1

anotherCHAPTER I

BALLISTICS

I. DEFINITION OF BALLISTICS

The term ballistics in its broadest sense means the science of motion of
projectiles. Science means a systematized body of knowledge. Motion means movement
or mobility. Projectiles refer to any material either metallic or non-metallic object/s
propelled from a firearm. Ballistics is a science or art that deals with the motion,
behavior, appearance, or modification of missiles or other vehicles acted upon by
propellants, wind, gravity, temperature, or any other modifying substance, condition, or
force.

From these words the modern term Forensic Ballistics was derived to indicate a
scientific tests or techniques used in connection with the detection of crime of which a
firearm or gun have been involved.

II. ORIGIN OF THE TERM BALLISTICS

The term “ballistics” was derived from the Greek word ballo ('ba'llein', "throw").It
is the science of mechanics that deals with the flight, behavior, and effects of projectiles,
especially bullets, gravity bombs, rockets, or the like. Its root was also said to have
derived from the name of an early Roman war machine called the “ballista”- a gigantic
bow or catapult which was used to hurl missiles or large objects at a particular distance to
deter animals or enemy forces. Throughout time, this term has been broadened and
applied to firearms identification or firearms investigation, hence the term “Forensic
Ballistics” come to existence.

The word “Forensic “ as applied to ballistics, or to any other subject is related to

the use of science or technology in the investigation and establishment of facts or
evidence in a court of law. Thus, the term “Forensic Ballistics” would mean the
application of science in the investigation and identification of firearms, ammunitions and
allied matters pertaining to a crime.

III. BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS

The science of ballistics or forensic ballistics is divided into the following

categories: Internal (Interior) Ballistics, External (Exterior) Ballistics, Terminal
Ballistics, and Forensic Ballistics.

1. Interior Ballistics- refers to the properties and attributes of the projectile (bullet)
while still inside the gun. This branch includes the following:

A. Firing pin hitting the primer

B. Ignition of the priming mixture
C. Combustion of the gunpowder
D. Expansion of the heated
E. Pressure developed
F. Energy generated
G. Recoil of the gun
H. Velocity of the bullet in the barrel
I. Rotation of the bullet in the barrel
J. Engravings of the cylindrical surface of bullet

2. Exterior Ballistics-refers to the attributes and movements of the bullet after it has
left the gun muzzle. This branch involves the following:
 2

A. Muzzle blast- noise created at the muzzle point of gun after the explosion
B. Muzzle energy- energy generated after the bullet leaves the gun muzzle
C. Trajectory- actual curved path of the bullet during its flight
D. Range-straight distance between muzzle and target
a. Accurate (effective) range- maximum distance at which the bullet has a lethal
effect
b. Maximum range- the maximum distance a bullet or projectile can be propelled
E. Velocity - rate of speed of bullet per unit of time
F. Air Resistance- air resistance of the bullet during its flight
G. Pull of gravity- downward direction of the bullet due to earth’s gravitational force
H. Penetration- entry of the bullet on the target

3. Terminal Ballistics-refers to the effects of the impact of the projectile on the

target. This involves the following:

A. Terminal accuracy- size of the bullet grouping on the target

B. Terminal energy- energy of the projectile when it strikes the target; also known as
“striking energy”
C. Terminal velocity-speed of the bullet upon striking the target
D. Terminal penetration- depth of entry of the bullet in the target

4. Forensic Ballistics-refers to the investigation and identification of firearms by

means of ammunitions fired through them. This includes the following:

A. Field Investigations- It is conducted by the first officer on case. As the name implies, it
involves the job of the officer in collecting, marking, preservation, packing and
transmittal of evidence. The proper chain of custody is involved as part of the
investigative procedures for firearms evidence and some other allied matters involved
therein.

B. Technical Examination-This task is performed by the firearms examiner in the laboratory.

Necessary equipments and laboratory instruments are utilized in the examination of
collected piece/s of evidence, like bullet/s, shell/s, firearm/s and other allied matters.
Preparations of reports are made by the concerned laboratory personnel for court
presentation.

C. Legal proceedings-Court trials-This has reference to the presentation ballistics report of

the firearm examiner and ballistics exhibits. Fired bullet/s, shell/s, firearm/s and allied
exhibits are presented during trial of the case in a court of justice.

The recovered physical evidence related to firearm is brought to the laboratory for
thorough examination by the laboratory technician. This is now the stage where the
Firearm Expert (Ballistician) exercises his role in possibly identifying and linking the
perpetrator/s to the crime.

This is the preparation of reports related to the findings of the examiner on the
evidence submitted, the preparation of charts and or photographs on the observations of
the examiner. This could be the occasion wherein the officer on case and the laboratory
examiners may be required to appear before the court, to provide his/ her testimony
relative to his investigation and or firearms examination.
 3

References

Textbooks:

FORENSIC BALLISTICS by Domingo R. Del Fossil, 3rd edition, 1996

FORENSIC BALLISTICS by Erdulfo R. Grimares, Wiseman’s Books Trading. 1st ed.

2006.

FIREARMS BALLISTICS by Domingo del Rosario, 3rd ed. 1996

FORENSIC BALLISTICS (Firearms Identification, Compilation) by Dr. Artemio I.

Panganiban. Criminology FILE Academy

Internet Sources:

Ballistics. Retrieved from http://science.howstuffworks.com/ballistics-info.htm

FORENSIC FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION. Retrieved from

http://jimfisher.edinboro.edu/forensics/arms.html

External ballistics. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/External_ballistics

Internal ballistics. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_ballistics

https://www.google.com.ph/#q=forensic+ballistics

http://www.firearmsid.com/A_BulletID.htm

http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/navy/docs/swos/gunno/INFO6.html

http://www.exteriorballistics.com/
 4

Chapter II

FIREARMS

I. GUN TIMELINE

Historical timeline of the development of modern weapons starting at 1364 with the
first recorded use of a firearm and ending in 1892 with the introduction of automatic
handguns. (Courtesy of www. pbs.org.)

1364 - First recorded

use of a firearm.
1380 - Hand guns are
known across Europe.
1400s - The matchlock
gun appears.

Before the matchlock, guns were fired by holding a burning wick to a "touch
hole" in the barrel igniting the powder inside. A shooter uses one hand for firing, and a
prop to steady the gun. The first device, or "lock," for mechanically firing a gun is the
matchlock. Powder is held in a "flash pan," and ignited by a wick, or match, in a movable
clamp. Both hands remain on the gun, vastly improving aim.

1498 - Rifling principle

is discovered.
1509 - Invention of
wheel lock (rose lock).

The next major advance, the wheel lock, generates a spark mechanically. With no
wick to keep lit, the wheel lock is easier to use, and more reliable than the matchlock.
However, wheel locks are expensive to produce. Matchlocks, at half the cost, remain in
common use. This is an early (ca. 1540) multi-shot, wheel-lock pistol, made for Emperor
Charles V. In this weapon, two locks are combined in one mechanism, to give each barrel
separate ignition.

1540 - Rifling appears in

firearms.
1607 - Settlers arrive in
Jamestown, Virginia.
1630 - The first true
flintlock.

The flintlock solved a longstanding problem. Sometime in the late 1500s, a lid
was added to the flash pan design. To expose or protect the powder, the lid had to be
moved manually. The flintlock mechanism was designed to push back the lid and spark a
flint at the same time. The flintlock ignition system reigned for two centuries, with
virtually no alteration. The flintlock pictured here is a typical British "Brown Bess"
musket. Marks on the gun indicate that it was used by German mercenaries during the
American Revolution.
 5

1637 - First use of

firearms proof-marks.
1750-1850 - Dueling
pistols come into
fashion.

Around 1750, men stop carrying rapiers, and guns became the weapon of choice
for a duel. Various guns were used, until a true dueling pistol was officially standardized
in 1777, as "a 9 or 10 inch barreled, smooth bore flintlock of 1 inch bore, carrying a ball
of 48 to the pound." Often lavishly decorated, the pistols are made until dueling falls out
of favor in the mid-1800s.

1776 - American Revolution.

1807 - Percussion-detonating
principle patented.
1825 - Percussion-cap guns are in
general use.
1830 - The back action lock
appears.
1835 - The first Colt revolver.

Samuel Colt developed the first mass-produced, multi-shot, revolving firearms.

Various revolving designs had been around for centuries, but precision parts couldn't be
made with available technologies. Colt was the first to apply Industrial Age machining
tools to the idea. Mass production made the guns affordable. Reliability and accuracy
made the Colt a favorite of soldiers and frontiersmen.

1840 - Guns begin to

use pin-fire cartridges.
1847 - The telegraph is
invented.
1850 - True shotguns in
common use.

In the second half of the 18th century, musket design branched out. This period
produced a number of single-purpose firearms. The forerunner of modern shotguns was
the fowling piece, developed specifically for hunting birds.

1854-56 - The Crimean

War. The last war to use
only muzzle-loaded guns.
1859 - The first full rim-
fire cartridge.
1860 - Spencer repeating
carbine patented.

Introduced at the start of the Civil War, Spencer repeating guns were technically
advanced, used cartridges (a recent development), and could fire 7 shots in 15 seconds.
But the Army didn't want a repeating gun, fearing that soldiers would fire more often,
constantly need fresh ammunition, and overtax the supply system. But in 1863, President
Lincoln test-fired a Spencer. His approval led to the purchase of 107,372 Spencer
repeating carbines and rifles (of 144,500 made), and the Spencer became the principal
repeating gun of the Civil War.
 6

1861 - Breech loaded guns in common use.

1861-1865 - American Civil War. Both breech and
muzzle loaded guns used.
1862 - The Gatling Gun is invented.
1869 - Center-fire cartridge introduced.
1870-1871- The Franco-German War. Breach-
loaded guns are dominant.
1871 - First cartridge revolver.
1873 - Winchester rifle introduced.

Winchester rifles were affordable, and produced in such great numbers, that the
Winchester became the generic rifle. The Winchester had such a powerful hold in some
regions that it actually became known as "the gun that won the West." In 1887,
Winchester came out with their first repeating shotguns. The next major milestone for
Winchester came in 1903, when the company introduced the first automatic rifle that
would become widely used.

1876 - Custer defeated at

Little Big Horn.
1877 - First effective double-
action revolver.
1879 - Lee box magazine
patented.
1892- Advent of automatic
handguns.

The first automatic pistol was created by Joseph Laumann in 1892. But the
Borchardt pistol of 1893 was the first automatic with a separate magazine in the grip, and
this remains the defining feature of the breed. More automatics came in rapid succession,
including Browning, Luger, Mauser, and Colt models. By the turn of the century, just 8
years after Laumann, automatics were firmly established.

Men behind Firearms

1. Col. Calvin H. Goddard, M.D.--------------------------------Father of Modern Ballistics, US

Army. Most responsible for raising firearms identification to a science and for perfecting
the bullet comparison microscope.
2. Horace Smith------------------Founded the great firm Smith and Wesson and pioneered the
making of the breech-loading rifles
3. Daniel B. Wesson-------------------------------------An associate or partner of Smith in
revolver making
4. John M. Browning--------------------Wizard of modern firearms and pioneered the breech-
loading single shot rifle
5. John T. Thompson-------------------------------- Pioneered the making of Thompson
Submachine Gun
6. David “Carbine” Williams------------------------------------ Maker of the first known
carbine
7. Alexander John Forsyth--------------------------------------- Father of the percussion
ignition

8. Elisha King Root----------------------------------------- Designed the machinery for making

Colt firearms
9. Eliphalet Remington----------------------------------- One of the first rifle maker
10. John Mahlon Marlin----------------------------------- Founder of Marlin Firearms Company
11. James Wolfe Ripley-------------------- Stimulated the development of the model 1855 rifle
musket
12. Samuel Colt (1814-1862)--------------------------- Produced the first practical revolver
 7

13. Henry Deringer------------------ He gave his name to a whole class of firearms (rifles and
pistols)
14. John C. Garrand------------- Designed and invented the Semi Automatic US Rifle
Caliber .30, M1
15. Oliver F. Winchester----------------------------- One of the earliest rifle and pistol makers
16. Lt.Col. Patrick Ferguson----------------------Was assigned in the British Army; designed
his rifle and demonstrated it before the King of Windsor, resulting in orders of 100 rifles.
He trained a company of men in the use of the rifle.
17. Uziel Gal---------------------------Invented the Uzi submachine gun in 1950’s, which was
used by the Israeli Army.
18. Mikhail Kalashnikov-----------------------Russian designer famous for his innovations for
battle tanks, including a mechanism that would count the shots fired. A main designer of
Russian AK-47 assault rifle.
19. Berthold Schwartz and Roger Bacon------------------------German and English monks,
respectively, who invented the first gunpowder.
20. Eugene Stoner--------------------------He was the developer and designer of the AR15/M16
rifle.
21. Melvin M. Johnson Jr.------------------------Invented the Johnson-invented the Johnson
rifle.
22. Dr.Richard Gatling----------------------Patented the design of Gatling Gun, a six barreled,
hand cranked weapon capable of firing 200 rounds per minute.
23. Hiram Maxim---------------------Inventor of the Maxim Machine gun and Maxim Silencer
in 1884.
24. George Luger----------------------------- Designer of 9mm parabellum cartridge.
25. Carl Walther------------------------Developed a reliable caliber automatic pistol in 1866.

Important Dates in Firearm History

1313 -Gunpowder as a propellant. The age of gunpowder began with its first use
as a propellant for a projectile

1350 -Small Arms. Gunpowder was first used in cannons. It was not until the
middle of 14th century that portable hand firearms were introduced. These guns were
ignited by handheld hotwire or lighted match.

1498 -Rifling’s.The first reference to rifled barrels happened around this year.
Although its importance as an aid to accuracy was recognized by some, it took many
years before rifling was generally used.

1575 -Cartridge.Paper cartridge were developed. This combined both powder

and ball about 1575. This greatly speeded loading and reduced the hazards for carrying
loose powder.

1807 -Percussion System. Forsyth discovered that certain compounds detonated

by a blow could be used to ignite the charge in a firearm, forming the basis for all later
percussion and cartridge developments.

1835 -Samuel Colt patented the first practical revolver in which the cylinder
rotated by cocking the hammer.

1836 -Pin-fire Cartridge. The pin-fire cartridge was developed by Le Faucheux,

was believed to be the first self-exploding cartridge to come into general use.

1845 -Rim-fire Cartridge. In France, Flobert developed “bullet breech cap”

which was in reality the first rim-fire cartridge.
 8

1858 -Center-Fire Cartridge. The Morse cartridge marked the beginning of the
rapid development of the center- fire cartridge.

1884 -Automatic Machine Gun. Hiram Maxim built the first fully automatic
gun, utilizing the recoil of the piece to load and fire the next cartridge.

1885 -Smokeless Powder. In France, Veille developed the first satisfactory

smokeless powder, a new propellant which lacked the smoke characteristics of black
powder, but was more powerful.

II. DEFINITION OF FIREARM

The term “firearm” has two definitions- “legal” as well as “technical”. (Forensic
Ballistics by Erdulfo R. Grimares).

A. “Legal Definition”- Its “legal definition” may be found in Section 877 of the
Revised Administrative Code as well as in Section 290 of our National Internal
Revenue Code, and this runs as follows:

Sec. 877 “FIREARMS” OR “ARMS” as herein used, includes rifles, muskets, carbines,
shotguns, pistols, revolvers, and all other deadly weapons from which bullets, balls,
shots, shells, or other missiles maybe discharged by means of gunpowder or other
explosives. This term also includes air rifles except such as being of small caliber and of
limited range used as toys. The barrel of any firearm shall be considered a complete
firearm for all purposes hereof.

B. “Technical Definition”- a firearm is an instrument used for the propulsion of

projectiles by means of the expansive force of gases coming from burning
gunpowder. (FBI Manual or Firearms Identification).

Other Definitions of Firearm

“Firearm”- means any pistol or revolver with a barrel less than 12 inches, any rifle
with a barrel less than 15 inches, any shotgun with a barrel less than 24 inches, or any
other weapon which is designed to expel a projectile or projectiles by the action of an
explosive. (Uniform Firearms Act of Pennsylvania).

“Firearm”- means any weapon, by whatever name known, which is designed to

expel a projectile or projectiles by the action of an explosive and firearm muffler or
firearm silencer, or any part of parts of such weapon. (Federal Firearms Act of the United
States).

III. CLASSIFICATION OF FIREARMS

There are various ways of classifying firearms as adopted by different countries

worldwide. There are military arms which also termed as big guns used in warfare. There
are also small arms which are widely used by police officers and other sectors of the
public safety. It is a known fact that crimes involving firearms commonly involves small
arms or hand arms, like pistols and revolvers.

1. General Classes of Firearms: ( According to the Gun Barrel- Internal Construction)

a. Smooth-bore firearms- firearms that have no rifling’s (no lands and grooves) inside the
bore. Examples: shotguns and muskets
 9

(Courtesy of www.wikipedia.org)

b. Rifled-bore firearms- firearms that have rifling’s (with lands and grooves) inside the
bore. Examples: pistols, revolvers and rifles.

(Courtesy of www. wikipedia.org)

2. Main Types of Firearms: (According to the Caliber of Projectiles propelled)

a. Artillery- firearms that propel projectiles more than one inch in diameter. Examples:
cannons, mortars, bazooka

(Courtesy of www.wkipedia.org)

b. Small Arms- firearms that propel projectiles less than one inch in diameter. Examples:
machine guns, shoulder arms and hand arms.

1. Machine guns- weapon which fires or designed to fire automatically or semi

automatically, more than one shot without manual reloading, by a single press of the
trigger. Examples: Thompson submachine gun and grease gun.

(Courtesy of www.wikipedia.org)

2. Shoulder Arms- firearms that are normally fired from the shoulder. Examples: rifles and
shotguns

(Courtesy of www.wikipedia.org)

3. Hand Arms- firearms that are designed or intended to be fired using one hand- either the
right or left hand. Examples: pistols and revolvers.(See illustrations on rifle bore
firearms)

Types of Firearms According to Mechanical Construction (Forensic Ballistics by

Erdulfo R. Grimares)

1. Single shot firearms- those types of firearm that is designed to shoot only one shot.
 10

2. Repeating arms- this type is loaded with more than one cartridge into the chamber when
it is fired rather having to perform this operation by hand.

3. Bolt Action type- firearm which is breech closure is (1) in line with the bore at all times
(2) manually reciprocated to load, unload and cock (3) and is locked in place by breech
bolt lugs and engaging abutments usually in the receiver.

4. Lever Action type-a design wherein the breech mechanism is cycled by an external lever
generally below the receiver.

5. Slide Action type- firearm which features a movable forearm which is manually actuated
in motion parallel to the barrel by the shooter, Forearm motion is transmitted to a breech
bolt assembly which performs all the functions of the firing cycle assigned to it by the
design. Also known as PUMP ACTION.

6. Semiautomatic type- firearm requiring separate pull of the trigger for each shot fired, and
which uses the energy of discharge to perform a portion of the operating or firing cycle.
(Usually the loading portion)
 11

7. Automatic Action type- a firearm designed that feeds cartridges, fires and ejects cartridge
cases as long as the trigger is fully depressed and there are cartridges available in the feed
system.

8. Machine gun type- primarily used in military combat and seldom encountered by
firearms technician.

9. Submachine-gun type- is a light, portable machine gun which uses pistol size
ammunition. It differs from a pistol in that it has a shoulder stock which may or may not
fold but designed to be fired by the use of both hands.

10. Shotgun

a. Single barreled shotgun- it is loaded with a single shot-gun cartridge, closed, fired and
then loaded by the shooter.

(Courtesy of
blogspot.com)

b. Double barreled shotgun- the two barrels may be side by side or they may be one over the
other. Its barrel may have its own trigger.

(Courtesy of blogspot.com)

c. Pump action shotgun- operates in the same manner as a slide action rifles, by means of a
sliding lever under the barrel.

(Courtesy of blogspot.com)

d. Auto loading shotguns- These are the same as auto-loading rifles in that they recoil action
reloads the gun from the magazine without any effort on the part of the shooter.

(Courtesy of www. rocklok & ammoland.com)

11. Unusual or Miscellaneous Guns

a. Gas guns- these will be found in all shapes and sizes and are used for firing tear gas and
other forms of disabling gases
b. Traps- these are designed to be set in the words and left where animals will encounter
them. They may fire a bullet or a poison charge, depending on their construction.
c. Cane gun, knife pistols, etc.- devices primarily designed for another purposes will have a
mechanism incorporated in them.
 12

d. Zip guns- these may be in any form, since the name has been applied to all homemade
guns, great many of this class will be found to be exceedingly clever mechanisms and
most effective weapons.

e. Flare guns- used in cases such as for sending signals and enabling to see enemies in the
dark.

f. Harpoon guns- barbed spear in hunting large fish.

