath and the center conductor.

• This current flow is sensed by the control unit, which

produces a signal to actuate the output relay and activate
the alarms.
61
 Continuous Loop Systems
Fenwal Spot Detector System
• Spot detector systems operate on a different principle
from the continuous loop. Each detector unit consists
of a bimetallic thermoswitch. Fenwal spot detectors are
wired in parallel between two complete loops of wiring.
• In case of a fire or overheat condition, the spot-
detector switch closes and completes a circuit to sound
an alarm.

62
 Continuous Loop Systems
Fenwal Spot Detector Circuit

63
 Continuous Loop Systems
Kidde System
• In the Kidde continuous-loop system, two wires are
imbedded in an inconel tube filled with a thermistor
core material.

64
 Continuous Loop Systems
• Two electrical conductors go through the length of the
core. One conductor has a ground connection to the
tube, and the other conductor connects to the fire
detection control unit
• As the temperature of the core increases, electrical
resistance to the ground decreases.
• The fire detection control unit monitors this resistance.
If the resistance decreases to the overheat set point, an
overheat indication occurs in the flight deck.
• Typically, a 10-second time delay is incorporated for the
overheat indication. If the resistance decreases more to
the fire set point, a fire warning occurs.
65
 Smoke Detectors
• A smoke detection system monitors the lavatories and
cargo baggage compartments for the presence of
smoke, which is indicative of a fire condition. Smoke
detection instruments that collect air for sampling are
mounted in the compartments in strategic locations.

• A smoke detection system is used where the type of fire

anticipated is expected to generate a substantial
amount of smoke before temperature changes are
sufficient to actuate a heat detection system.

66
 Smoke Detectors
Light Refraction Type
• The light refraction type of smoke detector contains a
photoelectric cell that detects light refracted by smoke
particles.
• Smoke particles refract the light to the photoelectric
cell and, when it senses enough of this light, it creates
an electrical current that sets off a light.

Ionization Type
• Some aircraft use an ionization type smoke detector.
The system generates an alarm signal by detecting a
change in ion density due to smoke in the cabin.
67
 Flame Detectors
• Optical sensors, often referred to as flame detectors,
are designed to alarm when they detect the presence
of prominent, specific radiation emissions from
hydrocarbon flames.

• The two types of optical sensors available are infrared

(IR) and ultraviolet (UV), based on the specific emission
wavelengths that they are designed to detect.

• IR-based optical flame detectors are used primarily on

light turboprop aircraft and helicopter engines.
68
 Flame Detectors
• When radiation emitted by the fire crosses the airspace
between the fire and the detector, it impinges on the
detector and minutely raises its temperature causing
small thermoelectric voltages to be generated.

• These voltages are fed to an amplifier whose output is

connected to various analytical electronic processing
circuits.

69
 Carbon Monoxide Detectors
• Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless gas that is a
byproduct of incomplete combustion. Its presence in
the breathing air of human beings can be deadly.

• To ensure crew and passenger safety, carbon monoxide

detectors are used in aircraft cabins and cockpits.

• There are several types of carbon monoxide detectors.

Electronic detectors are common. Some are panel
mounted and others are portable.
70
 Carbon Monoxide Detectors
• Chemical color-change types are also common. These
are mostly portable. Some are simple buttons, cards, or
badges that have a chemical applied to the surface.

• In the presence of carbon monoxide, the chemical

darkens to grey or even black. The transition time
required to change color is inversely related to the
concentration of CO present.

71
 Fire Extinguishing Agents
• The fixed fire extinguisher systems used in most
reciprocating engine fire protection systems are designed to
dilute the atmosphere with an inert agent that will not
support combustion.
• Water : class A. Water cools the material below its ignition
temperature and soaks it to prevent re-ignition.
• Carbon dioxide : class B or C. CO2 acts as a blanketing
agent.
• Dry chemicals : class A, B, or C. Dry chemicals are the best
control agents for these types of fires.
• Halons : only class A, B, or C.
• Halocarbon clean agents : only class A, B, or C.
• Specialized dry powder : class D 72
 Fire Extinguishing Agents
Halogenated Hydrocarbons

