CTEC1704 - Networks
The Network Layer
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Internet_map_1024_-_transparent,_inverted.png
Lecture Content
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Network Layer services
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Datagram networks
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IP Addresses
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IP protocol
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Routers: forwarding
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References
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Kurose & Ross; Computer Networking; Chapter 4 & 5
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http://www.tcpipguide.com/free/t_NetworkLayerLayer3.htm
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https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/differences-between-virtual-ci
rcuits-datagram-networks/
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https://www.lifewire.com/top-network-routing-protocols-explai
ned-817965
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https://www.tutorialspoint.com/network_security/network_sec
urity_data_link_layer.htm
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_address_translation
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http://www.networkerinterview.net/entries/nat/nat-network-ad
dress-translation-
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Post lecture discussion topics
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Read the reference about NATting
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Research and compare two network layer
routing protocols
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List and describe the purpose of each
field within the headers of a link-layer
frame compared to a datagram packet
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What are the known security issues of the
network layer?
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Lecture Content
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Network Layer services
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Datagram networks
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IP Addresses
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IP protocol
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Routers: forwarding
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Inside the Network Layer
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Functions of the Network Layer
• Data Plane
– local logic
• Control Plane
– network-wide logic
• Forwarding/Routing
– determine the path taken by packets
through the network
– network-wide activity
– determines and adjust forwarding tables
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Services the Network Layer
can provide
• Guaranteed Delivery:
– packet will eventually arrive
• Guaranteed Delivery with bounded delay:
– packet will arrive within a certain time
• In-order packet delivery:
– packets arrive at destination in order they
were sent
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Services the Network Layer
can provide
• Guaranteed minimal bandwidth:
– emulates a specific bit rate (e.g. 1 Mbps)
• Guaranteed maximal jitter:
– time between the arrival of two packets is equal to the time
between sending the packets
●
with a defined margin of error
• Security Services:
– integrity
– confidentiality
– authentication
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Lecture Content
●
Network Layer services
●
Datagram networks
●
IP Addresses
●
IP protocol
●
Routers: forwarding
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Network Service Types
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Virtual Circuits
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connection-oriented service
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Datagram networks
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connection-less services
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Datagram Network
• Each datagram (packet) is forwarded independently based
upon its destination address
– in the header field
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Datagram Network
• Router forwards packets based on a
forwarding table
– maps from destination addresses to
interfaces
• Matching is performed on a longest prefix
basis
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Lecture Content
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Network Layer services
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Datagram networks
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IP Addresses
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IP protocol
●
Routers: forwarding
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Internet Protocol Addresses
• IP address
– numerical label assigned to each device
connected to a computer network that
uses the Internet Protocol for
communication
• Two main functions
– location addressing
– host number
●
NIC identification
– (network interface card)
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Internet Protocol Addresses
• IP address space managed
– Globally
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Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)
– Regionally
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5 Regional Internet registries (RIRs)
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responsible in their designated
territories for assignment to local
Internet registries
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eg ISPs, and other end users
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Internet Protocol Addresses
• IPv4 addresses were distributed by IANA to the
RIRs in blocks of approximately 16.8 million
addresses each
– exhausted at the IANA level since 2011
some IPv4 addresses are reserved for
private networks and are not globally
unique
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DMU uses the class A 10 network
– look at the IP address on your
phone ...