MACHINE GUNS

1. MACHINE GUN- is a fully automatic mounted or portable firearm, usually designed to

fire bullets in quick succession from an ammunition belt or magazine, typically at a rate
of several hundred rounds per minute.

Machine guns are generally categorized as submachine guns, machine guns, or

auto cannons. Submachine guns are hand-held small portable automatic weapons for
personal defense or short-range combat firing pistol-caliber rounds. A machine gun is
often portable to a certain degree, but is generally used when attached to a mount or fired
from the ground on a bipod, and generally fires a rifle cartridge. Light machine guns are
small enough to be fired and are hand-held like a rifle, but are more effective when fired
from a prone position.

A .50 caliberM2 machine

gun: John Browning's
design has been one of
the longest serving and
most successful machine
gun designs.
 13

(Courtesy of www.wikipedia.org)
SHOULDER ARMS

1. RIFLE- a type of weapon normally designed to be fired from the shoulder. It uses the
energy of the explosive in a fixed metallic cartridge to fire only a single projectile
through a rifled bore for each pull of the trigger. (Federal Firearms Act of U.S.).

This is a type of shoulder arm designed for targets at a longer distance. The
bore of a rifle has a number of helical grooves cut spirally inside the surface of the bore
from breech end to muzzle end.

2. MUSKET- is an ancient smooth-bore and muzzle loading military shoulder arm designed
to fire a single round lead ball. (U.S. Tech Manual on Firearms)

3. CARBINE- a short barrel rifle, with its barrel measuring not longer than 22 inches. It
fires a single projectile through a rifled-bore, either semiautomatic or full automatic, for
every press of the trigger.

4. SHOTGUN- a smooth-bore and breech loading shoulder arm designed to fire a number
of lead pellets or shots in one charge. (FBI Technical Manual).

Rifle Musket Carbine Shotgun

(Illustrations courtesy of www. wikipedia.org)

HAND ARMS

1. Revolver- a hand firearm equipped with a rotating cylinder, serving as a magazine,

successively places a cartridge into position for firing. (FBI Technical Manual)

2. Pistol- a short barrel hand arm designed to fire a single projectile through a rifled-bore for
every press of the trigger. It is usually applied to semiautomatic loading.

NOMENCLATURE AND MECHANICS (Shotguns, Pistols and Revolvers)

Image of Different Shotguns/Rifle

(Courtesy of shotgunworld.com & visual.merrriam-webster.com)
 14

Slide/Pump Action

(Courtesy of info4guns.com)

Automatic Rifle
(Courtesy of info4guns.com)
 15

Automatic Rifle

Portable assault rifle that fires cartridges; in automatic weapons such as

submachine guns and light machine guns, the cartridges are fed by a magazine or a belt.

Parts Functions
lash hider Muzzle attachment designed to cool the gases and reduce muzzle flash.
Hand guard Piece that protects the shooter’s hand from the heat of the barrel.
Magazine Part containing the cartridges, which are automatically fed into the gun barrel.
Safety Catch that blocks the trigger to prevent the weapon from firing by accident.
Trigger Device that is pressed to fire the weapon.
Butt Back part of the weapon that is held against the shoulder.
Pistol grip Part for holding and aiming the weapon; its shape is similar to that of a pistol butt.
Charging Device used to cock the weapon.
handle
Bolt assist Mechanism for choosing between automatic fire (center position) or single shot
mechanism (down position).
Rear sight Articulated graduated aiming device attached to the back of the barrel; the rear
sight is lined up with the front sight when aiming.
Barrel Tubular part that guides the trajectory of the projectile.
Front sight Device that protects the front sight from impact.
housing
Barrel jacket Perforated or water-filled metal tube around the barrel; during firing, the tube fills
with water to cool down the barrel.
ejection port Hole from which the empty shell casings are ejected.
Receiver Metal casing around the weapon’s firing mechanism.

Image of a Typical Pistol

(Illustrations courtesy of http://www.handgunclub.com)

Beretta Model 92 Pistol

 16

Term Definition Notes

Back strap The rear portion of the grip

frame

Barrel A hollow tube with spiral Barrel lengths vary. Beretta’s

rifling to guide and launch a exposed barrel is nearly unique.
bullet on its path to the target. Most barrels are enclosed by the
slide.

Beavertail The extension at the rear of the The beavertail is a modern

pistol that protects the user’s extension of the “tang” that
hand from being pinched when prevents the user’s hand from
the hammer is cocked by the riding too high on the grip.
slide during recoil.

Bore(not The inner diameter of the

shown) barrel opening. The size of the
bore can be in decimal
fractions of an inch (.45) or in
millimeters (7.63 mm, 9 mm).

Chamber(not The rear portion of the barrel

 17

shown) which accepts the cartridge and

positions it for firing. Pistols
have only one chamber.

Cocking Grooves cut into the rear of the

Serrations slide to facilitate a solid grip
when pulling the slide back to
chamber a cartridge and “cock”
the pistol. Some pistols include
serrations at the front of the
slide too.

Ejection Port The opening in the slide or Usually on the right side of the
mechanism by which cartridges pistol. Beretta’s open slide
are ejected from the gun. design eliminates the “port”.

Front Sight The projection on the barrel

used for aiming

Front Strap The front edge of the grip

frame.

Grip (a) The grip frame or area of Grips (plural) often refer to the
the pistol that is gripped by the grip panels on the gun.
hand. (b) The material applied
to the grip frame to make the
revolver easier to grip. See
also: Grip Panel

Grip Panel The material applied to the grip Sometimes referred to as the
frame to make the pistol grip or grips.
comfortable in the hand. These
may be made from wood,
rubber, ivory, plastic, or other
materials. Often called grips.

Grip Safety A lever integrated to the grip of This is a passive safety because
the pistol, which when it activates automatically
depressed allows the firearm to without the user doing anything
be fired. When the hand is off special.
the grip, the safety is engaged
to prevent accidental discharge

Hammer The primary ignition device. Some hammers are concealed or

The hammer is pulled back shrouded. Some pistols may
against spring tension and, lack a hammer and be fired by
when released, strikes the an internal striker, such as a
cartridge primer to fire the Glock.
revolver.

Lanyard A loop or cutout that allows the Found mostly on military arms.
Loop attachment of a lanyard to
prevent loss of a pistol if
dropped.
 18

Magazine The container for the The detachable magazine allows

cartridges, usually inserted into for fast reloading.
the grip frame of the pistol.

Magazine The mechanism that releases Locations vary. US pistols

Release the magazine from the pistol usually use a button as shown.
frame. Some European guns use a latch
at the base of the grip.

Muzzle The end of the barrel, where

the bullet exits.

Rear Sight The sighting mechanism with Fixed sights shown. Adjustable
which the front sight is aligned sights are also common.
for accurate shooting.

Recoil Spring The rod that is used to prevent Not all pistols use a full-length
Guide Rod binding in the recoil spring guide rod (some 1911′s).
under the barrel. Usually
visible below the muzzle.

Safety Lever A lever that prevents accidental The location of the safety varies
discharge of the pistol. Some by maker. Be sure to understand
may prevent the trigger from how your pistol’s safety works.
being pulled (1911) or
disconnect the trigger
(Beretta). Applying the safety
may also de-cock the pistol.

Slide The upper portion of the Slides may enclose the barrel
firearm that moves rearward (1911) or be partially cut away
after firing. The slide houses (Beretta).
the barrel and firing
mechanism.

Slide Stop The device that locks the slide Common to most pistols.
opens to the rear when the last Location may vary. Some
round is fired or when smaller pistols may not have
manually operated. this feature.

Striker(Not A device internal to the slide of

shown) the pistol which replaces the
role of the hammer. Striker-
fired pistols usually lack an
externally visible hammer.

Take Down The lever used to disassemble Older pistols may lack this
Lever the pistol for normal cleaning feature and use more difficult
and maintenance. disassembly procedures.

Trigger The device which releases the

firing mechanism to fire the
pistol. The trigger releases the
hammer or striker to fall
forward under spring pressure
 19

to fire the gun.

Image of a Typical Revolver

(Courtesy of www.helix.gatech.edu)

(Courtesy of www.madehow.com)

(Courtesy of www.handgunclub.com)
 20

Term Definition Notes

Back Strap The rear portion of the grip frame

Barrel A hollow tube with spiral rifling to Barrel lengths vary from
guide and launch a bullet on its 2 to 12 inches.
path to the target.

Barrel Lug A projection under the barrel that Some revolvers (Colt,
forms part of the locking Charter) lack this feature
mechanism for the cylinder.

Bore (not The inner diameter of the barrel

shown) opening. The size of the bore is
expressed in decimal fractions of
an inch, such as .357(inches) or .45
(inches).

Chamber (not An internal space in the cylinder Visible when loading and
shown) used to hold a cartridge. Handguns unloading the revolver.
can have 5 to 10 chambers, but
only one cylinder.

Crane See Yoke Crane is a term used by

Colt Firearms.

Cylinder The round, revolving portion of the

handgun. It consists of 5 to 10
chambers that hold individual
cartridges. Typical capacity is 6
cartridges.

Cylinder The device used to unlock the Colt and Armscor

Release cylinder and allow the cylinder to cylinder releases operate
be released for loading and by pulling rearward.
unloading the revolver. Ruger releases are
depressed like a button.
Dan Wesson’s release is
on the Yoke.

Ejector Rod The rod attached to the front of the Used to unload the
cylinder, which ejects cartridges revolver
from the cylinder when it is
depressed.

Ejector A projection under the barrel that

Shroud (not protects the ejector rod and
shown) replaces the barrel lug. Featured on
most S&W Magnum revolvers.

Firing Pin (not The device which actually strikes There are generally 2
shown) the cartridge’s primer to fire the types. One is mounted on
cartridge. the front of the hammer
and the other is mounted
in the frame just behind
 21

the axis of the barrel.

Front Sight The projection on the barrel used

for aiming

Front Strap The front edge of the grip frame.

Grip (a) The grip frame or area of the Grips (plural) often refer
revolver that is gripped by the to the stocks on the gun.
hand. (b) The material applied to
the grip frame to make the revolver
easier to grip. See also: Stocks

Hammer The primary ignition device. The Some hammers are

hammer is pulled back against concealed or shrouded.
spring tension and, when released, Some may lack the
strikes the cartridge primer to fire extension used to cock
the revolver. the hammer (“bobbed”
hammer).

Muzzle The end of the barrel, where the

bullet exits.

Rear Sight The sighting mechanism with Adjustable target sights

which the front sight is aligned for are shown. Fixed sights
accurate shooting. are usually just a simple
groove in the top strap.

Stocks The material applied to the grip Sometimes referred to as

frame to make the revolver the grip or grips of a
comfortable in the hand. These may revolver.
be made from wood, rubber, ivory,
plastic, or other materials. Often
called grips.

Thumb Piece See Cylinder Release

Top Strap The metal piece that runs along the

top of the revolver, enclosing the
cylinder within the frame.

Trigger The device which releases the

firing mechanism to fire the
revolver. The trigger releases the
hammer to fall forward under
spring pressure to fire the gun.

Trigger A projection or loop that serves to

Guard protect the trigger from accidental
movement or snagging.

Yoke The “arm” on which the cylinder

swings out of the frame during
loading and unloading.
 22

IV. FIREARM MALFUCTION

A firearm malfunction (also misfire and jam) is the partial or complete failure
of a firearm to operate as intended. Malfunctions range from temporary and relatively
safe situations, such as a casing that didn’t eject, to potentially dangerous occurrences
that may permanently damage the gun and cause injury or death. Malfunctions are
sometimes considered a factor in negligent discharge. Proper cleaning
and maintenance of a firearm play a big role in preventing malfunctions.

1. Cartridge malfunctions – The malfunction of a cartridge (commonly called a misfire) is

the failure of the primer and/or powder within a cartridge to function as expected.

2. Case head separation – Case head separation occurs when the walls of the casing become
thin or fatigued. Upon firing the round, the case separates into two pieces near the head.
It is not uncommon with brass that has been reloaded several times.

3. Dud – A dud (also a misfire or failure to fire) occurs when the trigger is pulled but the
primer or powder in the cartridge malfunctions, causing the firearm not to discharge. Dud
rounds can still be dangerous and should be deactivated and disposed of properly.

4. Hang fire – A hang fire (also delayed discharge) is an unexpected delay between the
triggering of a firearm and the ignition of the propellant. Whenever a weapon fails to fire,
but has not clearly malfunctioned, a hang fire should be suspected. When this occurs, the
correct procedure is to keep the weapon pointed downrange or in a safe direction for
thirty to sixty seconds, then remove and safely discard the round (which is now a dud as
explained above). The reason for this is that a round detonating outside of the weapon, or
in the weapon with the action open, could cause serious fragmentation injury.

5. Squib load – A squib load (also squib round, squib, squib fire, insufficient discharge, and
incomplete discharge) is an extremely dangerous malfunction that happens when a fired
projectile does not carry enough force and becomes stuck in the gun barrel instead of
exiting it. In the case of semi-automatic or automatic weapons, this can cause successive
rounds to be fired into the projectile obstructing the barrel, which can cause catastrophic
failure to the structural integrity of the firearm, and pose a threat to the operator or
bystanders. The bullet from a squib stuck in the barrel can be ejected when subsequently
firing a blank round, causing the gun to discharge a bullet when not expected.
Furthermore, blank rounds use a type of powder different from that of other rounds, and
generate much more pressure. Therefore, the presence of a bullet or other obstruction in
the barrel may cause the firearm to explode.

Mechanical malfunctions of a firearm (commonly called jams) include failures

to feed, extract, or eject a cartridge; failure to fully cycle after firing; and failure of a
recoil- or gas-operated firearm to lock back when empty (largely a procedural hazard, as
“slide lock” is a visual cue that the firearm is empty). In extreme cases, an overloaded
round, blocked barrel, poor design and/or severely weakened breech can result in an
explosive failure of the receiver, barrel, or other parts of the firearm malfunction.

1. Failure to feed – Failure to Feed (FTF) is when a weapon fails to feed the next round into
the firing chamber.
2. Hammer follow – Hammer follow occurs when the disconnector allows the hammer to
follow the bolt and firing pin into battery, sometimes causing the firing mechanism to
function faster than it is designed to.
3. Slamfire – A slamfire is a premature, unintended discharge of a firearm that occurs as a
round is being loaded into the chamber.
4. Stovepipe – A stovepipe, smokestack, or failure to eject (FTE) occurs when the empty
cartridge case jams vertically in the ejection port of a self-loading firearm instead of
being thrown clear, a condition usually caused by not holding the firearm correctly, or
 23

“limp wresting.” Failure to eject (FTE, “stovepipe”) in a semi-automatic pistol.

Stovepipes can sometimes be caused by a malfunctioning or defective extractor. (Refer to
illustrations below)

(Courtesy of wikipedia.org) (Courtesy of www.thetruthaboutguns.com)

References

Textbooks:

FORENSIC BALLISTICS by Domingo R. Del Fossil, 3rd edition, 1996

FORENSIC BALLISTICS by Erdulfo R. Grimares, Wiseman’s Books Trading. 1st ed.
2006.
FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION (Lessons for Criminology Students) by Felipe G.
Montojo, National Book Store. 2006
FIREARMS BALLISTICS by Domingo del Rosario, 3rd ed. 1996
FORENSIC BALLISTICS (Firearms Identification, Compilation) by Dr. Artemio I.
Panganiban. Criminology FILE Academy

Internet Sources:

http://www.pbs.org/opb/historydetectives/technique/gun-timeline/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firearm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoothbore
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shotgun
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musket
https://www.google.com.ph/#q=rifled+bore+firearms
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoothbore
 24

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artillery
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_arms
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_gun
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoulder_Arms
http://www.thetruthaboutguns.com
http://www. thefreedictionary .com/forensic
http://www. firearms tutorial.com
http://www. history of firearms.com
http://www. huntercourse. Com
http://www. nfstc.org
http://www. firearms history.blogspot.com
http://www. firearms id.com
http://www. ny.gov.
http://www. guns.gb.com
http://www.handgunclub.com
http://www.americanrifleman.org.
http://www. pbs.org

CHAPTER III

AMMUNITION

I. DEFINITION OF AMMUNITION

The origin of guns and gunpowder will probably never be known with certainty.
Gunpowder (black powder), now a 75:15:10 mixture of saltpeter (potassium nitrate,
KNO3), charcoal, and sulfur, may have been developed in China, or possibly Arabia,
Germany, or somewhere else entirely. It appears to have been widely known, with
various recipes, before guns were invented. Guns were apparently unknown in Europe in
the mid-13th century, but had appeared across Europe early in the 14 th century (by 1326 at
the latest) and almost every conceivable variation was tried during the next century,
although the state of metallurgy and machining was generally inadequate.

All guns were originally cannon, fired from some sort of dug-in emplacement,
and as a technical term, ‘gun’ still means a large artillery piece fired from a mount or
emplacement. “Handguns” which could be carried (with both hands) and held for firing
came somewhat at a later date.

Ammunition is a generic term derived from the French language la munitions

which embraced all material used for war (from the Latin munire, to provide), but which
 25

in time came to refer specifically to gunpowder and artillery. The collective term for all
types of ammunition is munitions. In the widest sense of the word it covers anything that
can be used in combat that includes bombs, missiles, warheads, and mines (landmines,
naval mines, and anti-personnel mines)-that munitions factories manufacture. The
purpose of ammunition is predominantly to project force against a selected target.
However, the nature of ammunition use also includes delivery or combat supporting
munitions such as pyrotechnic or incendiary compounds. Since the design of the
cartridge, the meaning has been transferred to the assembly of a projectile and its
propellant in a single package.

In Chapter VII, Sec. 290 of the National Internal Revenue Code as well as in Sec.
877 of the Revised Administrative Code, “Ammunition” shall mean loaded shell for
rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers and pistols from which a bullet, ball, shot,
shell or other missiles maybe fired by means of gunpowder or other explosives. The term
also includes ammunition for air rifle as mentioned elsewhere in this code.

In technical terms, ammunition refers to a group of cartridges or to a single unit or

single cartridge- meaning a complete unfired unit consisting of a bullet, cartridge case,
gunpowder and primer. The term may also refer to a “single round.”

II. ORIGIN OF THE CARTRIDGE

A cartridge (also called a round or a shell) is a type of ammunition packaging a

bullet, a propellant substance (usually either smokeless powder or black powder) and a
primer within a metallic, paper, or plastic case that is precisely made to fit within the
firing chamber of a firearm. The primer is a small charge of an impact-sensitive or
electric-sensitive chemical mixture that can be located at the center of the case head
(center-fire ammunition), inside a rim (rim-fire ammunition), or in a projection such as in
a pin-fire or teat-fire cartridge. Military and commercial producers also make case-less
ammunition. A cartridge without a bullet is called a “blank”. One that is completely inert
(contains no active primer and no propellant) is called a “dummy”. In popular use, the
term “bullet” is often misused to refer to a complete cartridge.

(Courtesy of www.wikipedia.org)
Blank Ammunition Dummy Ammunition Case-less Ammunition

Paper cartridges have been in use for nearly as long as hand-held firearms, with a
number of sources dating their use back to the late 14 th century. This cartridge was used
with muzzle-loading military firearms, probably more often than for sporting shooting,
the base of the cartridge being ripped or bitten off by the soldier, the powder poured into
the barrel, and the paper and bullet rammed down the barrel. In the Civil War era
cartridge, the paper was supposed to be discarded, but soldiers often used it as a wad. To
ignite the charge an additional step was required where a finer-grained powder called
priming powder was poured into the pan of the gun to be ignited by the firing
mechanism.

The evolving nature of warfare required a firearm that could load and fire more
rapidly, resulting in the flintlock musket (and later the Baker rifle), in which the pan was
 26

covered by furrowed steel. This was struck by the flint and fired the gun. In the course of
loading a pinch of powder from the cartridge would be placed into the pan as priming,
before the rest of the cartridge was rammed down the barrel, providing charge and
wadding.

Later developments rendered this method of priming unnecessary, as, in loading,

a portion of the charge of powder passed from the barrel through the vent into the pan,
where it was held by the cover and hammer.

The next important advance in the method of ignition was the introduction of the
copper percussion cup. This was only generally applied to the British military musket in
1842, a quarter of a century after the invention of percussion powder and after an
elaborate government test at Woolwich in 1834. The invention that made the percussion
cap possible was patented by the Rev. A. J. Forsyth in 1807, and consisted of priming
with a fulminating powder made of potassium chlorate, sulfur, and charcoal, which
ignited by concussion. This invention was gradually developed, and used, first in a steel
cap, and then in a copper cap, by various gun makers and private individuals before
coming into general military use.

III. PARTS OF THE CARTRIDGE

A cartridge is a complete unfired unit of ammunition consisting of a bullet,

cartridge case, gunpowder and primer.