• Halon has been the fire extinguishing agent of choice in

civil aviation because it is extremely effective on a per unit
weight basis over a wide range of aircraft environmental
conditions.
• It is a clean agent (no residue), electrically non conducting,
and has relatively low toxicity.
• The most common extinguishing agent still used today is
Halon 1301 and Halon 1211.
• High rate of discharge (HRD) systems use open-end tubes to
deliver a quantity of extinguishing agent in 1 to 2 seconds. 73
 Fire Extinguishing Agents
Inert Cold Gases

• Carbon dioxide (CO2) is an effective extinguishing

agent. It is most often used in fire extinguishers that are
available on the ramp to fight fires on the exterior of
the aircraft, such as engine or APU fires.

• It is noncombustible and does not react with most

substances.

74
 Fire Extinguishing Agents
Dry Powders

• Class A, B, or C fires can be controlled by dry chemical

extinguishing agents.

• Dry chemical powder extinguishers contain mono-

ammonium phosphate.

• Their use is limited due to residual residue and clean

up after deployment.
75
 Fire Extinguishing Agents
Water

• Class A type fires are best controlled with water by

cooling the material below its ignition temperature and
soaking the material to prevent re-ignition.
Cockpit and Cabin Interiors

• All materials used in the cockpit and cabin must

conform to strict standards to prevent fire. In case of a
fire, several types of portable fire extinguishers are
available to fight the fire. The most common types are
Halon 1211 and water
76
 Fire Extinguishing System
Transport aircraft have fixed fire extinguishing systems
installed in:

1. Turbine engine compartments

2. APU compartments
3. Cargo and baggage compartments
4. Lavatories

77
 Fire Extinguishing Systems
Containers
• Fire extinguisher containers (HRD bottles) store a liquid
halogenated extinguishing agent and pressurized gas
(typically nitrogen). They are normally manufactured
from stainless steel or titanium.

Built-in non-portable fire

extinguisher containers
on an airliner

78
Fire Extinguisher System

Diagram of fire extinguisher containers 79

 Fire Extinguishing System
Fire Switch
• The engine and APU fire switches are typically installed
on the center overhead panel or center console in the
flight deck.
• When an engine fire switch is activated, the following
happens: the engine stops because the fuel control
shuts off, the engine is isolated from the aircraft
systems, and the fire extinguishing system is activated.

80
 Fire Extinguishing System
Cargo Fire Detection

• Each cargo compartment is equipped with a smoke

detector. The smoke detectors monitor air in the cargo
compartments for smoke. The fans bring air from the
cargo compartment into the smoke detector.

• The cargo compartment extinguishing system is

activated by the flight crew if the smoke detectors
detect smoke in the cargo compartment.

81
 Fire Extinguishing System

Cargo and
Baggage
Compartment
Fire extinguishing
system

82
 Fire Extinguishing System
Lavatory Smoke Detectors

• The smoke detector is located in the ceiling of the

lavatory.

• If there is smoke in the sensing chamber of the smoke

detector, the alarm LED (red) comes on. The timing
circuit makes an intermittent ground.

• The lavatory compartment is outfitted with a fire

extinguisher bottle to extinguish fires in the waste
compartment.
83
 Fire Extinguishing System
Lavatory Smoke Detectors

84
 Fire Extinguishing System
Lavatory Smoke Detectors

• The bottle contains pressurized Halon 1301 or

equivalent fire extinguishing agent. When the
temperature in the waste compartment reaches
approximately 170 °F, the solder that seals the nozzles
melt and the Halon is discharged.

85
 Ice Protection Systems
• The two types of ice encountered during flight are rime
and glaze.

• Rime ice forms a rough surface on the aircraft leading

edges. It is rough because the temperature of the air is
very low and freezes the water before it has time to
spread.

• Glaze ice forms a smooth, thick coating over the leading

edges of the aircraft. When the temperature is just
slightly below freezing, the water has more time to flow
before it freezes
86
Ice Protection Systems

Formation of ice on aircraft leading edge 87

 Ice Protection Systems
• Ice buildup increases drag and reduces lift. It causes
destructive vibration and hampers true instrument
readings.