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IP Addresses
• IPv4 addresses are 32 bits long (4 bytes)
• There are 232 = approx. 4 billion possible
addresses
• Typically written in dotted decimal notation
(octets):
11000001 00100000 11011000 00001001
193 .32 .216 .9
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IP Addresses
• Originally, IPv4 address space was split up
into 5 “classes”
– A to E
• Talk about “/8” (pronounced “slash 8”) blocks
• 256 such blocks
• numbered 0/8 to 255/8
• Each /8 block has 254 (about 16.7 million)
addresses
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Subnet Masking
• IP address classes: C =/24 ; B =/16 ; A =/8
• Subnet mask “masks” the subnet bits
• ie
– subnet mask = 255.255.255.0/24
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class C network
– subnet mask = 255.255.0.0/16
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class B network
• Eg IPv4 address = 192.0.2.1
– subnet mask = 255.255.255.0
– 254 possible host addresses
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but one address is the network gateway
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Localhost
• Local loopback
127.0.0.1
localhost
• Used for testing
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IP Addresses
Three class C local subnets connected by a router
netmask = 255.255.255.0
4th octet = host machine number
223.1.1.0/24
223.1.2.0/24
224.1.3.0/24
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IP Address Exhaustion
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv4_address_exhaustion
• IPv4 address space was exhausted in 2011
– anticipated in ~1988
• Solutions
– CIDR
– Network Address Translation
– IPv6 (128 bit addresses) - 1998
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CIDR
• Classless Interdomain Routing
–
(CIDR, RFC 4632)
• The 32 bit IP address is divided into two
parts
–
written as a.b.c.d/x
–
where x is the number of bits in the first
part of the address
• The x most significant bits are known as
the network prefix
• Router only needs to consider network
prefix
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CIDR
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Variable length subnet masks
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200.23.16.0/26
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
26 - 2 = 62 host addresses
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200.23.16.0/20
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
212 - 2 = 4,094 host addresses
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199.31.0.0/16
11000111 00011111 00000000 00000000
216 - 2 = 65,534 host addresses
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Try this CIDR subnet calculator
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IPv6
• IPv6 increased address space to 128 bits
• Streamlined 40 byte fixed-length header
• Traffic Class can be used to give priorities.
• Flow Label is used to mark packets to belong to a particular flow, e.g. for special QoS
requirements or real-time traffic
• RFC1752 and 2460
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IPv6 vs IPv4
• IPv6 does not allow fragmentation
– if a packet is too large to transmit, the router
returns an ICMP error message
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RFC 4443 ICMPv6
– sending host must resubmit smaller datagrams
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MTU is indicated in the ICMP error message
• IPv6 does not do a header check sum
– this is already done at link-layer and
transport-layer
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saves processing time
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How to get an IP address
• How does a host get an IP address in
the first place?
• Two options:
– Static IP address assigned by an
administrator
– Dynamic IP address obtained through
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
– service that “leases” IP addresses to hosts
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Lecture Content
●
Network Layer services
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Datagram networks
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IP Addresses
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IP protocol
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Routers: forwarding
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IPv4 Datagrams
• Version number
• Header length (20
bytes w/o options)
• Type of service to
distinguish
different uses such
as for real-time
datagrams
• Datagram length
(total, in bytes),
max 65,535 bytes
(= 216 - 1)
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IPv4 Datagrams
• Identifier, flags,
fragmentation
offset
• time-to-live (TTL)
• ensures
datagrams do not
circulate forever
• decremented at
each router
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IPv4 Datagrams
• Protocol:
• Glue to the transport
layer
• TCP=6, UDP=17
• Header checksum
• Needs to be
recomputed at every
router
• Normal to discard
datagrams that are
corrupted
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IPv4 Datagrams
• Source and
Destination IP
addresses
• Options (used
rarely and not part
of IPv6)
• Data
• Normally contains
a transport layer
segment (TCP/UDP)
or ICMP message
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Lecture Content
●
Network Layer services
●
Datagram networks
●
IP Addresses
●
IP protocol
●
Routers: forwarding
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What is a Router?
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Device that connects two or more packet-
switched networks or subnetworks
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Two primary functions:
– manages traffic between these networks by
forwarding data packets to their intended IP
addresses
– allows multiple devices to use the same
Internet connection
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Routing decision made by reference to a
routing table
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Example of forwarding tables
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Inside a Router
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Routing Protocols
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Routing Information Protocol
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Open Shortest Path First
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Border Gateway Protocol
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Routing Protocols
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Routing Information Protocol
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Open Shortest Path First
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Border Gateway Protocol
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Routing Protocols
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Routing Information Protocol
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Open Shortest Path First
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Border Gateway Protocol
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Lecture Contents
• Network Layer services
• Datagram networks
• IP Addresses
• IP protocol
• Routers:
– forwarding
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