1. Bullet- the projectile propelled through the barrel of a firearm by means of the expansive
force of gases coming from the burning gunpowder.
2. Cartridge case- the tubular metallic container for the gunpowder. Sometimes called
“shell” or “casing”.
3. Gunpowder- A high-energy propellant of a specific quantity that, when ignited, creates a
high pressure gas inside the cartridge case. This pressure forces the bullet or projectile
down the barrel of the firearm to exit at the muzzle. Sometimes called “propellant” or
“powder charge”
4. Primer- the metal cup containing an explosive compound which is used to ignite the
gunpowder charge. This chemical compound when hit or struck by the firing pin would
ignite. Such action is called “percussion”.

(Courtesy of wikipedia.org)
 27

IV. NOMENCLATURE OF CARTRIDGE

Types of Cartridge According to Location of Primer

One way of classifying ammunition used in different types of firearms is

according to the location of the primer such as the (1) pin fire cartridge (2) rim fire, and
(3) center fire cartridge.

1. Pin fire Cartridge-A pin fire cartridge has a firing pin as part of the cartridge.
The pin extends through the bead of the cartridge case into the primer. This
pin is hit by a hammer coming down vertically from the side of the cartridge
instead of penetrating horizontally from the rear as in the case of modern
types of cartridge. It is no longer used these days.

(Courtesy of http:blogspot.com)

It consists of a cartridge with a metallic case. On one side of the cartridge is a

protruding firing pin. The other end of the pin touches a small copper cap containing a
pressure sensitive primer explosive such as mercury fulminate or potassium chlorate.

The rest of the case is filled with gunpowder and there is a lead bullet at the end.
To ignite the gunpowder charge, one applies a sharp blow to the pin. The other end of the
pin then strikes the primer which then ignites and then burns the main gunpowder charge.

To load the weapon, the user opens the breech of the gun and drops in a cartridge.
There is a slot at the top of the barrel so that the pin can protrude out of the slot. The user
then cocks the hammer against spring pressure. When the user pulls the trigger, the
hammer is released and the spring force drives the hammer onto the pin, thereby firing
the weapon. (Refer to the illustration below).

(Courtesy of http.blogspot.com.)

Pin fire revolvers also work on similar principles. There is a slot cut into
compartment of the revolver’s cylinder, so that the pin can protrude out of it.
 28

The hammer of the revolver strikes the top of the pin and thereby fires the
weapon. The original mechanism of this pin-fire was developed in 1828 by a Frenchman
named Casimir Lefaucheaux. (Refer to the illustration below).

(Courtesy of http.blogspot.com)

2. Rim-fire Cartridge- The rim-fire cartridge has no noticeable primer. Instead,

the priming compound is placed and spun into the case rim. When the rim is
struck by the firing pin, the priming compound explodes, igniting the powder.

(Courtesy of www.wikimedia.org)

Rim-fire Cartridges
.22 Short.
.22 Long Rifle
.22 Mag.

(Courtesy of www. homestudy.ihea. & wiikipedia.org)

Rim-fire priming was a popular solution before center-fire priming was perfected.
In a rim-fire case, centrifugal force pushes a liquid priming compound into the internal
recess of the folded rim as the manufacturer spins the case at a high rate and heats the
spinning case to dry the priming compound mixture in place within the hollow cavity
formed within the rim fold at the perimeter of the case interior.

In the mid- to late-1800s, many rim fire cartridge designs existed. Today only a
few, mostly for use in small-caliber guns, remain in general and widespread use. These
include the .17 Mach II, .17 Hornady Magnum Rim fire (HMR), 5mm Remington
Magnum (Rem Mag), .22 (BB, CB, Short, Long, Long Rifle), and .22 Winchester
Magnum Rim fire (WMR).

3. Center fire Cartridge- A center fire cartridge is a cartridge with a primer

located in the center of the cartridge case head. Unlike rim-fire cartridges, the
primer is a separate and replaceable component.
 29

Center-fire cartridges are more reliable for military purposes, because the thicker
metal cartridge cases can withstand rougher handling without damage. The stronger base
of a center-fire cartridge is able to withstand higher pressures than a thin rim-fire
cartridge. Higher pressures give a bullet higher velocity and greater energy. While center-
fire cartridge cases require a complex and expensive manufacturing process, economies
of scale are achieved through interchangeable primers for similar cartridges. The
expensive individual cases can be reused after replacing the primer, gunpowder and
projectile.

(Courtesy of www.wikipedia.org)
((C
Center-fire Cartridges
.22 Hornet

.222 Remington

.223 Remington
.22-250 Remington
.243 Winchester

.264 Winchester
Magnum

.270 Winchester

Images of Typical Center Fire Cartridges

(Courtesy of homestudy.ihea.com) (Courtesy of Wikipedia.org

Center-Fire Cartridges
 30

(Courtesy of oldammo.com)

Shotgun Shell

A shotgun shell is a single unit of ammunition for shotguns. It consists of a

tubular case, either paper, plastic or metal, with a metallic base (hull or casing),
containing the primer, powder or propellant, wads and shots or pellets.

Usually, shotgun shell have a fast burning powder intended for larger bores of a
shotgun, with which differs from that employed in hand arms and rifles. Shotgun wads,
shots or pellets collected from the crime scene can be used in identifying the caliber or
gauge of the crime gun and the manufacturer of the shotgun cartridges, through the head
stamp printed on the base.

Center-fire Ammunition for Shotguns

(Courtesy of www. homestudy.ihea.com) (Courtesy of FirearmsID.com)

 31

Center-fire Shot shell

1. Hull / Casing
2. Projectiles (Shot or Pellets)
3. Wad Column
4. Powder
5. Primer

Center-fire Slug Shell

1. Hull/Casing
2. Projectile (Slug)
3. Wad Column
4. Powder
5. Primer

Shotgun shells are considered center-fire shots-shells because the primer is inserted in
the center of the casing base. They have the following parts:

1. Hull/Casing-n Also known as a shot shell, the casing is a plastic tube shaped container
that holds all of the shell components together. They come in a variety of sizes and
colors.

2. Projectile(s) (Shot Pellets or Slug)- Most shot shells are loaded with multiple shot or
pellets as the projectiles. Most cartridges loaded with shot or pellets are used for hunting
upland game birds or waterfowl, as well as for target shooting. There are a variety of
different shot types available, such as; Lead, Steel, Bismuth, Tungsten-Iron, and
Tungsten-Matrix.

3. Wad Column- Placed between the powder and the projectiles, it is made of plastic or
paper and provides a seal so that the gases from the burning powder do not escape past
the shot.

4. Powder- A high-energy propellant of a specific quantity that, when ignited, creates a

high pressure gas inside the cartridge case. This pressure forces the bullet or projectile
down the barrel of the firearm to exit at the muzzle.
 32

5. Primer- An explosive compound used to ignite the gunpowder charge.

Definition of Cartridge Case:

A cartridge case is tubular metallic or non-metallic container which holds together

the bullet, gunpowder, and the primer.

Another term for cartridge case is “shell” or “casing”. The terms can be used
interchangeably. The cartridge case is the portion of the cartridge that is automatically
ejected from the automatic firearm during firing and these remains at the scene of the
crime. This is the firearm evidence that can help trace a particular firearm from which it
was fired.

Functions of Cartridge Case

The function of the cartridge cases are basically the same whether it is fired in
revolvers, pistols, rifles, shotguns or machine guns. These include:
1. Holding the bullet, gunpowder, and primer together as one unit;
2. Serving as waterproof container for the gunpowder;
3. Preventing the escape of gases to the rear as the sidewalls of the cartridge case are
forced against the walls of the chamber by the pressure; it serves as “gas seals” at the
breech end of the barrel.

Parts of the Cartridge case

1. Rim – the projecting rims of rimmed and semi-rimmed cases serve the purpose of
limiting the forward movement of cartridges into their chambers and thus, preventing
them from reducing the forward energy of the bullet, and consequently its power.
2. Primer Pocket – it performs three (3) functions, namely: a) holding primers securely in
its central position; b) providing a means to prevent the escape of gas to the rear of the
cartridge; c) providing a solid support for primer anvils, without which the latter could
not be fired.
3. Vent or Flash Hole – it is the hole in the wed or bottom of the primer “flash” provides
ignition to the powder charge; it is the “opening” or “canal” that connects the priming
mixture with the gun powder.
4. The HEAD or BODY – constitute the “cork” that plugs the breech of the barrel against
the escape of the gas.
5. Neck – the term “neck” is applied to that part of the cartridge case that is occupied by
the bullet; in bottlenecks, the neck is apparent, but in straight cases and the tapering
cases, it is not.
6. Cannelures – the serrated grooves that are sometimes found rolled into the necks and
bodies of the cases at the location of the bases of the bullet to prevent the bullet from
being pushed back or loosened.
7. Crimp – the part of the mouth of a case that is turned in upon the bullet. It works two
ways: a) it aids in holding the bullet in place; and b) it offers resistance to the movement
of the bullet out of the neck which affects the burning of the gunpowder.
8. Base – the bottom portion of the case which holds: a) the primer that contains the
priming mixture; b) the shell heads that contains the head stamp, caliber, and year of
manufacture.
9. Shoulder – that portion that support the neck
10. Extracting Groove – the circular groove near the base of the case or shell designed for
the automatic withdrawal of the case after each firing. (Refer to the illustration below)
 33

(Courtesy of www.wikipedia.org)

Classification of Cartridge Cases

According to Case Shape:

a. Straight – these are cartridges commonly used for small caliber handguns such as pistols
and revolvers; rim-fire cartridge is all straight cased.
b. Tapered – the rarest of the cartridge cases; it is now being used in the so called “Magnum
Jet” cartridge caliber .22 being used in carbines.
c. Bottleneck – most modern rifle cartridge cases are of bottleneck types; these forms
provide the greatest powder capacity commensurate with overall case length.

(Courtesy of www. chuckhawks.com)

According to Head Forms:

a. Rimmed type – used in cal.38 and .357 revolvers; these cartridges has the rims protruding
at the base of the cartridge case to prevent them ejecting from the revolver chamber
together with the bullet during firing.
b. Semi-rimmed type – used in super 38’s; these are designed specifically to fit in the
mechanism of the super 38’s; the rims are only slightly larger than the body and has
cannelures for extraction and ejection
c. Rimless type – used in .45 cal. Pistols, Thompson submachine guns, grease gun, etc. the
rim is at level with the body of the cartridge; it also has cannelure.
d. Rebate type – the diameter of the rim is smaller than the diameter of the body of the
cartridge case; e.g. caliber 8 mm x 59
e. Belted type – there is protruding metal around the body of the cartridge case near the rim;
e.g caliber 338 magnum
 34

(Courtesy of www.exteriorballistics.com)
Rimless belted case

Rimless cartridge cases stay inside the chambers of the firearms after firing so
they are not left behind at the crime scene. However, both the rimmed and semi-rimmed
cartridge cases are ejected from the automatic weapons that fire them. The recovery of
these cartridges at the crime scene is essential in tracing the very firearm or weapon that
fires them.

Definition of Primer

The primer is that portion of the cartridge which consists of a brass or gilding
metal cup. The cup contains a highly sensitive mixture of chemical compound, which
when struck by the firing pin, would detonate or ignite. Such an action is called
“percussion”.

Primers are used for igniting the gunpowder or the powder charge. A blow from
the firing pin on the primer cup compresses the priming mixture or composition between
the cup and the anvil, and this causes the composition to detonate or explode. This
detonations or explosion produces flames that pass through the vent or flash hole in the
cartridge case, igniting the gunpowder.

The priming mixture may contain in a separate primer cup, as in the center-fire
cartridges and shotgun shells, or it may be contained in the bottom rim of the cartridge as
in the rim-fire ammunition.

Origin of the Primer

Alexander John Forsyth is credited with being the first to conceive the idea of
detonating compounds for igniting powder charges in small arms by “percussion” and in
1807 he obtained a patent for this idea. Forsyth was a Scottish Presbyterian minister who
is also a chemist, a hunter, and a well-known authority in firearms. He spent most of his
time and attention to the development of improving the means of ignition in firearms. His
first successful priming mixture was composed of potassium chlorate, charcoal, and
sulphur in powder form.

Primers are used for igniting gunpowder and the promptness, adequacy and
uniformity with which these ignite powder charges play a vital role in the performance of
the ammunition. It is not enough just to have primers explode alike and evenly.

The Percussion Cap

The percussion cap, introduced around 1830, was the crucial invention that
enabled muzzle-loading firearms to fire reliably in any weather.
 35

The percussion cap is a small cylinder of capper or brass with one closed end.
Inside the closed end is a small amount of a shock-sensitive explosive material such as
fulminate of mercury. The percussion cap is placed over a hollow metal “nipple” at the
rear end of the gun barrel. Pulling the trigger releases a hammer which strikes the
percussion cap and ignites the explosive primer. The flame travels through the hollow
nipple to ignite the main power charge.

(Courtesy of www.wikipedia.org)

PRIMING METHODS

The first step to firing a firearm of any sort is igniting the propellant. The earliest
firearms were cannons, which were simple closed tubes. There was a small aperture, the
“touchhole” drilled in the closed end of the tube, leading to the main power charge filled
with finely ground powder, which was then ignited with a hot ember or torch. With the
advent of hand-held firearms, this became an undesirable way of firing a gun. Holding a
burning stick while trying to pour a charge of black powder carefully down a barrel is
dangerous, and trying to hold the gun with one hand while simultaneously aiming at the
target and looking for the touchhole was conducive to inaccuracy.

1. External Priming

Matchlock

The first attempt to make the process of firing a small arm easier was the
“matchlock”. The matchlock incorporated a “lock” that was actuated by a trigger,
originally called a “tricker”. The lock was a simple lever which pivoted when pulled, and
lowered the match down to the touchhole. The match was a slow burning fuse made of
plant fibers that were soaked in a solution of nitrates, charcoal, and sulfur, and dried. This
“slow-match” was ignited before the gun was needed, and it would slowly burn, keeping
a hot ember at the burning end.

Wheel-lock

The next revolution in ignition technology was the “wheel-lock”. It used a spring-
loaded, serrated steel wheel which rubbed against a piece of iron pyrite. A key is used to
wind the wheel and put the spring under tension. Once tensioned, the wheel was held in a
place by a trigger. When the trigger was pulled, the serrated edge of the steel rubbed
 36

against pyrite, generating sparks that were directed into a pan filled with loose powder
which led into the touchhole.

Matchlock priming system Wheel-lock priming system

(Courtesy of www.wikipedia.org)

Flintlock

The wheel-lock enjoyed only a brief period of popularity before being superseded
by a simpler, more robust design. The “flintlock” likes the wheel-lock, used in flash pan
and a spark to ignite the powder. As the name implies, the flintlock used flint rather
than iron pyrite. The flint was held in a spring-loaded arm, called the “cock” from the
resemblance of its motion to a pecking chicken.

Flintlock priming system

(Courtesy of www.wikipedia.org)

Caplock

The next major leap in ignition technology was the invention of the chemical
primer, or “cap” and mechanism which used it, called the “caplock”. The caplock
appeared just before the American Civil War, and was quickly adopted by sides as it was
even simpler and more reliable than the flintlock. (Refer to the illustration below).

(Courtesy of www.wikipedia.org)

2. Internal Priming: The modern Priming Methods

 37

Magnum Primers

Magnum primers simply contain more priming compound and give a longer and
hotter flame than standard primers. Magnum rifle primers are recommended for use with
some “ball” powders and large charges of slow burning powders in large capacity cases.
Magnum pistol primers are recommended for full power loads using slow burning, hard
to ignite powders.

Berdan Primers

It is the kind of cartridge primer that has an anvil which is part of the cartridge
itself. With berdan primers, the primer cup contains only the priming mixture and the
anvil is part of the cartridge case. Because the flash holes are not centered in the case’s
base, berdan primers require special tools to remove them easily and are not easily
reloaded.

Boxer Primers

Boxer primers are similar to Berdan primers with one major charge, the location
of the anvil. In a Boxer primer, the anvil is separate piece that sits in the primer cup.
(Refer to the illustration below).

(Courtesy of www.wikipedia.org)

Parts of the primer

There are four parts of a typical center-fire cartridge:

1. Primer Cup – the container of the priming mixture; this is made of brass, gilding metal or
copper, depending upon the kind.
2. Priming Mixture – the highly sensitive chemical mixture contained in a primer cup; this
chemical varies in composition depending upon the manufacturer
3. Anvil – that portion of the primer against which the priming mixture is crushed by a blow
from a firing pin; this must be hard, rigid, and firmly supported to provide the resistance
necessary for firing the priming mixture
4. Disc – a small piece of paper or tin foil which is pressed over the priming mixture; its
purpose is to a) hold the priming mixture in place, and b) to exclude moisture. (Refer to
the illustration below).
 38

Percussion cup
(Courtesy of www.wikipedia.org)

Composition of the Priming Mixture

The priming chemical compound itself varies in composition, although the

investigation of this is usually beyond the realm of interest to the firearms examiner or
police investigator. Priming compounds are divided into the classes – corrosive and non –
corrosive. One of the chemicals in corrosive primers is potassium chlorate, which in
ignition produces potassium chloride. Potassium chloride draws moisture from the air,
and this moisture speeds the rusting and corrosion in gun barrels. Advances in primer
chemistry over the years have produced new compositions in which the potassium
chlorate has been eliminated by the substitution of other chemicals. These newer primers
are of the non – corrosive type and have practically replaced the corrosive type.

Every manufacturer had their own formula but the following mixture may be
taken as “typical” of the mercuric primers commonly used for the past 20-25 years.

Potassium chlorate (initiator and fuel) ------------------------45%

Antimony sulphide (element of fuel) -------------------------23%

Fulminate of mercury (initiator) -------------------------------32%

Definition of Gunpowder

The gunpowder, or powder charge in the cartridge is the propellant which, when
ignited by the primer flash, is converted to gas under high pressure and consequently
propels the bullet or shot charge through the barrel and to the target.

In more recent times, the general term “gunpowder” has been replaced by the
term “propellant”. Another term that is being used for it is “powder charge”. All these
term can be used interchangeably because they refer to the same thing. The weight of the
powder charge or propellant in a cartridge is expressed in the countries using the metric
system.

An understanding of the powders, their burning characteristics and the ways in

which their burning rates may be changed are of primary interest to experts or firearms
examiners, as well as to police investigators. Sometimes the investigators may be guided
accordingly by knowing the answer to some problems pertaining to the gunpowder. For
example, the police may want to know whether or not a “crime gun” was recently fired,
and this can be ascertained a certain degree through the help of the chemists or by
chemical analysis of the combustion by products of the gunpowder.
 39

Black powder

Gunpowder (Black powder) is a finely-ground, pressed and granulated

mechanical mixture of sulfur, charcoal, and potassium nitrate or sodium nitrate. it can be
produced in a range of a grain sizes. The sizes and the shape of grains can increase and
decrease the relative surface area, and change the burning rate significantly. The burning
rate of the black powder is relatively insensitive to pressure, meaning it will burn quickly
even without confinement, making it also suitable for use as a low explosive.

The standard ingredients of a black powder are:

A. Potassium nitrate - 75%

B. Sulfur - 10%
C. Charcoal - 15%

Black powder is the oldest of the propellant. It is still loaded in some cartridge
types on the limited commercial basis. When fired it produces large volumes of grayish
smoke, and considerable residue is left in the barrel.

Black powder relies for its explosive properties on “three qualities” which are
typical of all explosives:

1. When ignited, black powder will burn itself rapidly without aid from the outside air;
2. In burning it gives off large amount of gas; and
3. A considerable amount of heat is also given off

Black powder is the most dangerous explosives to handle and store. It can be
easily ignited by heat, friction, flame, or spark. It is subject to rapid deterioration on the
absorption of moisture, but if kept dry, it retains the explosive properties indefinitely.

Smokeless Powder

The term “smokeless powder” is a misnomer for they are neither powder nor
smokeless. The powder is said to be smokeless only because it does not give off huge
cloud of white smoke like the black powder. This is the type of the powder commonly
used now in modern small arms ammunition. With a nitrocellulose base, smokeless
powder is the most powerful of all propellants. Smokeless powder is generally composed
of nitrocellulose, nitroglycerine, and Vaseline.

Almost all smokeless powder grains have a perfectly definite shape, such as small
squares, disc, flakes, strips, pellets or perforated cylinders.

The two main classes of smokeless powder are:

1. Single – propellant – a smokeless powder that contains only pure nitroglycerine

gelatinized with nitrocellulose.
2. Double – base propellant – a smokeless powder that have both nitroglycerine and
nitrocellulose as its major ingredients, mixed with one or more minor ingredients such as
centrallite, Vaseline phthalate esters, and in organic salts, etc. ; the color is usually
grayish green to black and similar in shape and size to the single-base propellant.