• Control surfaces become unbalanced or frozen. Fixed slots

are filled and movable slots jammed. Radio reception is
hampered and engine performance is affected.

• Ice, snow, and slush have a direct impact on the safety of

flight. Not only because of degraded lift, reduced takeoff
performance, and/ or maneuverability of the aircraft,
88
Ice Protection Systems

89
 Ice Protection Systems
The ice protection systems used on aircraft keep ice
from forming on the following airplane components:
• Wing leading edges
• Horizontal and vertical stabilizer leading edges
• Engine cowl leading edges
• Propellers
• Propeller spinner
• Air data probes
• Flight deck windows
• Water and waste system lines and drains
• Antenna 90
Ice Protection Systems

91
 Ice Protection Systems
Ice Detection System

• Ice can be detected visually, but most modern aircraft

have one or more ice detector sensors that warn the
flight crew of icing conditions.

• An annuciator light comes on to alert the flight crew. In

some aircraft models, multiple ice detectors are used,
and the ice detection system automatically turns on the
wing anti icing systems when icing is detected.
92
 Ice Protection Systems
Ice Detection System

• The ice detector uses a vibrating probe to detect the

presence of icing conditions.It vibrates at high
frequency.

• As the ice detector enters an icing environment, ice

collects on the sensing probe causing the frequency of
the sensing probe to decrease. At the same time the ice
detector de-ices the unit strut and probe through
internal thermal heaters.
93
 Ice Protection Systems
Ice Detection System

• Shedding the ice on the probe returns the vibration

frequency of the probe to a non-icing value that allows
the detection system to reassess if ice is accumulating.

• When the ice is removed, the heaters are de-energized.

As ice builds again on the probe, the heater are
reenergized and the process is repeated.

94
 Ice Protection Systems
Ice Detection System

Ice detectors located on the forward fuselage

95
 Ice Protection Systems
• The methods used to prevent icing (anti-icing) or to
eliminate ice that has formed (deicing) vary with the
aircraft make and model.
Ice Prevention
• Several means to prevent or control ice formation are
used in aircraft today:
1. Heating surfaces with hot air
2. Heating by electrical elements
3. Breaking up ice formations, usually by inflatable
boots
4. Chemical application
96
 Ice Protection Systems
• Anti-icing equipment is turned on before entering icing
conditions and is designed to prevent ice from forming.

• A surface may be anti-iced by keeping it dry, by heating

to a temperature that evaporates water upon
impingement, or by heating the surface just enough to
prevent freezing, maintaining it running wet.

• Deicing equipment is designed to remove ice after it

begins to accumulate typically on the wings and
stabilizer leading edge
97
Ice Protection Systems

Typical ice control methods

98
 Pneumatic Deicing Systems
• Pneumatic deicing systems use rubber deicers, called
boots or shoes, attached to the leading edge of the
wing and stabilizers.

• The deicers are composed of a series of inflatable

tubes. During operation, the tubes are inflated with
pressurized air, and deflated in an alternating cycle.

• This inflation and deflation causes the ice to crack and

break.The ice is then carried away by the airstream.
99
Pneumatic Deicing Systems

Cross-section of a pneumatic deicing boot uninflated

100
(top) and inflated (bottom)
Pneumatic Deicing Systems

101
 Pneumatic Deicing Systems
• Deicer tubes are inflated by an engine-driven air pump
(vacuum pump), or by air bled from gas-turbine engine
compressors.
• The inflation sequence is controlled by either a centrally
located distributor valve or by solenoid operated valves
located adjacent to the deicer air inlets.
• Deicers are installed in sections along the wing with the
different sections operating alternately and
symmetrically about the fuselage.
• This is done so that any disturbance to air flow caused
by an inflated tube will be kept to a minimum by
inflating only short sections on each wing at a time.
102
 Deicing System Components
Engine-Driven Air Pump
The compression side of each pump supplies air
pressure to inflate the wing and tail deicer boots.

Safety Valves
The safety valve exhausts excessive air at high pump
r.p.m. when a predetermined pressure is reached.

103
 Deicing System Components
Combination Regulator, Unloading Valve,

• To control, direct, and regulate air pressure in the

system.

• To discharge air to the atmosphere when the deicer

system is not in use, thereby allowing the air pump to
operate at no pressure load.

104
 Deicing System Components
Suction Regulating Valve
It is to maintain the deicer system suction
automatically.

Solenoid Distributor Valve

The distributor valve normally allows suction to be
supplied to the boots for hold down in flight.

Electronic Timer
An electronic timer is used to control the operating
sequence and the time intervals of the deicing system.
105
 Thermal Anti-Icing Systems
• Thermal systems used for the purpose of preventing the
formation of ice or for deicing airfoil leading edges, usually
use heated air ducted spanwise along its inside of the leading
edge of the airfoil and distributed around the inner surface.

• However, electrically heated elements are also used for anti-

icing and deicing airfoil leading edges.

• There are several methods used to provide hot air. These

include bleeding hot air from the turbine compressor, engine
exhaust heat exchangers, and ram air heated by a
combustion heater.
106
Thermal Anti-Icing Systems

Heated wing leading edge 107

 Chemical Anti-Icing Systems
• Chemical anti-icing is used in some aircraft to anti-ice
the leading edges of the wing, stabilizers, windshields,
and Propellers.
• An antifreeze solution is pumped from a reservoir
through a mesh screen embedded in the leading edges
of the wings and stabilizers.
• Activated by a switch in the cockpit, the liquid flows
over the wing and tail surfaces, preventing the
formation of ice as it flows.
• The solution mixes with the supercooled water in the
cloud, depresses its freezing point, and allows the
mixture to flow off of the aircraft without freezing.
108
 Chemical Anti-Icing Systems
• The system is designed to anti-ice, but it is also capable
of deicing an aircraft as well.

• When ice has accumulated on the leading edges, the

antifreeze solution chemically breaks down the bond
between the ice and airframe.

• This allows aerodynamic forces to carry the ice away.

Thus, the system clears the airframe of accumulated ice
before transitioning to anti-ice protection
109
 Electrical Anti-Icing Systems
• Electricity is used to heat various components on an aircraft
so that ice does not form.

• This type of anti-ice is typically limited to small components

due to high amperage draw.

• Effective thermal electric anti-ice is used on most air data

probes, such as pitot tubes, static air ports, TAT and AOA
probes, ice detectors.

• Water lines, waste water drains, and some turboprop inlet

cowls are also heated with electricity to prevent ice from
forming. 110
 Electrical Anti-Icing Systems
• In devices that use thermal electric anti-ice, current
flows through an integral conductive element that
produces heat.

• The temperature of the component is elevated above

the freezing point of water so ice cannot form.

• Various schemes are used, such as an internal coil wire,

externally wrapped blankets or tapes, as well as
conductive films and heated Gaskets.
111
 Wind Shield Icing Control Systems
• Some windshields are built with double panels having a
space between, which will allow the circulation of
heated air between the surfaces to control icing and
fogging.

• Others use windshield wipers and anti-icing fluid which

is sprayed on.

• One of the more common methods for controlling ice

formation and fog on modern aircraft windows is the
use of an electrical heating element built into the
window.
112
Wind Shield Icing Control Systems

113
 Pitot Tube Anti-Icing
• To prevent the formation of ice over the opening in the
pitot tube, a built-in electric heating element is
provided.

• A switch, located in the cockpit, controls power to the

heater

114
 Anti-Icing
ANTI ICE CONTROL PANEL

115
 Aircraft Oxygen System
• Oxygen systems are required on airplanes that fly for extended
periods at altitudes substantially above l0,000 ft

• Although the normal human body can survive without a special

supply of oxygen at altitudes of over l5,000 ft, the mental and
physical capacities of a human being are reduced when the
usual supply of oxygen is not available in the air.

• It is particularly important that the pilot and crew of an

airplane have an adequate supply of oxygen when operating an
unpressurized airplane at altitudes in excess of l0,000 ft.
116
 Aircraft Oxygen System
• A lack of oxygen causes a person to experience a
condition called hypoxia.