Solid Propellants
 40

A recent topic of the research has been in the realm of “caseless ammunition”. In
a caseless cartridge, the propellant is cast as a single solid grain, with the priming
compound placed in a hollow at the base, and the bullet attached to the front. Since the
single propellant grain is so large (most smokeless powders have grain sizes around 1
mm, but a caseless grain will be perhaps 7mm diameter and 15mm long), the relative
burn rate must be much higher. To reach this rate of burning, caseless propellant often
used moderate explosives, such as RDX (Research Department Explosive) is an
explosive nitroamine widely used in military and industrial applications. The major
advantages of a successful caseless round would be elimination of the need to extract and
eject the spent cartridge case, permitting higher rates of fire and a simpler mechanism,
and also reduced ammunition weight by eliminating the weight and cost of the brass or
steel case.

Modern propellants

To avoid the shortcomings of the black powder, researchers had to consider

propellant chemicals that incorporated oxidizers rather than inorganic materials that
contribute corrosive by-products. Eliminating sulfur from the materials was important for
the same reason. The quest for reduced smoke meant that higher combustion
temperatures would be required. Most importantly, the new propellant had to be
controllable and reproducible to be safe.

Nitrocellulose

Nitrocellulose was the result of treating common cotton fibers (containing

cellulose) with nitric acid. This reaction adds nitrogen and oxygen to cellulose molecules.

Note:

Captain Schultze of the Prussian Artillery attempted to use treated wood cellulose
rather than cotton to control combustion. His efforts showed some progress for small-
arms propellants, but not enough to reduce the burning rate to the degree required for
cannons.

Celluloid

The solubility of guncotton in a mixture of alcohol and ether was discovered a

year after nitrocellulose was developed. Dissolved nitrocellulose (celluloid) was used as
one of the first plastics. Initially, this critical step in the development of smokeless
propellant was used only for coating photographic plates and making consumer items that
once had to be carved from tortoise shell or ivory.

Plasticizer

Twenty years later (1884), Paul Vielle, a chemist working for the French
government, experimented with the alcohol/ether solubility of nitrocellulose. He formed
the wet mass into thin layers and partially dried them into flexible sheets. The residual
alcohol/ether mixture acted as a plasticizer that helped prevent the granules from
shattering. Vielle’s discovery opened the door to modern propellants.

Nitroglycerin
 41

The discovery of dynamite in 1887 by Alfred Novel allowed nitroglycerin to be

used as a high explosive. He found that he could blend nitroglycerin with less-nitrated
nitrocellulose to form a colloidal mass similar to that used to make Vielle’s
nitrocellulose. Nitroglycerin serves as the plasticizer and added significant energy to the
mix.

Cordite

In a race to develop a smokeless powder, the British government commissioned a

research group. Their solution is to mix acetone, nitrocellulose, nitroglycerin, and
petroleum jelly to form a colloid. After evaporating the acetone solvent, the material
could be extruded into long, cylindrical cords. In 1889, the resulting end product was
named Cordite, a family of smokeless powder developed and produced in the United
Kingdom for military use. This kind of propellant is already obsolete and not anymore
produced today. (Refer to the illustration below).

(Courtesy of www.wikipedia.org)
 42

References

Textbooks:
FORENSIC BALLISTICS by Domingo R. Del Fossil, 3rd edition, 1996
FORENSIC BALLISTICS by Erdulfo R. Grimares, Wiseman’s Books Trading. 1st ed.
2006.
FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION (Lessons for Criminology Students) by Felipe G.
Montojo, National Book Store. 2006
FIREARMS BALLISTICS by Domingo del Rosario, 3rd ed. 1996
FORENSIC BALLISTICS (Firearms Identification, Compilation) by Dr. Artemio I.
Panganiban. Criminology FILE Academy
HANDBOOK OF CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION IN THE PHILIPPINES
(Fundamental and Special Crime) by Danilo S. Bernas, 2004

Internet Sources:

http://www. wikipedia.org
http://www. thefreedictionary .com/forensic
http://www. firearms tutorial.com
http://www. history of firearms.com
http://www. huntercourse. com
http://www. homestudy.ihea.com
http://www. wikipedia.org/shotgun_shell
http://www. saf.org
http://www. nfstc.org
http://www. theiai.org.
http://www. firearms history.blogspot.com
http://www. firearms id.com
http://www. Wikimedia.org
http://www. en.wikipedia.org/rifle
https://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Cordite.html

Chapter IV
 43

BULLET

I. DEFINITION OF BULLET

A bullet is a cylindrical projectile propelled from a firearm by means of the

expansive forces of gases coming from burning gunpowder. It may be made of metal or
non-metallic. Under this definition, the term may also include projectiles propelled from
shotguns, although strictly speaking, these projectiles designed for shotguns are called
“shots”, “slug”, although all these things actually means a bullet.

Origin of Bullets

The history of bullets far predates the history of firearms. Originally, bullets were
metallic or stone balls used in a sling as a weapon and for hunting.

Eventually as firearms were developed the same items were placed in front of an
explosive charge of gunpowder at the end of a closed tube. As firearms became more
technologically advanced, from 1500 to 1800, bullets charged very little. They remained
simple round (spherical) lead balls, called rounds, differing only in their diameter.

Pointed bullets

Among the first pointed or “conical” bullets were those designed by Captain John
Norton of the British Army in 1823. Norton’s bullet had a hollow base which upon firing
expanded under pressure to engage with a barrel’s rifling.

Renowned English gunsmith William Greener invented greener bullet in 1836. It was
very similar to Norton’s bullets except that the hollow base of the bullets was fitted with
a wooden plug which more reliably forced the base of the bullets to expand and catch the
rifling. Tests proved that greener’s bullet was extremely effective but it too was rejected
for military use because, being two parts, it was judge as being too complicated to
produce.

The soft lead Minie ball was first introduced in 1847 by Claude Etienne Minie
(1814-1879), a captain in the French Army. It was nearly identical to the hollow cavity at
the rear, which was fitted with a little iron cap instead of a wooden plug. When fired, the
iron cap would force itself into the hollow cavity at the rear of the bullet, thereby
expanding the sides of the bullets to grip and engages the rifling. In 1855, the British
adopted the Minie ball for their Enfield rifles. (See illustrations below)

II. THE MODERN BULLET

The most important change in the history of the rifle bullets occurred in 1883,
when Major Rubin, director of the Swiss Laboratory invented the copper jacketed bullet-
an elongated bullet with a lead core in a copper coating.

The surface of lead bullets fired at high velocity may melt due to hot gases behind
and friction with the bore. Because copper has a higher melting point, and greater specific
heat capacity and hardness, copper jacketed bullets allow greater muzzle velocity.

The final advancement in bullet shape was the boat tail, a streamlined base for
spitzer bullets. The vacuum created as air moves at high speed passes over the end of a
bullet slows the projectile. The streamlined boat tail design reduces this form drag by
allowing the air to flow along the surface of the tapering end. The resulting aerodynamic
advantage is currently seen as the optimum shape for rifle technology. The spitzer boat-
 44

tailed bullet was first introduced as standard ammunition in a military rifle in 1901, for
the French Lebel Mle 1886 service weapon.

III. BULLET CLASSIFICATION

Bullets are classified in two ways, to wit:

A. According to Bullet Shape

Tip Shapes: Ogive Shapes:

 Full metal jacket - spitzer
 Soft point - round nose
 Hollow point - flat nose
 Tungsten carbine - wadcutter
- semi- wadcutter

Heel Shape:
- Flat base
- Boat tail
(Refer to the illustrations below)

(Courtesy of www.google.com)

B. According to Mechanical Construction

1. Lead Bullets – those made of lead or alloys of lead, tin, and antimony, which are slightly
harder than pure lead.
2. Jacketed Bullets – those made of a core of lead covered by a jacket of harder materials
such as gilding metal, a copper alloy of approximately 90% copper and 10% zinc. The
primary function of the jacket in the bullets is to prevent adherence of Mattel (lead) to the
inside of the gun barrel. Copper-plated steel may be used instead of gilding metal for the
jacket of caliber .45 bullets
 45

(Courtesy of www.google.com and Alliant Techsystems, Speer-Bullets CCI Ammunition)

C. According to Bullet Type

1. Solid lead 5. soft

2. Solid hollow-point 6. Metal-cased hollow point
3. Solid paper-patched 7. Metal point
4. Metal-cased 8. Rifled slug

(Courtesy of www. google.com)

(Courtesy of www.google.com)
 46

Image of Typical Bullet with Parts and Definition

(Courtesy of Ronnie Freels)

Common Terms
Term Definition
Bullet Non-spherical projectile for use in a rifled gun barrel
Tip Extreme forward end of a bullet
Meplat Blunt tip of some bullets, specifically the diameter of
that blunt tip
Ogive Curved forward part of a bullet
Nose Forward end of a bullet, including the tip, the ogive,
and meplat (if present)

Cannelure Circumferential groove in a bullet generally of a

knurled or plain appearance for the purpose of
lubrication or identification, or to assist in crimping
a bullet in the mouth of a cartridge case

Bearing Portion of the outer surface of a bullet that makes

surface direct contact with the interior surface of a gun
barrel

Base Rear portion of a bullet

Heel Configuration of the intersection of the bearing

surface and base of a bullet

Rifle Bullets

Different kinds of target have corresponding bullets made especially for them.
This is to attain maximum effect against such targets. There are five (5) principal types of
bullets. Namely:
 47

1. Ball Bullets – these are bullets that have soft lead cores inside a jacket and are used
against personnel only.
2. Armor-piercing Bullet – they have hardened steel cores and are fired at vehicles and other
armored targets in general.
3. Tracer Bullets- these are bullets that contain a chemical compound at the base usually
similar to barium nitrates, which catches fire when the bullet is projected. The flash of
smoke from this burning permits the flight of the bullets to be seen, especially at night
time.
4. Incendiary Bullets – bullets that contain a mixture that can be set on fire upon impact.
They are used on combustible targets like gasoline depot, aircraft, etc.
5. Explosive/ Fragmentary Bullets- these are bullets that contain a high charge of
explosives. Because of their small size, it is difficult to make a fuse that will work
reliably in small arms ammunition. For this reason the use of high explosive bullets are
usually limited to 20 millimeter and above. (Refer to the illustration below)
(Courtesy of https://www.google.com.ph)

IV. THE THEORY OF BULLET’S FLIGHT (FLIGHT THEORY)

Bullets do not fly in a straight line. Although they fall towards the earth at the
same rate as dropped from the hand, they actually travel in a trajectory as range increases
and velocity dropped off. Furthermore, the centerline of a firearm’s bore is angle slightly
upward so that the projectile crosses the line of sight on its way up and again on its way
at what is called the zero or point blank range. The aerodynamic drag that a bullet will
 48

depends largely on its velocity, although weather conditions and weapon cleanliness also
make a difference.

The Ballistic Coefficient refers to the effect of air drag on a bullet’s flight and can
be used to predict any particular bullet trajectory under any circumstances through what
are called “drag tables” which apply only to a particular bullet and published by bullet
manufacturers. Ballistic experts use these standard tables and often calculate formula
themselves through test firing and mathematic equations.

The speed of the bullet rotation depends on two things: the rate of the rifling’s
twist and the muzzle velocity. Twist is measure in turns per distance (e.g. 1 turn in 10
inches, expressed as1:10). To compute the bullet’s rotational speed in revolution per
seconds (rpm) the formula is:
R = (12/T)*V
Where:
T=twist, V=velocity in feet per second (f/s), and R=rational speed in revolution per
minute (rpm)

Note that once the bullet leaves the muzzle the velocity drops rapidly but the
rotational speed stays fairly constant because the drag on the bullet’s flight is much
greater than the rotational drag on the bullet’s spin.
 49

References

Textbooks:

FORENSIC BALLISTICS by Domingo R. Del Fossil, 3rd edition, 1996

FORENSIC BALLISTICS by Erdulfo R. Grimares, Wiseman’s Books Trading. 1st ed.

2006.

FIREARMS BALLISTICS by Domingo del Rosario, 3rd ed. 1996

FORENSIC BALLISTICS (Firearms Identification, Compilation) by Dr. Artemio I.

Panganiban. Criminology FILE Academy

HANDBOOK OF CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

(Fundamental and Special Crime) by Danilo S. Bernas, 2004

Internet Sources:

www. wikipedia.org
www. thefreedictionary .com/forensic
www. firearms tutorial.com
www. history of firearms.com
www. huntercourse. Com
www. homestudy.ihea.com
www. Wikipedia.org/shotgun_shell
www. Bureau of Criminal Apprehension
www. crime-scene-investigators.net
www. saf.org
www. nfstc.org
www. theiai.org.
www. firearms history.blogspot.com
www. firearms id.com
www. Wikimedia.org
www. en.wikipedia.org/rifle
www. guns.gb.com
 50

Chapter V

ARMS MANUFACTURING PROCESSES RELATED TO FIREARMS

IDENTIFICATION

It is very important for criminology students as future ballistic technician or

firearm examiner is adequately familiar with the various steps in the manufacture of a
firearm to enable him to explain the source or cause of the different markings found on a
firearm, cartridge, or bullets as evidence which may be the basis for his identification.
There is always a sound reason for all markings, scratches or dents visible on firearms
evidence. It is the role of the firearm examiner to determine how and why they were
made, and also to interpret their significance both to him and to the court. Most of these
markings are transferred to the firearm evidence by deliberate or accidental operation of
the tools during the manufacturing process.

I. MANUFACTURING THE GUN BARREL

Each operation in the making of a rifle barrel requires a special tool that rarely
found outside a barrel shop. All barrels, regardless of the type of weapon they are made
for, are manufactured from a solid piece of metal. The metal may be cylindrical in form
or it may have an irregular shape with projecting portions which are later machined into
sights, fastenings, or other parts. The barrel of any firearms is a pressure vessel with the
action serving to stop up the rear end. The peak pressure involved during discharge is
enormous, 50,000 pounds per square inch or more and special steel are required to safely
withstand these stresses.

Two classes of steel are currently used in rifle barrels. Most barrel for use on
hunting rifles and in military firearms are made from high alloy Chrome Molybdenum
steel of the sort used in high stress components such as truck axles. In target shooting
stainless barrels have for the most part supplanted the use of Chrome Molly barrels. The
stainless steel used in barrels is one of the groups of martensitic steel which can be
hardened by heat treating like regular Carbon steels. The stainless is more acutely
described as a “free machining, rust resistant “ steel having a high Chrome content,
around 10%, but with sulphur added to give it good machining qualities. If stainless
barrels are “shot in” using the prescribed procedure the barrel acquire a burnishing which
almost eliminates fouling, thus making stainless barrels very easy to clean.

II. DIFFERENT METHODS OF MAKING THE GUN BARREL

1. Drilling

The first step in the process is drilling. Special drilling machines known as Gun
Drills or Deep Hole Drills are used to drill deep accurate holes. On the older Gun Drills it
is the barrel itself which is rotated at speeds of between two and five thousand revolution
per minute (rpm) and the stationary drill is fed through a tight fitting guide bush into the
end of the barrel. The Drill bit itself is asymmetric, cutting on one side only, and is made
of Tungsten Carbide.

The bits has hole through it and is mounted on a long steel tube with a V groove
down its outside. Coolant oil is forced down the tube to cool the drill.

The drill is attached to the pressure head at the bottom of the drilling machine,
where cutting oil is pumped down the drill shaft at high pressure. The drill is supported in
the middle by a steady to give it added rigidity. The drill passes through a series of guide
bushes before entering the barrel, which is being rotated by the spindle-head. Oil will
 51

come off the spout attached to the guide-bush-head and carries the swarf out from the
hole in the barrel. The oil return to the main tank after passing through strainers to
remove the swarf.

2. Reaming

In barrel intended for rifles the next step consists of reaming the drilled hole for
its entire length. This removes some of the scars and scratches left by the drilling
operation. The reamer removes metal chips from the entire surface because it is slightly
larger in diameter than that of the drill.

The reamer is mounted on the end of the long tube through which the coolant oil
is pumped, but at far lower pressures than are used in the Gun Drill. Now it is the reamer
that is rotated, at about 200 rpm and the barrel is pulled over the reamer at about one inch
a minute.

Bore reamer entering the Barrel (courtesy www.riflemansjournal.blogspot.com)

After reaming, the resultant hole has a good finish and has dimensional
uniformity along its length. The barrel is now ready for rifling.

3. Rifling

If the barrel is to be rifled, it is done by means of several rifling method. Some of

the rifling methods used to make the rifling inside a gun barrel includes:

A. Cut rifling/hook-cutter- a methods that creates spiral grooves in the barrel by

removing steel using some form of cutter.

Rifling “Hook” Cutter Rifling cutter head

(Courtesy of www.firearmshistory.blogspot.com)

B. Button System- Button rifling is cold forming process in which a tungsten carbide
former is pulled through the drilled and reamed barrel blank. The lands on the
 52

button engrave grooves in the barrels as it is pulled through the length of the
barrel.

Rifling Button (Courtesy of www.firearmsid.com)

C. Hammer Rifling- The barrel blank is progressive hammered around a mandrel by

opposing hammers using a process called rotary forging. The hammered blank is
squeezed off the mandrel like toothpaste and finishes up to 30% or so longer than
it started.

D. Profiling- can be done in regular lathe. When profiling the barrel a lot of metal is
remove. This may result in a barrel started out as straight ending up as bent. Cut
rifling a barrel does not induce any stress, but button rifling induces a fair amount
of radial stress which is relieved by turning the barrel down.

Profiling lathe (Courtesy of www.riflemansjournal.blogspot.com)

4. Lapping

After the rifling operation is completed, the barrel is lapped. This is the
polishing operation in which the lead closely fitting the inside of the barrel is drawn back
and forth on the rod carrying with it a polishing compound. Lead lapping the barrel is
down to polish the bore and remove machining marks and also to remove any tight spot
in the barrel and make it dimensionally uniform end to end.
 53

Barrel Lapping (Courtesy of www.firearmsid.com)

The important fact for the firearms technician or examiner to remember is that
no matter how many polishing and finishing operation are used by a gun maker, all of the
scars and imperfections on the inside of the barrel are not removed. This microscopic
scars remaining in the lands and grooves will make a series of striation of every bullet
that passes through the barrel. It is the comparison of these striations on fired bullets that
are used as basis in bullet identification.

Breechface Manufacture

Another face of firearms manufacture that is important in the field of firearms

identification is the finishing operation on the breechface of the weapon. As the portion
of the firearms against which the cartridge case and the primer are forced backwards
during firing in the chamber, the primer and the base of the cartridge case or shell, will be
imprinted with the tool markings on the breechface of the firearms. Naturally, when a soft
surface comes in contact with harder surface under tremendous pressure, the soft surface
is left with the tool marks from the hard surface.

The final operation in the finishing of a breechface involves filing or sanding.

This leaves minute or microscopic scratches or striation on the surface of the breech face
of the gun. These scratches vary from gun to gun. And it can be said that NO TWO
FIREARMS WILL LEAVE THE SAME SCRATCHES OR IMPRESSIONS ON A
FIRED CASE OR PRIMER. Similar to breech face marking, extractors, ejectors, and
firing pins open bear characteristic scars or marks resulting from the manufacturing
process. These will also frequently leave their marks or impressions on a fired case or
primer.

When they appear upon the primer, these breech face markings exhibit
characteristics indicative not only of class with respect to pistol or revolver types, but
also of the products of specific manufacturers.

III. FORENSIC FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION

Most law enforcement agencies have access to a forensic laboratory to aid in their
investigations. Additionally, a number of independent laboratories can be utilized. Each
contains highly skilled experts who conduct examinations on many different types of
evidence collected at crime scenes, autopsies, etc.
 54

Firearms Identification is the identification of fired bullets, cartridge cases or

other ammunition components as having been fired from a specific firearm.

It is actually a form of Tool Mark Identification where the firearm, because it is

made of a material harder than the ammunition components, acts as a tool to leave
impressed or striated marks on the various ammunition components that come into
contact with the firearm. Examination of firearm may include any or all of the following
procedures:

 Testing firearms to determine if they function properly.

 Examining clothing and other items for gunshot residues and/or shot patters in an attempt
to determine the muzzle-to-garment distance.
 Determine caliber and manufacturer of ammunition components, including the
examination of various shotshell components.
 Determine the manufacturer or manufacturers of firearms that may have fired a particular
bullet or cartridge case.

It should be noted that not all firearms leave consistent reproducible marks. But
overall, examination of firearms produce what is sometimes called a “mechanical
fingerprint” on the bullets and cartridge cases that pass through them.

Class Characteristics:

The class characteristics of a firearm are intentional or design characteristics that

would be common to a particular group or family of items. Del Rosario defines class
characteristics as those that are determinable even prior to the manufacture of the
firearms. These are factory specifications and within the control of man. These serve as
for identifying a certain group or class of firearms.

Examples of Class Characteristics are:

a. Bore diameter (caliber) – the diameter in which the bore was reamed. It is the distance
between two opposite lands inside the bore.
b. Number of lands and grooves- the number of land and grooves inside the bore is always
the same. If there are six lands, there were also six grooves. The number of land and
grooves is a valuable class characteristic. Lands are the elevated portions in the bore,
while the grooves are the depressed portions.
c. Width of land - land width is dependent on the bore diameter, groove width and number.
The lands are the “remainder” of the original circumference of the bore before the rifling
process.
d. Width of grooves – groove width is measured as “shortest” distance between the two
sides or edges of a groove.
e. Direction of twist – the rifling inside the gun barrel may twist either the right or left. The
twist of the rifling causes the bullet to “rotate” as it passes through the bore, for the bullet
to have “gyroscopic stability” during its flight from the muzzle to target.
f. Pitch of rifling – it is a measure of the twisting of the lands and grooves. It refers to the
distance advanced by the rifling in one complete turn (360°).
g. Depth of grooves – it is measured on a radius of the bore as seen in cross section.
Grooves are usually a few thousandth of an inch depth. It is equal to the “height” of the
side of the length.

Fired bullets and cartridge cases are engraved with impressions of all prominent
irregularities present on the surfaces with which they come in contact with. The result is
dependent on several physical factors, namely; the relative hardness of the surfaces, their
motion with respect to each other, the degree of force or pressure exerted, and the
character of the harder materials.
 55

The class characteristics exhibited by fired ammunitions are the resulting traces of
forcible contact with the component parts of the firearm in question. The character of
these markings is determined by the type of weapon in which the cartridge case or bullets
has been involved. There are four important surfaces of a firearm which affect the
appearance of a discharged or fired bullet; the chamber, the forcing cone, the lands, and
the grooves. The character of the residual traces on a bullet, subject to these factors, may
easily be understood by an analysis of bullet motion inside the barrel of a weapon.

The cylindrical surface of a bullet in its passage through the bore is subjected to
frictional resistance from several sources. First among these is the abrasive of the forcing
cone and the beveled of the lands. The frictional resistance offered at this point is far
greater in the revolver than in the automatic weapon, were the forcing cone (lead consists
of only the chambered ends of the lands). Consequently, a greater degree of bullet
deformation occurs in the former type of firearm. Another factor contributing to this
tendency is the difficulty inherent in revolver construction, which is insuring perfect
alignment of each cartridge chamber with the barrel. Such perfection is never wholly
achieved, and often a bullet inters the forcing cone (lead) off center, resulting in damage
to its frontal area. This disfigurement, known as “jump” is distinct of bullets fired from
revolvers.

Cartridges and cartridge cases on the other hand are examined for class
similarities in what are called breech marks, firing pin impression, extractor marks,
ejector marks and others.

If the similarities in class characteristics are found, a thorough laboratory

examination would come in place, or if a general lack of good class characteristics is
present no further comparisons may be necessary.

When similar class characteristics are identified, the examinations progress to a

final stage were an attempt is made to find a “match” in what are called individual
characteristics.

Cross- Section of a Rifled Gun Barrel

(Courtesy of www.hkp7 & firearmstalk.com)

The bore diameter of the barrel of a rifled firearm is defined as the diameter of the
circle formed by the tops of the lands inside the barrel. This diameter does not include the
grooves within the barrel. However, a portion of the mass of a fired bullet is extruded into
these grooves. Therefore, the diameter of a fired bullet will approximate the larger groove
diameter and will always be greater than the bore diameter of the firearm.

The measured diameter of fired bullets is taken from one groove impression (a
high point on a fired bullet) to a groove impression on the opposite side of the bearing
surface. If there are an odd number of groove impressions, the measurement is taken from
 56

the edges of a pair of impressions. The base of the bearing surface of a bullet is used
because it is generally more protected when a bullet impacts with an object. Often the
bearing surface ends at the base of anthe entire bullet, although with boat tailed bullets
this would not be the case. For bullets that are severely flattened or distorted, it may be
possible to measure the circumference and calculate an approximate diameter. (Courtesy of
Ronnie Freels)

Individual Characteristic

Individual characteristics are those characteristic markings peculiar and not found
in all other firearms. They serve as basis to identify a particular firearm.

The AFTE Glossary defines Individual characteristics as “…marks produced by

the random imperfections or irregularities of tool services…” These random
imperfections or irregularities are produced incidental to manufacture and/or caused by
use, corrosion, or damage. They are unique to that tool and distinguish it from all other
tools.

The individual characteristics are determinable only after the manufacture of the
firearm. These are characteristics whose existences are beyond the control of man and
which have random distribution inside the firearm. Their existence is brought about the
by the tools used in their manufacture, in their normal operation resulting from wear and
tear, abuses, mutilations, corrosion, erosion and other fortuitous causes. These
characteristics are generally found in the interior surface of the gun barrel and on the
breech face. Actually these markings are transferred to the the bullet during its passage
through the bore of a particular barrel and to the base of the cartridge case when it is
exploded in the chamber of the gun. This process of transfer is what makes firearms
identification possible.

IV. TYPES OF RIFLINGS

1. STEYR TYPE – Four lands, four grooves, right hand twist and lands or equal width (4-
R-G=L)
2. SMITH AND WESSON TYPE – Five lands and five grooves, right hand twist and
lands of equal in width(5-R-G=L)
3. BROWNINGTYPE-Six lands, six grooves, right hand twist, narrow lands and broad
grooves (6-R-G-2x)
4. COLT TYPE- Six lands, six grooves, left hand twist narrow land broad grooves( 6-R-
G2x)
5. WEBLEY TYPE- Seven lands and seven grooves right hand twist, narrow lands and
broad grooves( 7- R-G3x)
6. ARMY TYPE- Four lands and four grooves right hand twist, narrow land and broad
grooves. ( 4-R-G3x)

TOOL MARKS PRODUCED ON THE CARTRIDGE CASES WILL BE IN TWO

BASIC FORMS.

1. Striated action marks – these “scratches” are produced when the cartridge case moves
laterally against the tool (inner surface of the firearm) producing a scrape or striated
mark.

2. Impressed action marks – Impressed marks are created on cartridge cases when it impacts
the tool (again, the firearm) with adequate velocity or pressure to leave an impressed or
indented mark.
 57

Marks found on “fired Bullets”

Generally, the marks found on fired bullets are:

1. Land marks – caused by the lands
2. Groove mark – caused by the grooves
3. Skid marks – due to worn out barrel
4. Stripping marks – due to bullet “jumping” the rifling
5. Slippage marks – caused by rotating resistance of bullet upon entering rifling of breech
end.

Marks found on “fired shells”

The following are mark found on fired shells:

1. Firing pin marks – caused by a firing pin after hitting the primer cup
2. Breech face marks – due to impact created by the banging of the shell head and
breechblock surface
3. Extractor marks – created by the action of the extracting mechanism on the empty shells;
usually located on the extracting grooves of the shell
4. Ejector marks – commonly found among cartridges fired from automatic weapons; also
located near the rim of the cartridge
5. Shearing marks – striations on the primer caused by sudden movement while being hit by
the firing pin; also called “secondary firing pin marks”
6. Chamber marks – are mostly found around the body of the fired cartridge case and they
are caused by the irregularities in the inside walls of the chamber
7. Magazine lip markings – found in the both sides of the rim of the shell and these are
caused by the magazine lips during reloading of firing.

Firing Pin Drag Marks

In a similar process, striated marks called firing pin drag marks can be
produced. When the firing pin springs forward to strike the primer of a cartridge, it
may remain slightly forward and imbedded in the primer. Certain barrels (like in the
GLOCK) drop down slightly as recoil is forcing the action open. The cartridge case
drops with the barrel causing the nose of the protruding firing pin to drag across the
primer as it leaves the firing pin impression. The below comparison image shows
firing pin drag marks produced by a Colt 45 AUTO pistol.

(Courtesy of www.firearmsid.com)
Extractor Marks

Another action mark, usually found in a striated form, are those created by
the extractor of most auto-loading or repeating firearms. The extractor is a small part
sometimes resembling a hook that is used to remove a cartridge or cartridge case from the
chamber of a firearm. The image below shows the extractor of a 9mm GLOCK pistol
hooked into the extractor groove of a cartridge. As the slide of the pistol moves to the
rear, the extractor pulls the cartridge case along with it until it is ejected from the pistol.
 58

(Courtesy of www.firearmsid.com)

The extractor may or may not leave an identifiable mark on the cartridge
case. This is true if the cartridge is fired or simply hand chambered and extracted
without firing. Extractor marks may look like those seen in the comparison image
below.

(Courtesy of www.projects.nfstc.org)
Ejector Marks

As described above, the extractor pulls the cartridge case out of the firearm's
chamber. As the cartridge case is pulled to the rear it will be struck somewhere on an
opposing edge by a part as seen below called the ejector.

(Courtesy of www.firearmsid.com)

The ejector is designed to expel the cartridge case from the action of the
firearm. The resulting impact of the cartridge case with the ejector will cause another
action mark that can be used as a means of identification.
 59

(Courtesy of www.firearmsid.com)

Ejector marks can be striated in nature but a lot of the time they are impressed
action marks. Click the next button below to learn more about impressed action
marks.

Shear Marks

Another common striated action mark are shear marks produced by GLOCK
pistols on cartridge case primers. GLOCK pistols have a rectangular firing pin hole
(below) in their breech face.

(Courtesy of www.firearmsid.com)

When a cartridge case is forced backwards from recoil the primer imbeds
itself in the firing pin hole. As the slide of the pistol starts to recoil, the barrel will
drop slightly as the action opens. The dropping barrel forces the cartridge case to
move down slightly and when this happens the lower edge of the imbedded primer is
sheared downward and out of the firing pin hole. The resulting striated marks can be
seen in the comparison image below.

(Courtesy of www.projects.nfstc.org)

Chamber Marks

One of the most common striated action marks are called chamber marks.
Roughness in the chamber of a firearm can scratch the outer walls of a cartridge case
when loaded and removed from the chamber. Most chamber marks occur after the
 60

cartridge is fired. Cartridge cases expand when fired pressing out against the walls of
the chamber. When they are pulled out of the chamber, the sides of the cartridge case
can be scratched. The comparison image below shows chamber marks on 22 caliber,
rim fire cartridge cases.

(Courtesy of www.firearmsid.com)

Principles Involved in bullet identification

1. No two barrels are microscopically alike or identical as the internal surface of the
bore or barrels all possess individual and characteristic marking of their own.

2. When a bullet is fired from a rifled gun barrel, it becomes engraved by the rifling and
these engraving will vary in its minute details with every individual firearm. It is due
to this fact that the engravings on the bullet fired from one barrel will be different
from another bullet fired from another barrel.

3. Conversely, the engravings on bullets fired from the same barrel will always be the
same.

4. Every barrel leaves its “thumb marks” or “fingerprints” on every bullet on it.

Principles Involved in shell Identification

1. The breech face and firing pin of every single firearm have microscopic
individualities of their own.

2. Every firearm leaves its “fingerprint” on every cartridge it fires.

3. The whole principle of identification of shells is predicted or based on the fact that,
since, the breech face of every weapon must be individually distinct, the cartridge
case which it fires are imprinted with this individuality. The imprints of all cartridge
cases from the same weapon are the same, and those on cartridge cases fired from
different weapons are different.

Types of Problems: There are six types of problems in Forensic Ballistics, namely:

Type 1. Given a bullet, to determine the caliber and the type of firearms from which
it was fired
Type 2. Given a fired cartridge case, to determine the caliber and type of firearms
from which it was fired.
Type 3. Given a bullet and the suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the
bullet was fired from the suspected firearms.
Type 4. Given a fired cartridge case and the suspected firearm, to determine whether
or not the cartridge was fired from the suspected firearm.
Type 5. Given two or more bullets, to determine whether or not they were fired from
only one firearm.
 61

Type 6. Given two or more cartridge cases, to determine whether or not they were
fired from only one firearm.

References
Textbooks:

FORENSIC BALLISTICS by Domingo R. Del Fossil, 3rd edition, 1996

FORENSIC BALLISTICS by Erdulfo R. Grimares, Wiseman’s Books Trading. 1st ed.

2006.

FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION (Lessons for Criminology Students) by Felipe G.

Montojo, National Book Store. 2006

FIREARMS BALLISTICS by Domingo del Rosario, 3rd ed. 1996

FORENSIC BALLISTICS (Firearms Identification, Compilation) by Dr. Artemio I.

Panganiban. Criminology FILE Academy

HANDBOOK OF CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

(Fundamental and Special Crime) by Danilo S. Bernas, 2004

SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION (Lessons for Criminology Students) by Felipe

G. Montojo, National Book Store, 2007

PNP POLICE OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES, March 2010

Internet Sources:

www. wikipedia.org
www. thefreedictionary .com/forensic
www. firearms tutorial.com
www. history of firearms.com
www. huntercourse. Com
www. homestudy.ihea.com
www. Wikipedia.org/shotgun_shell
www. Bureau of Criminal Apprehension
www. crime-scene-investigators.net
www. saf.org
www. nfstc.org
www. theiai.org.
www. firearms history.blogspot.com
www. firearms id.com
www. Wikimedia.org
www. ny.gov.
www. en.wikipedia.org/rifle
www. guns.gb.com
www.blogspot.com
 62

CHAPTER VI
BULLET HOLES ON GLASS AND GUNSHOT WOUNDS
Crime situations in the country tend to increase year after year. Majority of
these incidents involves firearms. Most often police investigator encounter a scenario
wherein a glass pane or a glass window suffer bullet holes. A seasoned police officer
understands the value of these evidence, hence careful processing and examination
should be done under way.
When a bullet hits a glass surface, the energy generated by the bullet causes
changes and distortion within the glass. It could be in the form of fractures or bullet
holes. A glass does have some elasticity. When a certain force comes in contact with
the glass, it will bend to a certain extent, however, if such pressure extends far beyond
the capacity of the surface to bend and stretch, the glass breaks. Fractures on the glass
would be visible, which in turn can give a hint to the investigator the angle of impact
and the side of a glass on which the impact occurred. In some other instances, such
distortions, cracks and damage to the glass would tell the position of the shooter and
direction of the bullet.

Examination of the fractures in the glass will tell the point of entrance and exits,
as the point of impact causes “radial” cracks and fractures to be visible on the opposite
side of the point of impact-the exit point. Based on examinations by experts, the energy
of the bullet as it hits the target (glass) will result in a “cone shape” fracture. Therefore, it
would be evident that the exit hole would have a larger circumference as compared to the
entrance hole. Such hole produced by the bullet as it passes the glass, will leave a
concentric ring along the bullet holes, known as “concentric fractures”.

Fracture lines radiate from the break. This could be useful in identifying the
direction of the force. The force of the bullet hitting one side of the glass will create
structure look like a “crater” on the opposite side. The surface remains to be flat will tell
you that it is the direction of the shooter and the surface with crater on its side is the exit.

(Courtesy of Firearmsid.com)

Most often, shooting will result in the glass to shatter. Pieces and small fragments
must be collected and compared with the glass in the frame. Such frame could be the
starting point where the investigator can start with the comparison as to which label or
side is the inside and which is the outside. Loose pieces of glass can be matched up with
pieces still adhering to the frame.

When a firearm is fired at a certain distance and direction, it will produce

concentric fractures on the glass surface as the point of impact. As a result to such
impact, breaking of the glass will follow towards the direction of the bullet. However,
 63

due to the elasticity of the glass to stretch at a certain point, glass fractures will spray
towards the direction of the shooter. This minute glass particles and glass fragments can
get caught in the firer’s body and clothing. With the immediate identification and
apprehension of suspects, an investigation relative to the incident could be performed,
therefore, a possibility of retrieving some tiny bits of the glass and fragments from the
suspects’ body and clothing. This scenario would be possible once the shooter did the
firing at a closer distance. Based on study, tiny particles of glass can spray back up to 18
feet from the surface or object being fired.

Bullet Hole Characteristics

There are cases that occur all the time where an examination of the victim's body
can't determine which bullet hole is the entrance and which is the
exit. Pretty critical when witnesses are saying something like, "The police officer came
up behind my cousin and shot him in the back!" When the body offers no evidence of
bullet entrance and bullet exit, firearm examiners will be called upon to examine the
victim's clothing.

When a bullet strikes an object, such as clothing, a bullet entrance hole is created
and in a lot of cases the bullet will pass through the object and produce an exit hole on
the backside.

Bullet Entrance Holes (Courtesy of www.Firearmsid.com)

Bullet entrance holes typically have very even margins. Almost all non-contact
bullet entrance holes will be smaller in diameter than the bullet due to the elasticity of the
fabric. Some firmer materials and larger caliber bullets with large hollow point cavities
may cause bullet entrance holes to be closer to the actual bullet's diameter but in most
cases the diameter of the bullet entrance hole will be of little help in determining the
caliber of the bullet.

Typical bullet entrance hole in a holster.

Contact or near contact entrance holes and entrance holes caused by a bullet that
has struck an intermediate object will typically have very uneven margins. Contact
entrance holes will typically show extreme damage to the material of a garment.
Generally speaking, the higher the velocity of the cartridge the greater the damage to the
garment in a contact gunshot.
 64

Typical contact entrance hole.

When a bullet strikes an intermediate target (for example the victim's arm) before
entering the victim's shirt it may cause the bullet to fragment, expand, or even
tumble. The resulting secondary bullet entrance hole can be very irregular in shape and
hard to visibly distinguish from an exit hole. Subsequent testing for gunshot residues
usually help in making this type of determination.

Two bullet 7.62X39mm entrance holes where the bullets

struck a windshield prior to entering the garment.
very irregular holes with fragmentation and lead spray (pink).

Bullets that strike a target at an extreme angle will usually leave an elongated
hole. These holes typically will still have fairly even margins.

Angled bullet entrance hole.

It's not too uncommon for a grazing bullet to cause several holes in a wrinkled or
folded garment.

Angled grazing bullet holes made by a single bullet.

 65

A common characteristic of bullet entrance holes is the presence of bullet wipe

residue. Not always apparent on darker colored materials, bullet wipe residue is a
darkened ring around the immediate margins of the hole. This ring of residue is caused
by lead being wiped from the surface of the bullet as it passes through the material. Lead
bullets normally leave the heaviest deposits of bullet wipe residue but it is not unusual for
jacketed bullets to also deposit bullet wipe residue. Lead fouling in the barrel and lead
primer residues can be on the surface of a jacketed bullet.

Bullet wipe residue around the margins

of a lead bullet entrance hole.

Chemically processing a garment for lead residues will cause a pink reaction
around the hole.

Bullet wipe residue after chemical processing.

Bullet Exit Holes

Bullet exit holes are really not much to talk about. Full-metal-jacketed or round
nosed bullets may leave holes that are similar to bullet entrance holes but most will be
absent of bullet wipe residue. If bullet wipe residue is present it will normally be very
light and on the inside of the exit hole. Bullet exit holes caused by fragmented or
expanded bullets usually have irregular margins and it's not too uncommon for the bullet
exit holes to be larger in diameter than the original diameter of the bullet. Fragmented
bullets will typically grab the material of an object as it passes through causing the
material to be frayed outward.
 66

Typical Bullet Exit Holes

Once the bullet holes have been examined and fully documented, it's time to start
looking for evidence that may allow for a distance determination to be made.

GUNSHOT WOUNDS (Courtesy of Gunshot Wounds and Photographs)

Gunshot wounds are identifiable defending on the distance of the muzzle of the
firearm from the target. It is classified into the following:

1. Contact wound
2. Near-contact wound
3. Intermediate wound
4. Distant wound

1. Contact Wound

A contact wound would appear due the muzzle of the firearm is held against the
body of the victim during firing. It is divided into: hard, loose, angled and incomplete
contact wounds.

A. Hard-contact wounds-the muzzle of the gun is held tightly against the skin. There is
searing and powder blackening on the immediate edge on the point of entrance. An
autopsy would reveal particles of soot and unburned powder in the wound track

B. Loose-contact wounds- the muzzle of the gun is held lightly against the skin. Soothing
effect carried by the gas upon firing is deposited in a zone around the entrance which can
easily be wiped away.

C. Angled-contact wounds- the muzzle of the firearm is held at an acute angle to the skin
and gas and soot radiate outwards from where the gun does not touch the skin.

D. Incomplete-contact wound- the barrel is held against the skin, but in a place where the
skin is not completely flat. In this case, hot sooty gases escape the gap, leaving a long
blackened and seared section of the skin, with scattered grains of powder.