• This condition results in "light-headedness." headaches,

nausea, unconsciousness, or death, depending upon its
duration and degree.

• When permanent physical damage results from lack of

oxygen, the condition is defined as anoxia.

117
 Aircraft Oxygen System
• At approximately 5000 ft altitude, the effects of hypoxia
results reduced night vision. It is recommended, therefore,
that a pilot flying above 5000 ft altitude at night use oxygen.

• Two principal factors affect the amount of oxygen that a

person will absorb are (1) the amount of oxygen in the air
the person is breathing and (2) the pressure of the air and
oxygen mixture.
118
 Aircraft Oxygen System
• Normal air contains approximately 21percent oxygen, and this
provides adequate oxygen for the human body at lower
altitudes.

• At sea level, oxygen pressure in the lungs is approximately 3

psi. This is sufficient to saturate the blood with oxygen and
permit the mind and body to function normally.
119
 Aircraft Oxygen System
• At 10,000 feet mean sea level (MSL), saturation of the blood with
oxygen is only about 90 percent of normal. Long durations at this
altitude can result in headache and fatigue, both symptoms of hypoxia

• At 15,000 feet MSL, oxygen transfer to the bloodstream drops to 81

percent of saturation. This typically results in sleepiness, headache,
blue lips and fingernails, and increased pulse and respiration.

120
 Types of Oxygen Systems
• Oxygen systems, classified according to source of
oxygen supply.

➢ Stored-gas
➢ Chemical or solid-state
➢ Liquid oxygen (LOX)

• Systems for private and commercial aircraft are of the

stored-gas or chemical type.

• LOX systems are limited to military aircraft.

121
 Types of Oxygen Systems
• Oxygen systems may be portable or fixed.

• The fixed system is permanently installed in an airplane

where a need for oxygen may exist at any time during
flight at high altitudes. Commercial airplanes are always
equipped with fixed systems.

122
 Types of Oxygen Systems
• Oxygen systems are also classified according to the type
of regulator that controls the flow of oxygen.

➢Continuous-flow type
➢Diluter-demand regulators

• The majority of oxygen systems for both private and

commercial aircraft are of the continuous-flow type.
• The regulator on the oxygen supply provides a
continuous flow of oxygen to the mask. The mask
valving provides for mixing of ambient air with the
oxygen during the breathing process. 123
 Types of Oxygen Systems
• Diluter-demand regulators used with demand masks
supply oxygen to the user during inhalation.
• When the individual using the equipment inhales, that
causes a reduction of pressure in a chamber in the
regulator.
• This reduction in pressure activates the oxygen valve
and supplies oxygen to the mask.
• The diluter-demand regulator automatically adjusts the
percentage of oxygen and air supplied to the mask in
accordance with altitude.

124
 Stored Gas Oxygen System
• Pure gaseous oxygen is stored and transported in high-
pressure cylinders that are typically painted green.

• Oxygen cylinders may be designed to carry oxygen at a

high or low pressure.
• High-pressure cylinders are designed to contain oxygen
at a pressure of approximately 1800 psi.

125
 Liquid Oxygen System
• Liquid oxygen (LOX) is a pale blue, transparent liquid.

• Oxygen can be made liquid by lowering the

temperature to below –183 °C or by placing gaseous
oxygen under pressure.

• It uses an evacuated, double-walled insulation

container to keep the liquid oxygen under pressure at a
very low temperature.

126
 Liquid Oxygen System
• A controlled amount of oxygen is allowed to vaporize
and is plumbed into a gaseous oxygen delivery system
downstream of a converter that is part of the container
assembly.

127
A spherical liquid oxygen onboard container used by the military.
 Liquid Oxygen System
• A small quantity of LOX can be converted to an
enormous amount of gaseous oxygen, resulting in the
use of very little storage space compared to that
needed for high-pressure gaseous oxygen cylinders.

• However, the difficulty of handling LOX, and the

expense of doing so, has resulted in the container
system used for gaseous oxygen to proliferate
throughout civilian aviation.

• LOX is used nearly exclusively in military aviation.