2. Near-contact wounds

The muzzle of the firearm is not in contact with the skin, but is very close.
Powder grains do not have a chance to disperse and leave a powder tattooing. The
entrance wound is surrounded by a wide zone of powder soot, and seared, blackened
skin.
 67

3. Intermediate-range wounds

The muzzle of the firearm is held away from the skin but close enough to produce
powder tattooing on the skin. There will be presence of reddish-brown to orange-red
lesions around the entrance to the wound.

4. Distant gunshot wounds

Due to considerable distance of the muzzle of the firearm to the target, it will have
no marks except by the penetration by the bullet perforating the skin.

Gunshot Wounds Background

Gunshot wounds can be either penetrating or perforating. In a penetrating wound,

the bullet enters an object and remains inside, while in a perforating wound, the bullet
passes completely through the object and in some occasion a combination of both.
Perforating wound creates an exit wound since it completely passes the body of the
victim. Exit wound differs from an entrance wound, since exit wounds will have larger
and irregular extruding tissue with no abrasion. Entrance wounds on the other hand will
more likely produce reddish-brown around the area and the possibility of abrasion ring,
with an appearance of small amounts of blood escape through as compared to exit
wound, which will have more blood that escapes in an exit wound. This is because,
human skin does have elasticity, and therefore any force that enters the body would result
in the retraction of the skin and body tissue. (Refer to the illustrations below)

(Images courtesy of Todd Grey, MD, University of Utah)

This is a contact gunshot
entrance wound. Since the barrel
contacts the skin, the gases
released by the fired round go
into the subcutaneous tissue and
cause the star-shaped laceration.
Note also the grey-black
discoloration from the soot, as
well as the faint abrasion ring.

An abrasion ring, formed when

the force of the gases entering
below the skin blow the skin
surface back against the muzzle
of the gun, is seen here in this
contact range gunshot wound to
the right temple.
 68

The abrasion ring, and a very

clear muzzle imprint, is seen in
this contact range gunshot
wound.

This is a contact range gunshot

entrance wound with grey-black
discoloration from the burned
powder.

The diagram illustrates the basic differences between the skin appearance of a
contact, close (intermediate), and distant (in determinant) range gunshot wound. The
appearance of the wounding characteristics in the skull is shown in the lower diagram in
which there is beveling of the skull outward away from the direction of origin of the
bullet. (Gunshot Wounds and Photographs)

(Courtesy of relentlessdefense.com)

(Images courtesy of Todd Grey, MD, University of Utah)

 69

The surface of the skull

demonstrates the heavy soot in this
contact range entrance wound, as
well as radiating fracture lines. The
direction of fire was thus toward
the back of this picture

Histologic examination of the

entrance wound site on the skin
demonstrates black gunshot
residue and coagulative necrosis

This is an intermediate range

gunshot entrance wound in which
there is powder "tattooing"
around the entrance site.

Powder tattooing is seen in

this intermediate range
gunshot wound. The actual
entrance site is somewhat
irregular, because the bullet
can tumble in flight.
 70

Displayed here is an entrance at the left

and an exit at the right. This particular
bullet struck at an angle to produce the
ovoid entrance. Exit wounds vary
considerably in size and shape because the
bullet can be deformed in its transit
through the body. There may be no exit
wound at all if the bullet's energy is
absorbed by the tissues. Some bullets (such
a "hollow point") are designed to deform
so that all their energy will be converted to
tissue damage and not exit.

Here is a slit-like exit wound. The

projectile became deformed and
flattened while traversing the body,
producing a laceration upon exit. Note
that there is no powder or soot visible
in this exit wound. [Image contributed
by Todd Grey, MD, University of
Utah

References:

AN INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION.

Retrieved from www.Firearms Identification.com

FIREARMS BALLISTICS by Domingo del Rosario, 3rd ed. 1996

FORENSIC BALLISTICS (Firearms Identification, Compilation) by Dr. Artemio I.

Panganiban. Criminology FILE Academy

HANDBOOK OF CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

(Fundamental and Special Crime) by Danilo S. Bernas, 2004

FORENSICPATHOLOGYhttp://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/FORHTML/
FOR037.htm

Chapter VII

CRIME SCENE SEARCH FOR BALLISTICS EXHIBITS

In the investigation and search for a crime involving firearms, police

investigator assigned needs a thorough background and understanding of the
importance of crime scene search. It is a known premise that evidence left at the
crime scene would make or spoil the investigation; hence, careful observations of the
different types of search must be employed.

General Types of Crime Scene Search

The following are the general types of search for ballistics exhibits. (PNP
Criminal Investigation Manual, 2010).
 71

1. Strip Method- applicable when a shooting took place in a small closed area.

(Courtesy of PNP Criminal Investigation Manual, 2010)

2. Double-Strip – applicable when the shooting incident took place in a bigger
area.

(Courtesy of PNP Criminal Investigation Manual, 2010)

3. Spiral method- the searchers follow each other in the path of a “spiral”
beginning from the outside and then spiraling in toward the center.

(Courtesy of PNP Criminal Investigation Manual, 2010)

4. Wheel method- the searchers gather at the center and proceed in outward radii and
spokes. This procedure should be followed or repeated several times depending on the
size of the area.

(Courtesy of PNP Criminal Investigation Manual, 2010)

 72

5. Zone method- if the shooting took place in a bigger area, this method can be used. The
area is divided into zones, and each zone and anyone of the above four methods may be
used. This method is very practical in an outdoor incident or in cases of running gun
battles. One searcher may be assigned a search zone.

(Courtesy of PNP Criminal Investigation Manual 2010)

References

HANDBOOK OF CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

(Fundamental and Special Crime) by Danilo S. Bernas, 2004

SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION (Lessons for Criminology Students) by Felipe

G. Montojo, National Book Store, 2007

PNP POLICE OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES, March 2010

Chapter VIII

RECOGNITION, COLLECTION, MARKING,

PRESERVATION AND TRANSMITTAL OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCE OF
BALLISTICS EXHIBITS

I. Nature of Evidence

Evidence is anything presented in support of a claim. This support may be strong

or weak. It is said to be a strong type of evidence if it provides direct proof of the truth of
a claim. In law, rules of evidence govern the types of evidence that are admissible in a
legal proceeding, as well as the quality and quantity of evidence that are necessary to
fulfill the legal burden of proof. Types of legal evidence include testimony, documentary
evidence, and physical evidence.
 73

Firearms evidence is necessary to prove the guilt or innocence of the accused.

Physical evidence related to a shooting incident is primordial in the presentation of the
case in court. It is therefore the primary and foremost concern of the police or the
investigator on case to establish the facts. He must, as a policy, give a complete and clear
picture of the incident. Proper and well prepared evidence will serve as if bringing the
crime scene to the court room or vice versa. Hence, complete knowledge of physical
evidence, its care and protection, proper examination are some important responsibilities
of the officers’ concerned.

II. Recognition of Evidence

A trained police officer does have the experience in handling different crimes.
Cases involving firearms requires a more knowledgeable and experienced officer who
would be dealing with important piece/s of evidence that could possibly be recovered at
the scene of crime. A keen observation and the exercise of observing the modern
protocols in the recognition, collection, and preservation of evidence is the responsibility
of the police officer. There are times wherein the officer who responded to the incident
will also be the one to prepare the evidence for transmittal to the laboratory for a
thorough physical examination, hence proper care should be exercised to maintain the
relative value of the evidence.

III. Collection, Handling and Preservation of Physical Evidence

(Courtesy of Felipe G. Montojo, Special Crime Investigation)

Collection, Handling and Preservation of Physical Evidence

Specimen Firearms Firearms
1.Handgun 2.Rifle/ Shotgun
Technique Handle only by the knurled Handle by the trigger guard edge
for Handling portion of the handgrips, until and the serrated parts of the stock
processed for fingerprints. and fore-piece as purchase points.
Method of Scratch initials or marks of Same as for handguns
Marking identification in an inconspicuous
place on the frame. If loaded or
fired shells in revolver, mark
positions.
Quantity of All, no standard needed. All, no standard needed.
Specimen
and
Standard
Needed
Preservation Attach string tag with pertinent Attach string tag with pertinent
and Packing information included on it. Place information include.
in heavy paper envelope.
Investigative Used to determine if weapon was Same as for handguns
Value fired or for firearms identification

Collection, Handling and Preservation of Physical Evidence

Specimen Ammunition Ammunition Ammunition
1.Fired bullets 2.Bullet and cartridge 3.Cartridge case
case (not fired) (fired)
Technique Use tweezers with Use tweezers with Pick up at the open
for Handling tape ends. Avoid tape ends. Avoid end with tweezers.
damage to rifling damage to the case or Avoid scratching.
marks on the the bullet.
circumference.
 74

Method of Mark with initials Mark with initials, Mark on the inside of
Marking either on base or nose date and numbers that the casing, or on the
of bullet. Do not mark corresponds with outside as near the
on sides. chambers, if taken front as possible.
from a revolver, on
the nose of the bullet
Quantity of All fired bullets. No All bullets. No All cases. No standard
Specimen standard needed. standard needed needed.
and Standard
Needed
Preservation Wrap in soft paper Same as for fired Same as for fired
and Packing tissue and place in bullets bullets.
small pillbox. Box
should be marked with
pertinent information.
Investigative Used to determine Used for comparison Used to determine
Value make, type of firearm purposes make, caliber and type
from which bullet of firearm. Also for
could have been future comparisons if
discharged. weapons not
recovered.

Collection, Handling and Preservation of Physical Evidence

Specimen Ammunition Ammunition Ammunition
4.Shot shells (fired) 5.Shot pellets 6.Wadding
Technique Same as for cartridge Use tweezers with Use tweezers, avoid
for Handling case (fired) tape ends. Avoid any damage to the
damage to the rifling wadding.
marks on the
circumference.

Method of Mark on side of brass Place pellets in small Mark with ink by
Marking head of shell using pillbox, seal box and inscribing initials of
officer’s initials. Do mark properly. recovering officer.
not scratch, nick, mar
or mutilate base or
shell.
Quantity of All shells. No All pellets. No All wadding. No
Specimen standard needed. standard needed standard needed.
and Standard
Needed
Preservation Roll individually in Same as Method of Place in paper
and Packing paper and place in Marking envelope.
paper envelope.
Investigative Used to determine the The size of the shot Size of shot, and
Value gauge of gun and for may be consistent gauge designation of
comparison of with other ammunition arm firing wads.
weapon marks found on suspect

In investigating a shooting incident, firearms, bullets, shot gun shells, shotgun

pellets and wads, explosive residues and powder patterns can all provide vital evidence
and specific answers to possible questions in the case.

Firearms:
 75

- Firearms must be handled very carefully, not only as a safety factor, but to avoid
disturbing any evidence they may provide.
- They must be properly marked for later identification.
- Never insert anything in the barrel as this may damage the identifying characteristics and
dislodge material which may be inside the barrel.
- Pick up the weapon by the trigger guard or checkered grip so as not to disturb any
fingerprints.
- Unload but do not wipe or clean the weapon.
- When unloading, carefully record the location of fired, unfired and misfired cartridges.
- Record the serial number description of the weapon.
- Firearms with no serial number should be marked with initials on the receiver or the
underside of the barrel.
- Never use “X” or other non-individual type of marking.
- Do not mark the weapon on any easily removable part such as the stock or grips.
- Use discretion so as not to disfigure the weapon.

Even if the identifying marks (make, model, serial number, etc.) have been removed,
the make and caliber have been determined, and possibly the serial number of the
weapon. Whether the weapon is in working order and, if so, whether it has any defects
which might have an effect on the investigation and whether it has been used to fire a
particular bullet or cartridge are other questions which can be answered by expert
examination.

Some Suggested Sites for Marking Handguns

(Courtesy of Firearm Examiner Training Module)

Bullets:

A bullet can provide information about the type and make of ammunition, the
type and make of weapon from which the bullet was fired, and whether or not it was fired
from a specific weapon, provided the weapon is available for test purposes.

- Handle the bullet so as not to dislodge any extraneous materials or damage the markings.
- If a bullet is lodged in wood or similar material, cut out the section and bring to the
laboratory.
- At autopsies, request the use of hands or rubber-tipped forceps to minimize the possibility
of damage to the bullet.
- Wrap each bullet separately in tissue or cotton to prevent damage and place in a
container.
- Mark initials on the base or side of the bullet.
- If bullet is too small to be easily marked or there is a possibility of dislodging evidence
from the nose, seal the date and information as to where and when the bullet was found
onto the container.
- If there is more than one bullet, mark the order in which they were found and the exact
location.
 76

MARKING OF FIRED BULLETS AND SHELLS

(Courtesy of Firearm Examiner Training Module)

Cartridge Cases:

Cartridge cases can provide vital information as to the type of weapon used, the
type of ammunition, and whether or not the case was fired in a specific weapon ( if the
weapon is available for test firing).

- Handle cartridge cases so as not to add any scratches or marks.

- Wrap each one separately to prevent damage.
- Be sure to note specific locations in which each was found.
- Mark by scratching initials on the inside of the case or on the outside near the end of the
case.
- If inscribing initials might damage the markings, seal the cartridge case in a container and
mark initials on the container and indicate where and when the case was found.
OFFICER’S DIAGRAM AND DESCRIPTION

(
Mark Fired cartridge cases, Misfire Cartridge and Loaded Cartridges with initials,
Courtesy of Firearm Examiner Training Module)
date and numbers to correspond with numbered chambers as shown in the diagram.

Shotgun Shells:

Shotgun shells can indicate the type of ammunition used and whether or not it was
fired in a specific weapon (provided the weapon is available for test firing). Occasionally,
the type of shotgun may be determined from the type and location of marks.

-Handle shotgun shells in the same manner as in cartridge cases.

-If shells are waxed, scrape off the wax and mark initials with a pen.
-If plastic, scratch initials into the plastic with a sharp tool.
-Never mark on the brass portion.
 77

(Courtesy of www.hunters-ed.com & projects.nfstc.org)

Shotgun Pellets and Wads:

Shotgun pellets and wads may indicate the size and type of ammunition used.

- Recover as many as possible

- At least 4 or 5 are needed for accurate sizing.
- Always dry the wads before packaging to prevent deterioration.
- Do not mark the items, but seal them in containers and mark the containers with initial
and where and when the items were obtained.

(Courtesy of www.firearmsid.com & depi.vic.gov.au)

Shot and Powder Patterns:

Shot and powder patterns may indicate the distance (with limits) from which the
shot was fired. Occasionally, they may make it possible to determine the barrel length or
number of lands and grooves for the weapon.

- Necessary to have the same weapon and type of ammunition used in the incident to make
valid comparison patterns.
- Seize available pertinent ammunition as most likely to be the type of ammunition used.
- Accurately measure patterns on bodies and photograph with a scale included.
- Count the number of holes in patterns if possible.
- The figure may give information as to the size of the shot load.
- Initial all items submitted and give pertinent information as to where and when found.

Serial Number Restoration:

Forensic scientists can use physical and chemical techniques to restore or enhance
altered characters. Restoring a serial number can provide law enforcement agencies with
information about a firearm or other item and may offer a lead in an investigation.
 78

Serial number restoration is possible in most cases if the removal has not gone to
deep, or if the number has not been obscured by overlapping. Only stamped numbers can
be restored.

- Do not attempt to raise the number, yourself, but bring the item to the laboratory, if
practical.
- If not practicable, contact the laboratory for instructions.
- Obtain any information as to the type of metal in the item, as different types of metals
require different chemicals for developing the numbers.

(Courtesy of forensics4fiction.com

Examination of Gunshot Residue

Gun Shot Residue and Distance Determination Tests (Courtesy of Firearm Examiners Training
Module)

These tests are performed when it is necessary to determine how far away the
shooter was from the target. The tests are conducted using the firearm in question. When
a gun is fired, it expels burned and unburned powder particles from the muzzle. These
particles will land on the target within a limited proximity. The distance is determined
when the gun is tested and the pattern is reproduced. The evidence and test shots are
examined visually and chemically processed. The distance is determined by both of these
results.

The use of gunshot residues for determining the distance of the muzzle of a
firearm from a target at the time of discharge is a sub discipline of the forensic firearms
specialty.

Applying scientific methods, the sub discipline of using gunshot residues for
determining distance is performed in the following manner:

 Testing is conducted only when the suspect firearm is available or per laboratory
protocol.
 Visual and microscopic examination is made of evidence items for residues,
which may or may not be visible to the unaided eye.
 Testing of evidence items is performed using a sequence of standardized
chromophoric (color-producing) chemical tests which are specific for certain
metals or compounds typically produced by fired ammunition components,
including burned gunpowder.
 Reproduction of these residues in the form of standards fired by the examiner at
known distances uses the suspect firearm and ammunition that is as similar as
possible to that used in the incident(s).
 79

 Comparison of the residues previously developed on evidence items is made

against known standards to determine the distance of a suspect firearm from the
target at the time of discharge.

Firearm discharging (Courtesy of Jack Dillon)

Burned or partially burned bullet propellants and other gunshot residues are
expelled from the muzzle during the firing process and can be used to determine the
distance of a muzzle from a garment or other surface at the time of discharge.

When a firearm discharges, the burning of the propellant powder immediately

generates a large amount of heat and gas inside the cartridge, providing the pressure
required to expel the bullet.

Gunshot residues are composed of the following:

 Primer residues from the combustion of the cartridge priming mixture when the
primer was struck by the firing pin
 Residues resulting from the burning of the propellant
 Material generated by the interaction of the bullet with the inside of the barrel
 Unburned and partially burned powder

Revolver firing showing residues and

bullet exiting (Courtesy of Jack Dillon)

When a firearm is discharged and the bullet strikes a surface, gunshot residues are
deposited, particularly at close range. These residues may be reproducible and therefore
have evidentiary value. Some residues are visible and others require chemical treatment
in order to visualize them.

Visual, microscopic, and chemical examinations should be documented according

to laboratory protocol. Written documentation can be supplemented with images of items
indicating the presence of physical effects and gunshot residues.

Visual and Microscopic Examination (Visualization of gunpowder residue patterns using a

digital infrared camera and optical filters courtesy of Jack Dillon and Ann Davis)
 80

Residues surrounding a bullet hole Shirt submitted for GSR and distance
determination tests, powder visible

Shirt processed for burned powder using Shirt processed for vaporous lead
the Modified Griess Test using Sodium Rhodizonate

All gunpowder’s are designed to burn quickly to produce rapid expansion of gas
in a confined space. In an explosion something gets very big very fast. The burning rate
of gunpowder can be classified in three categories: (Pun and Gallusser, 2007).

1. Degressive (regressive) burning: gunpowder grains formed in flakes, balls, and

sticks have a burning surface area that decreases continuously as the grains are
consumed.
2. Neutral burning: gunpowder grains that are single perforated and the burning
surface area remains relatively constant.
3. Progressive burning: gunpowder grains that are multi-perforated and rosettes that
have a burning surface area that increases continuously as the grains are
consumed.
Unburned gunpowder’s can have recognizable shapes, colors, and sizes of grains.
(Images courtesy of Ann Davis)

Cylindrical/Tubular Propellant Ball Propellant Flattened Ball Propellant

Gunshot Residue

During firing of a weapon, combustion of the primer and gunpowder occurs. Such
combustion will produce what is known as gunshot residues, either completely burned or
unburned. These residues could be found on the victim’s clothing or body and even the
suspect who fired the gun especially if it is a close proximity from the muzzle of the
firearm and the target.
(Courtesy of library.med.utah.edu)
 81

With a contact or very close range gunshot

Soot is seen on the hand of a suicide victim,
wound, it is possible to have blood spatter as
giving an indication that he was holding the
well as soot on the hand of the person firing
weapon when it was fired
the weapon.

Maintaining Chain of Custody

Chain of custody is the preservation by successive officers’ who comes in contact

with the evidence of a crime in its original condition. Physical evidence or objects may
be the instruments used to commit a crime therefore aid in the investigation and tracing
and or locating the suspect or suspects. However, the trial judge must be satisfied that the
evidence is in the same condition as when it was recovered from the crime scene until it
is presented in court.

The evidence that were collected at a crime scene can make or break a case, hence
more physical evidence linking a suspect to a crime can be compelling, however, all these
would tend to be useless in a court of law if the police do not establish a proper chain of
custody. The chain of custody should remain intact from the time the evidence was found
at the crime scene until is presented in court. In doing so, the officers having in his
possession any evidence must have proper documentation attached to the evidence or
packaging. This is to ensure that the condition of the evidence has remained unchanged.
It is also a means of convincing the court that there was no chance of tampering,
switching and any other means of fabricating the evidence.