128
 Chemical Oxygen System
• Chemical oxygen generators, also termed solid-state
generators because the chemicals involved are solid,
have proved to be effective, lower in cost than stored
gaseous oxygen, safe, and comparatively maintenance
free.

• The chemical oxygen generator burns a mixture of

sodium chlorate (NaClO3) and iron (Fe) to produce pure
oxygen suitable for human use.

• Sodium chlorate, when heated to 478°C, decomposes

into ordinary salt and oxygen.
129
 Chemical Oxygen System
• The chemical oxygen supply is often ignited by a spring-
loaded firing pin that when pulled, releases a hammer
that smashes a cap creating a spark to light the candle.

• Once lit, a sodium chlorate oxygen generator cannot be

extinguished. It produces a steady flow of breathable
oxygen until it burns out, typically generating 10–20
minutes of oxygen.

• Solid oxygen generators are primarily used as backup

oxygen devices on pressurized aircraft due to long shelf
life.
130
 Chemical
Oxygen
Generators

A sodium chlorate solid oxygen candle

131
 Oxygen Regulators
• Systems are often characterized by the type of
regulator used to dispense the oxygen: continuous-flow
and demand flow.

• In some aircraft, a continuous-flow oxygen system is

installed for both passengers and crew.

• The pressure demand system is widely used as a crew

system, especially on the larger transport aircraft.

132
 Continuous-Flow Oxygen System
• Continuous-flow oxygen system allows oxygen to exit the
storage tank through a valve and passes it through a
regulator/reducer attached to the top of the tank.

• The flow of high-pressure oxygen passes through a section

of the regulator that reduces the pressure of the oxygen,
which is then fed into a hose attached to a mask worn by
the user.

• Once the valve is opened, the flow of oxygen is continuous.

Even when the user is exhaling, or when the mask is not in
use, a preset flow of oxygen continues until the tank valve is
closed.
133
Continuous-Flow Oxygen System

134
 Demand Flow Oxygen Systems
• When oxygen is delivered only as the user inhales, or
on demand, it is known as a demand-flow system.
During the hold and exhalation periods of breathing,
the oxygen supply is stopped.

• Thus, the duration of the oxygen supply is prolonged as

none is wasted.

• Demand-flow systems are used most frequently by the

crew on high performance and air transport category
aircraft.
135
Diluter Demand Regulator

136
 Diluter Demand Regulator
• When the user inhales, a slight negative pressure is
created in the chamber to the right of the demand
diaphragm.
• This pressure reduction causes the diaphragm to move
to the right and opens the demand valve. This causes a
negative pressure to be applied to the chamber under
the reducing valve diaphragm, moving the diaphragm
to the left.
• When the diaphragm moves to the left, the pressure-
reducing valve is lifted off of its seat, allowing oxygen to
enter the regulator and flow toward the mask
137
 Diluter Demand Regulator
• The mixing of air with oxygen is caused by the aneroid in the
mixing chamber. The aneroid is a sealed metal bellows.

• At sea level the aneroid is compressed by atmospheric

pressure so that the oxygen-metering port is closed and the
air-metering port is open. As atmospheric pressure is
decreased, the aneroid expands, opening the oxygen-
metering port and reducing the air-metering port.

• At an altitude of approximately 34,000 ft, the air-metering

port is completely closed and the user is receiving only
oxygen.
138
 Oxygen Masks
• Oxygen masks vary considerably in size, shape, and
design; however, each is designed for either a demand
system or a continuous-flow system.

• An oxygen mask for a demand system must fit the face

closely, enclosing both the mouth and nose, and must
form an airtight seal with the face.

• Inhalation by the user will then cause a low pressure in

the demand regulator, which results in opening of an
oxygen valve and a flow of oxygen to the mask. When
the user exhales, the flow of oxygen is cut off.
139
 Oxygen Masks
• An oxygen mask for a constant-flow system is designed
so that some ambient air is mixed with the oxygen.

• The complete mask usually includes an oronasal face

piece, a reservoir bag, valves, a supply hose, and a
coupling fining. Some models include a flow indicator in
the supply hose.

140