Collection and Packaging of Evidence

Collection of Evidence

This is accomplished after the search is completed, the rough sketch finished and
photographs taken. Fragile evidence should be collected as they are found. All firearms
(FAs) found to have tampered serial numbers (SNs) shall be automatically subjected to
macro etching at the Philippine National Police Crime Laboratory (PNP-CL). A
corresponding request to the Firearms and Explosive Office (FEO) must be made for
verification purpose. The investigator places his initials, the date and time of discovery
on each item of evidence for proper identification. Items that could not be marked should
be placed in a suitable container and sealed.

Markings of Evidence

Any physical evidence obtained must be marked or tagged before its submission
to the evidence custodian. These are information to ensure that the items can be identified
by the collector at any time in the future. This precaution will help immeasurably to
establish the credibility of the collector’s report or testimony and will effectively avoid
any suggestions that the item has been misidentified.

Markings on the specimen must at least contain the following:

 82

1. Exhibit Case Number

2. Initials and or signature of the collecting officer.
3. Time and date of collection.

NOTE: It is also important to note the place or location where the evidence was
collected.

Evaluation of Evidence

Each item of evidence must be evaluated in relation to all the evidence,

individually and collectively. If necessary, these pieces of evidence must be subjected to
crime laboratory examination. Example: firearms for ballistic examination, hair strands
etc. (PNP Criminal Investigation Manual 2010)

Preservation of Evidence

It is the investigator’s responsibility to ensure that every precaution is exercised to

preserve physical evidence in the state in which it was recovered/ obtained until it is
released to the evidence custodian.
Releasing of Evidence

All collected evidence can only be released upon order of the court or prosecutor,
as the case maybe.

Chain of Custody

A list of all persons who came into possession of an item of evidence, continuity
of possession, or the chain of custody, must be established whenever evidence is
presented in court as an exhibit. Adherence to standard procedures in recording the
location of evidence, marking it for identification, and properly completing evidence
submission forms for laboratory analysis is critical to chain of custody. Every person who
handled or examined the evidence and where it is at all times must be accounted for.

As a rule, all seized evidence must be in the custody of the evidence custodian
and deposited in the evidence room or designated place for safekeeping. (Refer to the
illustration below)

CHAIN OF CUSTODY
(Change of Possession)

The Scene
Evidence – Seal, Markings, Evidence Log

Evidence Collector (Officer on Case)

Letter Request

Crime Laboratory
Result

Evidence Custodian

Court order (Subpoena)

Court Presentation
(PNP Criminal Investigation Manual 2010)
 83

Transmittal of Evidence to Crime Laboratory

Proper handling of physical evidence is necessary to obtain the maximum

possible information upon which scientific examination shall be based, and to prevent
exclusion as evidence in court. Specimens which truly represent the material found at the
scene, unaltered, unspoiled or otherwise unchanged in handling will provide more and
better information upon examination. Legal requirements make it necessary to account
for all physical pieces of evidence from the time it is collected until it is presented in
court. With these in mind, the following principles should be observed in handling all
types of evidence:

1. The evidence should reach the laboratory in same condition as when it was found, as
much as possible.
2. The quantity of specimen should be adequate. Even with the best equipment available,
good results cannot be obtained from insufficient specimens.
3. Submit a known or standard specimen for comparison purposes.
4. Keep each specimen separate from others so there will be no intermingling or mixing
of known and unknown material. Wrap and seal in individual packages when necessary.
5. Mark or label each of evidence for positive identification as the evidence taken from a
particular location in connection with the crime under investigation.
6. The chain of custody of evidence must be maintained. Account for evidence from the
time it is collected until it is produced in court. Any break in this chain of custody may
make the material inadmissible as evidence in court.

References

Textbooks:

FORENSIC BALLISTICS by Domingo R. Del Fossil, 3rd edition, 1996

FORENSIC BALLISTICS by Erdulfo R. Grimares, Wiseman’s Books Trading. 1st ed.

2006.

FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION (Lessons for Criminology Students) by Felipe G.

Montojo, National Book Store. 2006

FIREARMS BALLISTICS by Domingo del Rosario, 3rd ed. 1996

FORENSIC BALLISTICS (Firearms Identification, Compilation) by Dr. Artemio I.

Panganiban. Criminology FILE Academy
 84

HANDBOOK OF CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

(Fundamental and Special Crime) by Danilo S. Bernas, 2004

SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION (Lessons for Criminology Students) by Felipe

G. Montojo, National Book Store, 2007

PNP POLICE OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES, March 2010

Internet Sources:

www. wikipedia.org
www. thefreedictionary .com/forensic
www. firearms tutorial.com
www. history of firearms.com
www. huntercourse. Com
www. homestudy.ihea.com
www. Wikipedia.org/shotgun_shell
www. Bureau of Criminal Apprehension
www. crime-scene-investigators.net
www. saf.org
www. nfstc.org
www. theiai.org.
www. firearms history.blogspot.com
www. firearms id.com
www. Wikimedia.org
www. ny.gov.
www. en.wikipedia.org/rifle
www. guns.gb.com

Chapter IX

EQUIPMENTS USED IN A TYPICAL LABORATORY

FOR FIREARMS INVESTIGATION AND IDENTIFICATION

In a case involving firearm, it is a must for the officers’ to collect as many piece
or pieces of evidence from the crime scene. These fragments gathered are brought to the
laboratory for thorough and extensive examinations. The procedure for conducting
identification and examinations of this evidence requires a skillful laboratory technician
with the aid of some laboratory equipments. The same are used in order to provide
successful examination and convincing report for court exhibits. The said examination
would hopefully provide a bridge to the missing link of the crime to the perpetrator.

The following is the list of equipment that is generally used in a typical Ballistics
Laboratory:
1. Comparison Microscope
2. Stereoscopic Microscope
3. Comparison Projector/Measuring Projector
4. Bullet Recovery Box
5. Calipers
 85

6. Analytical Balance
7. Taper Gauge
8. Onoscope
9. Helixometer
10. Chronograph
11. Electric Marker
12. Micrometer

1. Comparison Microscope

(Courtesy of www.forensicmicroscopes.com)

This instrument is especially designed to permit the firearms examiner to

determine the similarity and dissimilarity between two fired bullets or two fired cartridge
cases by simultaneously observing their magnified image. It is actually two microscope
couple together with a single or two eyepiece, so that when one looks through this
comparison eyepiece, he is seeing one half of what is under one microscope, and one half
of what is under the other- in other words, half of the evidence bullet and half of the test
bullet.

Under this bullet comparison microscope, the two fired bullets or two fired shells
are examined in “JUXTAPOSITION”- that is, the two objects- evidence and test bullet
are examined and compared:
1. At the same time
2. At the same direction
3. At the same magnification
4. At the same image
5. At the same level or plane

2. Stereoscopic Microscope
 86

(Courtesy of www.microscope.com)

Stereomicroscopy is based on the use of physically joined compound microscopes

(one for each eye) in the examination of single objects. Sometimes a single objective lens
is shared by both eyepieces. This approach yields a three-dimensional view of an object,
such as a fired bullet being evaluated prior to microscopic comparison with another
bullet. It is particularly useful when combined with an optical zoom feature, as is
common in many stereomicroscopes. The stereomicroscope is useful during any phase of
forensic firearms work, including the next level of visible light microscopy – comparison
microscopy.

3. Comparison Projector/Measuring Projector

(Courtesy of Firearm Examiner Training Module )

This instrument can be used in revealing similarities and differences of bullets and
tool marks. It allows easy viewing and permits others to view for a group consultation,
hence it is a perfect tool in firearms examination. Its magnification ranges from 5x to
200x.

This instrument is used in measuring land and groove impressions. It can also be
used for measuring bullet diameter and other small items.

4. Bullet Recovery Box

 87

(Courtesy of www.projects.nfstc.com & cyber-national.com)

For obtaining fired bullets or test fired cartridge cases from the suspected firearms
submitted to the Ballistics Laboratory. In test firing suspected firearms, it is standard
procedure to use ammunitions that are of the same caliber, make or brand and
manufactured in the same year with that of the evidence bullet of shell.

Water is one of the means of obtaining test bullets and test shells because the
microscopic marks on the cylindrical or peripheral surface of the bullets are preserved for
good use. The same applies also to a bullet recovery box with cotton inside, hence, law
enforcement agencies uses these equipments.

5. Calipers

(Courtesy of Firearm Examiner Training Module)

Calipers (either digital or analog) are another important tool in a forensic

laboratory. This equipment is generally used to measure a circumference of a bullet
recovered from the crime scene or the one produced from test fire. A caliber of a bullet
could be determined through the use of this tool.

6. Analytical Balance
 88

(Courtesy of www.google.com)

Used for determining weights of bullets or shotgun pellets, possible determination

of type, caliber and make of firearms from which it was fired.

7. Taper Gauge

(Courtesy of Firearm Examiner Training Module)

Used for determining the bore diameter of the firearm.

8. Onoscope

(Courtesy of Firearm Examiner Training Module)

Used for examining the internal surface of the barrel. There is light source at the
terminal end of the instrument and inserted in the bore for internal examination.

9. Helixometer
 89

(Courtesy of gangstersandoutlaws.com)

An instrument used for measuring the Pitch of riflings. Pitch of rifling is

the distance advanced by the rifling in one complete turn or the distance travelled
by the bullet in one complete turn.

10. Chronograph

(Courtesy of Firearm Examiner Training Module)

Chronographs are designed to sense the passage of a bullet past two sensors separated
by a known distance, typically two to four feet. The sensors react to a change in light
level as a bullet passes through. These sensors are referred to as screens or sky screens
and establish the known distance by their placement on a bar or rail. The shooter fires
through the v-shaped arms of the sensors. Depending on the manufacturer’s
recommendation, the distance from the muzzle to the first sensor is normally eight to
fifteen feet. This prevents the effects of muzzle blast (or muzzle wave) and false readings
from gunshot residues passing between the arms of the screen.

As the bullet passes each sensor, information is gathered by a specialized

microprocessor that calculates and stores the time data. The muzzle velocity for each shot
is calculated based on the distance between the sensors. When a string of test shots are
made using the same ammunition and firearm, the microprocessor will calculate and print
out a detailed report on the string of shots.

Depending on brand, this data may include

 highest velocity recorded,

 lowest velocity recorded,
 spread of the high and low velocities,
 average velocity,
 standard deviation.

11. Electric Marker

 90

(Courtesy of www. martindaleco.com & sears.com)

Used in marking evidence; firearms, bullets, cartridge cases, etc.

12. Micrometer

(Courtesy of www.wikipedia.org)

Similar use as calipers, used in making measurements such as bullet diameter,

bore diameter, barrel length and etc.

References

FORENSIC BALLISTICS (Firearms Identification, Compilation) by Dr. Artemio I.

Panganiban. Criminology FILE Academy

HANDBOOK OF CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

(Fundamental and Special Crime) by Danilo S. Bernas, 2004

SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION (Lessons for Criminology Students) by Felipe

G. Montojo, National Book Store, 2007

PNP POLICE OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES, March 2010

Internet Sources:

www.Firearm Examiner Training Module

www. wikipedia.org
www. thefreedictionary .com/forensic
www. firearms tutorial.com
www. Bureau of Criminal Apprehension
www. nfstc.org
www. theiai.org.
www. firearms id.com
www. wikimedia.or
Chapter X
 91

FIREARMS AND TOOL MARKS EXAMINATION

The Discipline of Firearm and Tool Mark Examination

Firearms Identification

Firearm identification deals with the comparison and analysis of projectiles and
cartridge cases found at crime scenes to submitted suspect firearms. The basis of firearm
identification is in the microscopic individual characteristics caused during the
manufacturing process. Additional imperfections may arise from use, abuse, wear, and
corrosion. These imperfections caused by manufacture or over time are what make the
tool surfaces in firearms unique. Firearm examiners can also analyze for distance
determinations, operability of firearms, and serial number restorations. (Refer to the
illustration below).

Sample image of compared tool marks involving firearms

(Courtesy of www. maine.gov)

TOOL MARKS IDENTIFICATION

Tool mark identification determines if a tool mark left at a crime scene was
produced by a particular suspect tool. Tedious microscopic comparisons are conducted of
striations on a tool (bolt cutter, screwdrivers, crowbars, etc) to evidence marked by that
tool (pad locks or wires, pried open doors to homes or safes, etc) recovered from the
suspect. (Refer to illustrations below)

(Courtesy of National Integrated Ballistic Information Network)

A tool mark from a gun safe cast with Mikrosil® and compared to a cast of a test tool
mark using the suspect’s pry bar. (Courtesy of NIBIN)

Identification Process
 92

A tool is the harder of two objects, which when brought into contact with each
other, results in the softer one being marked. This marking is known as a tool mark.
Firearms identification is simply a firearms-related specialized subset of the broader field
of tool mark identification.

When the various parts of the mechanism of a firearm come into hard contact with
a cartridge case or shot shell case (typically made of a relatively softer metal such as
brass), a tool mark can be created.

The cycle of fire includes a number of steps that are common to all firearms
(Association of Firearm and Tool mark Examiner):

 Feeding of a cartridge manually or from a magazine

 Chambering of a cartridge
 Locking of the breech or bolt mechanism
 Firing by releasing of the firing pin
 Obturation, specifically, sealing of powder gases forward of the cartridge case or shot
shell case by expansion of the cartridge case to fully fill the chamber, as well as by
expansion of projectiles or wadding material
 Unlocking of the breech or bolt mechanism
 Extraction of the fired cartridge/shot shell case
 Ejection of the fired cartridge/shot shell case
 Cocking of the firing mechanism

These steps may be performed manually, semi automatically, or fully

automatically. Depending on the design of a firearm, certain steps may be combined.

There are two (2) General Types of Tool Marks:

1. Striated marks

Striated marks occur when there is relative motion between two objects under
pressure. Striations are contour variations (generally microscopic) on the surface of an
object caused by a combination of force and motion, where the motion is approximately
parallel to the plane being marked. Striated tool marks could also be described as scratch
marks, abrasion marks, or friction marks.

2. Impressed tool marks (compression marks)

Impressed tool marks (compression marks) occur when a tool is placed against
another object and sufficient force is applied to the tool that an impression is made. The
class characteristics (size and shape) can indicate the type of tool used to produce the
mark. These impressions can also contain individual characteristics of the tool producing
the mark.

The marks produced on cartridge cases and shot shell cases during the cycle of fire
may include :( Courtesy of AFTE)
 93

Toolmark Description Image

Indentation of the primer of a
Firing pin centerfire cartridge case or the
impressions rim of a rimfire cartridge case
when struck by the firing pin

Striated toolmarks produced

when a projecting firing pin
Firing pin contacts a cartridge or
drag marks shotshell during extraction
and ejection

Negative impression of the

breech face of the firearm
Breech face
found on the head of the
marks
cartridge case and/or primer
after firing

Striated toolmarks caused by

the rough margins of a firing
Primer
pin hole (aperture) scraping
shearing
the primer metal during Pri
marks
unlocking of the breech of a mer shearing marks caused by
firearm firing pin aperture (Courtesy
of Nancy D. McCombs)

Individual microscopic marks

placed on a cartridge case by
Chamber
the chamber wall as a result of
marks Ch
chambering, expansion during
amber marks (Courtesy of Jack
firing or extraction Dillon)

Striated toolmarks produced

on a cartridge or cartridge
Extractor
case from the operation of an
marks
extractor (usually found on or
just ahead of the rim) E
xtractor marks (Courtesy of
Jack Dillon)
 94

Toolmarks produced on the

Ejector head of a cartridge case, from
marks contact with the ejector
(generally at or near the rim)
Ej
ector marks (Courtesy of Jack
Dillon)

Microscopic marks impressed

on the forward face of the rim
Anvil of a rimfire cartridge case as it
marks is forced or compressed
A
against the breech end of the nvil marks (Courtesy of
chamber by the firing pin AFTE)

Striated marks produced by

hard contact between the
Ejection
ejection port of a firearm and
port marks
a rapidly moving ejected
Ej
cartridge case ection port mark(Courtesy of
AFTE)

Striated marks produced on

the periphery of a cartridge as
Magazine
it moves from the lips of a
marks
magazine towards the
chamber during feeding
Magazine lip marks (Courtesy
of Charles M. Clow)
 95

Sample Image of a Consecutive Matching Striae

(Courtesy of www. FirearmsID.com)

Land impression striations from a 9mm Luger caliber FMJ bullet fired from a
Browning pistol (Courtesy of www.FirearmsID.com)

AFTE Theory of Identification

In 1985, the Criteria for Identification Committee formalized the AFTE Theory of
Identification as it relates to Tool marks. The theory articulates three principles that
provide the conceptual basis for comparing tool marks for the purpose of identifying
them as having a common source.

Any reference to the term “tool mark” refers to striated or impressed marks on a
fired cartridge case or unfired cartridge cycled through the action of a firearm.

The three principles of the AFTE Theory of Identification as it Relates to Tool

marks:

1. The theory of identification as it pertains to tool marks enables opinions of common

origin to be made when the unique surface contours of two tool marks are in sufficient
agreement.
2. This sufficient agreement is related to the significant duplication of random tool marks as
evidenced by the correspondence of a pattern or combination of patterns of surface
contours. Significance is determined by the comparative examination of two or more sets
of surface contour patterns comprised of individual peaks, ridges, and furrows.
Specifically, the relative height or depth, width, curvature and spatial relationship of the
individual peaks, ridges and furrows within one set of surface contours are defined and
compared to the corresponding features in the second set of contours. Agreement is
significant when it exceeds the best agreement demonstrated between two tool marks
known to have been produced by different tools and is consistent with agreement
demonstrated by tool marks known to have been produced by the same tool. The
statement that “sufficient agreement” exists between two tool marks means that the
likelihood another tool could have made the mark is so remote as to be considered a
practical impossibility.
3. The current interpretation of individualization/identification is subjective in nature,
founded on scientific principles and based on the examiner’s training and experience.

AFTE Range of Conclusions

Based on the AFTE Theory of Identification, there are four categories of

examination outcomes (Range of Conclusions Possible When Comparing Tool marks)
typically used by firearm examiners in the microscopic comparison of fired cartridge
cases and shot shell cases.
 96

These categories are accepted for all types of tool mark comparisons:

 Identification
 Inconclusive
 Elimination
 Unsuitable for comparison

Identification

“Agreement of a combination of individual characteristics and all discernable

class characteristics where the extent of agreement exceeds that which can occur in the
comparison of tool marks made by different tools and is consistent with the agreement
demonstrated by tool marks known to have been produced by the same tool.” (AFTE
Glossary)

Inconclusive

An inconclusive result is noted as the outcome of a comparison in which there is

 Some agreement of individual characteristics and all discernable class characteristics, but
insufficient for identification,
 Agreement of all discernable class characteristics without agreement or disagreement of
individual characteristics due to an absence, insufficiency, or lack of reproducibility,
 Agreement of all discernable class characteristics and disagreement of individual
characteristics, but insufficient for an elimination.

Elimination

Elimination is a significant disagreement of discernable class characteristics

and/or individual characteristics. For purposes of fired cartridge case and shot shell case
comparisons, elimination is most often based on observed differences in any class
characteristic. (Refer to illustration below)

(Courtesy of Association of Firearm and Tool mark Examiner)

 97

Unsuitable

This outcome is appropriate for fired and mutilated cartridge cases and shot shell
cases that do not bear microscopic marks of value for comparison purposes.

Image of a Fired Case Examination

(Side by side comparison of breech face marks (Courtesy of Jack Dillon)

In the case of fired bullets, the microscopic comparison and potential

identification of fired cartridge cases and shot shell cases as having been fired from the
same firearm is at the core of forensic firearms work. The comparison will involve one
of the following situations: (Courtesy of AFTE)

Fired Case Examination Situations

Situatio
Action
n

Recovered
firearm
Obtain pairs of test cartridge cases for later comparison by test-firing the
without
recovered firearm.
related
evidence

Recovered
Obtain test cartridge cases or shot shell cases from an evidence firearm and
firearm
compare to evidence cartridge cases or shot shell cases recovered from a
with
crime scene to determine if the evidence firearm fired the evidence cartridge
related
case or shot shell case.
evidence

Recovered
evidence Compare evidence cartridge cases or shot shell cases recovered from multiple
without bodies or crime scenes to determine if the scenes are related to a single
related firearm.
firearm
 98

References

Textbooks:

FORENSIC BALLISTICS by Domingo R. Del Fossil, 3rd edition, 1996

FORENSIC BALLISTICS by Erdulfo R. Grimares, Wiseman’s Books Trading. 1st ed.

2006.

FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION (Lessons for Criminology Students) by Felipe G.

Montojo, National Book Store. 2006

FIREARMS BALLISTICS by Domingo del Rosario, 3rd ed. 1996

FORENSIC BALLISTICS (Firearms Identification, Compilation) by Dr. Artemio I.

Panganiban. Criminology FILE Academy

HANDBOOK OF CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

(Fundamental and Special Crime) by Danilo S. Bernas, 2004

SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION (Lessons for Criminology Students) by Felipe

G. Montojo, National Book Store, 2007

PNP POLICE OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES, March 2010

Internet Sources:

www.AFTE.com
www. wikipedia.org
www. thefreedictionary .com/forensic
www. firearms tutorial.com
www. history of firearms.com
www. huntercourse. Com
www. homestudy.ihea.com
www. Wikipedia.org/shotgun_shell
www. Bureau of Criminal Apprehension
www. crime-scene-investigators.net
www. saf.org
www. nfstc.org
www. theiai.org.
www. firearms history.blogspot.com
www. firearmsid.com
www. Wikimedia.org
www. ny.gov.
www. en.wikipedia.org/rifle
www. guns.gb.com
 99

APPENDIX A

SAMPLE BALLISTICS REPORT

(Courtesy of Dr. Artemio I. Panganiban Jr., PAP, FILE)

April 16, 2007

CASE NUMBER: 001-04-07

SUBJECT:

Re-fatal shooting of one Braullo De Makaupo at Bacalso Avenue, Cebu

City.

REQUESTING PARTY:

Atty. Medardo G. De Limos

Regional Director
NBI- CEVRO-7
Capitol Site, Cebu City

VICTIM:

Braullo De Makaupo (Deceased)

SUSPECT:

PO1 Ireneo Taton

SPECIMEN SUBMITTED:

1. One (1) Taurus, Automatic Pistol, Caliber 9MM, SN-TUL 20806 with Magazine;
2. One (1) fired cartridge case, Caliber 9MM marked “JLP”, and
3. One (1) copper- jacketed bullet, Caliber 9MM marked “JLP”.

DATE AND TIME SUBMITTED:

April 15, 2007

2:00 PM

PURPOSE:

1. To determine whether or not the submitted Pistol mentioned in specimen

no. 1 Serviceable.
2. To determine whether or not the submitted fired cartridge case mentioned in specimen
no. 2 was fired from the Pistol mentioned in specimen no. 1.
3. To determine whether or not the submitted copper-jacketed bullet mentioned under
specimen no. 3 was fired from the pistol mentioned in specimen no. 1.

FINDINGS- CONCLUSION:

1. The submitted Taurus, Automatic Pistol, Caliber 9MM, with serial number TUL 20806
was fired and tested in our laboratory and was found to be in good working condition.
2. Comparative examination conducted on the submitted evidence fired cartridge Caliber
9MM marked “JLP” revealed that the submitted evidence fired cartridge case was fired
from the submitted Taurus, Automatic Pistol, Caliber 9MM with SN- TUL 20806.
 100

3. Comparative examination conducted on the submitted evidence copper- jacketed bullet

Caliber 9MM marked “JLP” revealed that the submitted evidence Copper-jacketed bullet
was fired from the submitted Taurus, Automatic Pistol, Caliber 9MM with SN- TUL
20806.

REMARKS:

1. The specimen no. 1, 2 and 3 were received from PO3 Vera Tan on April 15, 2007.
2. All specimens mentioned above were being retained in our laboratory until their released
is authorized.
3. This report consists of three (3) pages.

-------- Nothing Follows-------

Respectfully submitted:

Jasmin L. Parreno
Ballistician 1

APPROVED BY:

DR. ARTEMIO I. PANGANIBAN JR.

President
PAP. Criminology F.I.L.E. Academy
Bacalso St., Cebu City
 101

REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES

DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE
NATIONAL BUREAU OF INVESTIGATION
CEVRO, CEBU CITY

April 15, 2007

ADDRESS:

Dr. Artemio I. Panganiban Jr.

President
PAP, Criminology F.I.L.E. Academy
Bacalso St., Cebu City

Dear Sir:

In connection with the shooting incident that took place at Bacalso Avenue, Cebu
City on April 14, 2007, wherein the victim is one Braullo De Makaupo, we are
submitting herewith the physical evidence recovered;

1. One (1) Taurus, Automatic Pistol, Caliber 9MM, SN-TUL with Magazine;
2. One (1) fired cartridge case, Caliber 9MM marked “JLP”, and
3. One (1) Copper-jacketed, Caliber 9MM “JLP”

The purposes of this examination are the following:

1. To determine whether or not the submitted Pistol mentioned in specimen no. 1 is

serviceable.
2. To determine whether or not the submitted fired cartridge case mentioned in specimen
no. 2 was fired from the submitted Pistol mentioned in specimen no. 1.
3. To determine whether or not the submitted copper-jacketed bullet mentioned under
specimen no. 3 was fired from the pistol mentioned in specimen no. 1.

We are anticipating for your cooperation about this matter.

Thank you very much and God Bless!

Respectfully yours,

Atty. Medardo G. De Limos

Regional Director
NBI- CEVRO- 7
Central Visayas Regional Office
Capitol Site, Cebu City
 102

GLOSSARY OF TERMS
(Courtesy of www.winchester.com)

ACTION - The combined parts of a firearm that determine how a firearm is loaded,
discharged and unloaded. Most handguns are referred to as "single-action" or "double-
action." A single-action firearm requires the user to manually pull back the hammer
before the firearm allows the user to either manually cock the hammer or simply pull the
trigger and allow the firearm to cock and release the hammer on its own.
ACTION, AUTOMATIC- A firearm that loads, fires, and ejects cartridges as long as
the trigger is depressed and there are cartridges available in the feeding system (i.e.
magazine or other such mechanism). Automatic action firearms are machine guns
ACTION, BOLT- A firearm, typically a rifle, that is manually loaded, cocked, and
unloaded by pulling a bolt mechanism up and back to eject a spent cartridge and load
another. Bolt action firearms are popular for hunting, target shooting, and biathlon events.
A bolt action rifle allows the shooter maximum accuracy, but may be too slow or
cumbersome for some shooting sports.
ACTION, LEVER- A firearm, typically a rifle, that is loaded, cocked, and unloaded by
an external lever usually located below the receiver.
ACTION, PUMP- A firearm that features a movable forearm that is manually actuated
to chamber a round, eject the casing, and put another round in position to fire.
ACTION, SEMI-AUTOMATIC- A firearm in which each pull of the trigger results in a
complete firing cycle, from discharge through reloading. It is necessary that the trigger be
released and pulled for each cycle. These firearms are also called "autoloaders" or "self-
loaders." The discharge and chambering of a round is either blowback operated, recoil
operated, or gas operated. Note: An automatic action firearm loads, discharges, and
reloads as long as ammunition is available and the trigger is depressed. A semi-
automatic firearm only discharges one cartridge with each squeeze of the trigger.
AMMUNITION- A loaded cartridge consisting of a primed case, propellant, and a
projectile. Among the many types of ammunition are centerfire rifle and pistol, rimfire,
shotshells, and reloads.
AMMUNITION, SMALL ARMS- A military term used to describe ammunition for
firearms with bores (the interior of the barrel) not larger than one inch in diameter.
ARMS, SMALL- Any firearm capable of being carried by a person and fired without
additional mechanical support.
BALLISTICS- The science of studying projectiles. Ballistics can be "interior" (inside
the gun), "exterior" (in the air), or "terminal" (at the point of impact). Ballistic
comparison is the attempt to microscopically match a bullet or fired cartridge case to a
particular firearm.
BARREL- That part of a firearm through which a projectile travels. The barrel may be
rifled (i.e., with spiral grooves on the interior of the barrel) or smooth bore (i.e., a smooth
interior barrel with no grooves).
BB- Spherical shot having a diameter of .180" used in shotshell loads. The term is also
used to designate steel or lead air rifle shot of .175" diameter.
BENCHREST- A table specifically designed to eliminate as much human error as
possible by supporting a rifle for competitive shooting or sighting-in purposes.
BIG BORE- In America, any firearm using a centerfire cartridge with a bullet .30" in
diameter or larger.
BIRDSHOT- Small lead or steel pellets used in shotshells ranging in size from #12 (less
than the diameter of a pencil point) to #4 (about .10" in diameter) used for short-range
bird and small game hunting.
BORE- The interior barrel forward of the chamber.
BORE DIAMETER- On rifled barrels, the interior diameter of the barrel from the tops
of the lands (the highest point of the grooves). On a smooth barrel, the interior dimension
of the barrel forward of the chamber (not including the chose on the shotgun barrels).
BUCKSHOT- Large lead pellets ranging in size from .20" to .36" diameter normally
loaded in shotshells used for deer hunting.
BULLET- A non spherical projectile for use in a rifled barrel.
 103

BULLET, ARMOR PIERCING- A projectile or projectile core that may be used in a

handgun intended to pierce steel armor that is constructed entirely, or has a core
constructed, from one or a combination of tungsten alloys, steel, iron, brass, bronze,
beryllium copper, depleted uranium, or a fully jacketed projectile larger than 22 caliber
intended for use in a handgun whose jacket has a weight of more than 25 percent of the
total weight of the projectile. The term does not include shotgun shot or projectiles
intended for sporting purposes.
BULLET, DUMDUM- A British military bullet developed in India's Dum-Dum Arsenal
in 1897-98. It was a jacketed .303 caliber rifle bullet with the jacket most left open to
expose the lead core in hopes of greater effectiveness. Further development of the bullet
was not pursued because the Hague Convention of 1899 outlawed and such bullets for
warfare.
BULLET ENGRAVING- The grooves cut into a bullet by barrel rifling. Note: When a
bullet travels down the barrel, the grooves (or rifling) leave an imprint on the bullet. The
matching of the marks on a bullet to the rifling of a particular firearm is an important
tool for law enforcement in determining whether a bullet was fired from a particular
firearm.
BULLET, FULL METAL JACKET- A projectile in which the bullet jacket (a metallic
cover over the core of a bullet) encloses most of the core with the exception of the base.
They are used mostly for target shooting and military use.
BULLET, HOLLOW POINT- A bullet with a cavity in the nose, exposing the lead
core, to facilitate expansion upon impact. Hollow point cartridges are used for hunting,
self-defense, police use, and other situations to avoid over penetration.
BULLET, WADCUTTER- A generally cylindrical bullet design having a sharp
shouldered nose intended to cut paper targets cleanly to facilitate easy and accurate
shooting.
BUTT- On handguns, it is the bottom part of the grip. On long guns, it is the rear or
shoulder end of the stock.
CALIBER- A term used to designate the specific cartridges for which a firearm is
chambered. It is the approximate diameter of the circle formed by the tops of the lands of
a rifled barrel. It is the numerical term included in the cartridge name to indicate a rough
approximation of the bullet diameter (i.e. .30 caliber- .308" diameter bullet).
CARBINE- A rifle of short length and light weight originally designed for horse-
mounted troops.
CARTRIDGE- A single round of ammunition consisting of the case, primer, propellant,
powder, and one or more projectiles.
CARTRIDGE, CENTERFIRE- Any cartridge intended for use in rifle, pistols, and
revolvers that it has its primer central to the axis at the head of the case. Note: Most
cartridges, including shotshells, are centerfire with the exception of 22 caliber rimfire
ammunition. If you were to look at the bottom of a centerfire cartridge, you would see a
small circle in the middle of the base, hence, "centerfire." There are a few rimfire
ammunition calibers besides the 22, but they are rare and not widely available.
CARTRIDGE, MAGNUM- Any cartridge or shotshell that is larger, contains more shot,
or produces a high velocity than standard cartridges or shotshells of a given caliber or
gauge.
CARTRIDGE, RIMFIRE- A cartridge containing the priming mixture in the rim of the
base, usually a 22.
CARTRIDGE, SMALL BORE- A general term that refers to rimfire cartridges.
Normally 22 caliber ammunition used for target shooting, plinking, and small game
hunting.
CHAMBER- In a rifle, pistol, or shotgun, it is the part of a barrel that accepts the
ammunition. In a revolver, it refers to the holes in the cylinder where the cartridges are
loaded.
CHOKE- An interior tube at the end of a shotgun barrel that controls shot dispersion.
Chokes typically come in cylinder, improved cylinder, modified, improve modified, and
full. Note: A cylinder choke produces a very wide shot dispersion, whereas a full chose
 104

will provide a much tighter shot pattern. Different chokes are used for skeet, trap, and
sporting clays. In hunting, the type of game and conditions will determine choke type.
COCK- To place the hammer, or striker, in position for firing by pulling it back fully.
CYLINDER- The round, rotatable part of a revolver that contains the cartridge
chambers.
DERRINGER- A generic term referring to many variations of pocket-sized pistols. The
name comes from the pistol's original designer, Henry Derringer. Note: According to the
American Derringer Company, Henry Deringer's name is spelled with one 'R.' The
proper spelling of Derringer firearms is with two 'R's.
DISCHARGE- To cause a firearm to fire.
DOUBLE BARREL- Two barrels on a firearm mounted to one frame. The barrels can
be vertically (over-under) or horizontally (side-by-side) aligned.
FIREARM- An assembly of a barrel and action from which is projectile is propelled as a
result of combustion.
FIRING PIN- The part of a firearm that strikes the primer cartridge to start the ignition
of the primer.
FLASH SUPPRESSOR- An attachment to the muzzle designed to reduce muzzle flash.
Note: A flash suppressor is not a silencer.
FULL COCK- The position of the hammer when the firearm is ready to fire.
GAUGE- A term used to identify most shotgun bores, with the exception of the .410
shotgun. It relates to the number of bore diameter lead balls weighing one pound. Note:
the .410 shotgun is a caliber. The .410 refers to the diameter of the barrel.
10 gauge - .775 inch
12 gauge - .730 inch
16 gauge - .670 inch
20 gauge - .615 inch
28 gauge - .550 inch
67 gauge - .410 inch
GROUP- A series of shots fired at the target used to adjust the sights or determine the
accuracy of a firearm.
HALF COCK- The position of the hammer about half retracted and intended to prevent
release of the hammer by a normal pull of the trigger.
HAMMER- The part of the firing mechanism that strikes the firing pin, which, in turn,
strikes the primer.
HAMMERLESS- A firearm having an internal hammer or striker.
JACKET- The envelope enclosing the lead core of a bullet.
JAM- A malfunction that prevents the action from operating. Jams may be caused by
faulty or altered parts, ammunition, poor maintenance of the firearm, or improper use of
the firearm.
JUMP- The upward and rearward recoil of a firearm when it is fired. It is commonly
called recoil or "kick."
LANDS- The uncut surface of the bore of a rifled barrel.
LOAD- The combination of components used to assemble a cartridge or shotshell. The
term also refers to the act of putting ammunition into a firearm.
MAGAZINE- A receptacle on a firearm that holds several cartridges or shells for
feeding into the chamber. Magazines take many forms, such as box, drum, rotary, or
tubular and may be fixed or removable.
MISFIRE- A failure of the cartridge to fire after the primer has been struck by the firing
pin.
MUZZLE- The front end of a firearm barrel from which the bullet or shot emerges.
MUZZLE FLASH- The illumination (flash) resulting from the expanding gases from the
burning propellant particles emerging from the barrel behind the projectile and uniting
with oxygen in the air.
MUZZLE LOADER- Any firearm loaded through the muzzle. Also called "black
powder" firearms. They may be antique, replica, or of modern design.
NOSE- The point or tip of a bullet.
OVER AND UNDER- A firearm with two barrels, one above the other.
 105

PATTERN- The distribution of shot fired from a shotgun. Generally measured as a

percentage of pellets striking in a 30 inch circle at 40 yards.
PISTOL- A term for a one-hand held firearm with a single chamber. ( A revolver has at
least five chambers.)
PISTOL, AUTOMATIC- The common but improperly used term to describe semi-
automatic pistols. See ACTION, SEMI-AUTOMATIC for a description of how these
pistols operate.
PISTOL, DOUBLE ACTION- A pistol mechanism in which a single pull of the trigger
cocks and releases the hammer.
PISTOL, SINGLE ACTION- A pistol mechanism that requires the manual cocking of
the hammer before the trigger releases the firing mechanism.
PLINKING- The informal shooting at inanimate objects at indefinite points. Note:
Plinking typically refers to casual shooting at pine cones, tin cans, or other such objects
for fun and practice.
POWDER- Commonly used term for the propellant in a cartridge or shotshell. See also
PROPELLANT.
POWDER, BLACK- The earliest type of propellant, allegedly made by the Chinese or
Hindus. First used for firearms in the 13th century, it is a mechanical mixture of
potassium or sodium nitrate, charcoal, and sulfur. It makes a large cloud of smoke when
fired.
POWDER, SMOKELESS- A modern propellant containing mainly nitrocellulose or
both nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin. Relatively little smoke is created when fired.
PRESSURE- The force developed by the expanding gases generated by the combustion
of the propellant.
PRIMER- The ignition component consisting of brass or gilding metal cup, priming
mixture, anvil, and foiling disc. It creates a spark when hit by a firing pin, igniting the
propellant powder.
PROPELLANT- The chemical composition which, when ignited by a primer, generate
gas. The gas propels the projectile. See also POWDER
RECEIVER- The basic unit of a firearm which houses the firing mechanism and to
which the barrel and stock are assembled. In revolvers, pistols and break-open firearms, it
is called the frame.
RECOIL- The rearward movement of a firearm resulting from firing a cartridge or shell.
RECOIL PAD- A butt plate, usually made of rubber, to reduce the recoil or "kick" of
shoulder firearms.
RELOAD- A round of ammunition that has been assembled using fired cases. Note:
Reloading is very popular among recreational target shooters, competitive shooters, and
hunters. In addition to being cost-effective, reloading enables shooters to develop
ammunition specifically designed for particular shooting disciplines or games.
REVOLVER- A firearm with a cylinder having several chambers so arranged as to
rotate around an axis and be discharged successively by the same firing mechanism. A
semi-automatic pistol is not a revolver because it does not have a revolving cylinder.
RIFLE- A firearm having spiral grooves in the bore and designed to be fired from the
shoulder. By law, rifle barrels must be at least 16" long. Handguns usually have rifled
barrels as well.
RIFLING- Grooves formed in the bore of a firearm barrel to impart rotary motion to a
projectile.
ROUND- One complete small arms cartridge.
SAFETY- A device on a firearm designed to provide protection against accidental or
unintentional discharge under normal usage when properly engaged.
SEMI-AUTOMATIC- Firearm which fires, extracts, ejects, and reloads only once for
each pull and release of the trigger.
SHOTGUN- A smooth bore shoulder firearm designed to fire shells containing
numerous pellets or a single slug.
SHOTSHELL- A round of ammunition containing multiple pellets for use in a shotgun.
The multiple pellets in a shotshell are called SHELL.
 106

SILENCER- A device attached to the muzzle of a firearm to reduce the noise of

discharge. Silencers are virtually prohibited for civilian ownership and use.
SKEET- A clay target shooting sport with a shotgun. Shooters fire at clay targets
crossing in front of them.
SKEET GUN- A shotgun with an open choke specifically designed for clay target skeet
shooting or close range hunting.
SPORTING CLAYS- Often called "golf with a shotgun," it is a sport in which shooters,
using shotguns, fire at clay targets from different stations on a course laid out over
varying terrain.
STOCK- The wood, fiberglass, wood laminate or plastic component to which the barrel
and receiver are attached.
TARGET, CLAY- A circular, domed frangible disc used as an aerial target for shotgun
shooting games. Originally formed out of clay, modern targets are combination of pitch
and limestone. Dimensions and weights are regulated by trap and skeet shooting
associations. They are often called "clay pigeons."
TRAJECTORY- The path of a bullet through the air.
TRAP- A clay target throwing device, either power or hand-operated.
TRAP SHOOTING- A clay target shooting sport with a shotgun. Shooters fire at clay
targets flying away from them. Shooters stand behind the trap at a distance from 16 to 27
yards.
TRIGGER, HAIR- A slang term for a trigger requiring very low force to actuate. Note:
Hair triggers are frequently used on a competitive target rifles and pistols for increased
accuracy. The reduced force needed to pull the trigger allows the shooter's firearm to
remain steady.
TRIGGER LOCK- An accessory for blocking a firearm from unauthorized use. Most
trigger lock manufacturers advise against the use of a trigger lock on a loaded firearm, as
shifting the lock against the trigger could fire the gun.
TRIGGER PULL- The average force which must be applied to the trigger to cause the
firearm to fire. Note: Typically, non-target mode-firearms have a minimum trigger pull of
3 pounds. Double action revolvers often have a long, heavy trigger pull of around 10
pounds.
UNLOAD- The complete removal of all unfired ammunition from a firearm.
VELOCITY- The speed of a projectile at any point along its trajectory, usually listed in
"feet per second."
WAD- A space device in a shotshell, usually a cup-formed plastic or paper discs, that
separates the propellant powder from the shot.
WEAPON- An instrument used in combat. The term is never used in referring to
sporting firearms.