ICT TEACHER HANDBOOK

(Computer Education)

Class - X

State Council of Educational Research & Training,

Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad.
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 Content Development Committee

Sri G.V.S.P. Kumar, Trustee, Remedia Trust, Hyderabad.

Sri M. Jagadish Babu, Programme Officer, C-DAC, Hyderabad.
Sri Mahesh Varal, Consultant, I.T., Hyderabad.
Sri M. Ramanjaneyulu, Lecturer, DIET Vikarabad, Rangareddy.

Editing & Co-ordination

Dr. P. Jani Reddy Dr. N. Upender Reddy

Lecturer, DIET, Vikarabad Professor & Head , C &T Department,
Rangareddy Dist. SCERT, A.P., Hyderabad.

Advisor

Sri G. Gopal Reddy

Director
State Council of Educational Research & Training,
Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad.
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 Foreword
Information Communication Technology (ICT) is one of the rapidly changing
area in domain of learning. The main purpose of introducing ICT in schools is to help
the students to make use of different ICT tools in enhancing their learning. The ICT
education helps the students to face the challenges of 21st century and attain the
millennium developmental goals in education. ICT also helps in reducing the digital
divide among the rural and urban students.
As per the UNESCO “technology can be a powerful education multiplier, but
we must know how to use it. It is not enough to install technology into classrooms- it
must be integrated into learning. Nothing can be substitute for a good teacher. It is not
technology itself that empowers people- empowerment comes from skills and
knowledge”.
The teachers have become more critical than ever- the challenge is how to
enable teachers not only to overcome the technology barriers but also to empower
them to integrate appropriate technology into the teaching and learning process.
This handbook contains the required content in using the different tools and use
them in other subjects i.e. Mathematics, Science, Social Science and languages.
The SCERT, A.P, Hyderabad appreciates the efforts of the content experts and
other team members in developing this ICT handbook. We also acknowledge the
C-DAC, Hyderabad for sharing their content related to software security in the
preparation of this handbook.
We hope, the teacher may find this handbook useful and transact it in the classroom
to enhance the learning levels of the students and also infuse confidence among them
as they were not left behind in using technology on par with other students who are
studying in corporate schools.

Date: 24.05.2014 Director

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 Class - X

CONTENTS

Sl.No. Name of the Chapter Page No.

Introduction 1 - 4

1. Advantages of ICT Education – Advantages 5 - 10

2. More about Tablet PC 11 - 13

3. More about Web Camera 14 - 16

4. Understand Modem 17 - 20

5. Factors Effecting Computer performance 21 - 22

6. Configuring Windows for Network 23 - 28

7. Computer Virus 29 - 30

8. Windows – Files and Folders 31 - 39

9. Animations in Power Point 40 - 44

10. Creating Tables Word document 45 - 53

11. Charts in Excel 54 - 59

12. Understand Queries, Forms and Reports

in MS Access 60 - 70
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13. Object Oriented Programming (OOPS)-Concept 71 - 123

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 Instructions to Teachers
The main purpose of introducing ICT in school syllabus is to help the children understand
how to make use of ICT tools in enhancing their learning.

This material is meant for teacher only. Hence, the teacher should read, understand
and add their experience while transacting the same to students.

Prepare a year plan in advance keeping in view of the number of periods available
under computer education.

Read all the topics given in the handbook and prepare thoroughly before start teaching.

Refer to relevant material and consult the experts in case of any doubts.

Before going to practice, the theory/ content should be explained to students then
only demo and practice sessions should be taken up.

All abbreviations must be thoroughly practised by the teacher before teaching.

Update your knowledge in software and hardware in addition to the latest ICT tools.
Use internet to update the knowledge in the given topics.

Ensure all children get equal opportunities in practices.

There will be two periods in a week for ICT (Computer Education) subject,
accordingly, teacher has to plan for transaction.

Few projects are given at the end of the handbook. All students should do these
projects. In addition to these, you may consult your colleagues and identify some
more projects and assign to your students.

Assessment :

Children’s performance should be assessed at the end of each summative based on

the indicators given below:
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Students are able to operate and use the ICT tools;

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Students are able to learn subject-wise content by using ICT tools.

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 There is no written test. The children performance should be assessed through
observation based on their participation and their ability in using the ICT tools in their
learning.
Assessment Indicators
In addition to grading the qualitative Indicators are to be written in the students’
progress report under Computer Education. The following are the indicators:

A1 Students can use all the tools of the ICT and can use them effectively in their learning.

A2 Students can use all the tools of the ICT and able to use them in their learning.

B1 Students are able to use different tools of ICT and able to use most of them in their
learning.

B2 Students are able to use the different tools of ICT and use some of them in their learning.

C1 Students are able to use the ICT tools and able to use a few of them in their learning.

C2 Students are able to use some of the ICT tools and try to use them in their learning.

D1 Students are able to identify the ICT tools and try to use a few of them in their learning.

D2 Students are able to identify some of the ICT tools but they are unable to use them in
their learning.

Note: The computer education is linked with Work Education and made a single
paper under other curricular subject areas. Hence, out of 50 marks, each 25 marks are to be
allotted to Work Education and Computer Education.

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 Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
Introduction
The field of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is evolving at
such a pace, where concepts, technology and terminology are continuously changing.
ICT helps to bridge the digital divide amongst students of various socio economic and
other geographical barriers. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is
universally acknowledged as an important catalyst for social transformation and national
progress.
Information and communication technology which is a by-product of science
and technology explosion has revolutionized the world of learning. It is very essential
to integrate IT with education in order to have the advantage of ICT education.
Around the world, policymakers and educators have high hopes for ICT in the
classroom as a springboard to students “21st century skills”—that combines the
competencies of problem solving, critical thinking and managing their own learning
that is needed for success in the global workplace.
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has dominated every walks
of life affecting right from bus & railway reservations, hotel industry, online money
transfers , bill payments, in class room teaching and learning process, distance
education, e-learning and film making etc..
The learning activities through ICT make a difference. Students are much more likely
to learn to solve real-world problems and collaborate productively with their peers, if
their learning activities are carefully designed to offer opportunities.
The aim of 21st Century education is being redefined. It is not only for
employment generation but also to create a better world through understanding and
development of human qualities.
In this context, the Government of India has announced 2010 – 2020 as the
decade of Innovation. For which, reasoning and critical thinking skills are essential.
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And these skills are to be inculcated at the school level for which ICT tools and
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techniques should be integrated into class room instructions right from the primary
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education level, so that the children develop the required skills. In this matter the web
is an open source and the child should know how to grab it.
According to UNESCO, education is important to achieve the Millennium
Development goals; the following are reasons for which the ICT in education is a key
aspect. i.e., ‘More people would grow and develop; More people would learn and
know; More people would be equal and just; More children would survive and live;
More mothers would be healthier; More people would be able to combat illness;
More people would think of the future; More people would work together.”
The purpose of this material is to create an awareness and practice among the
student and teacher communities with a “diverse set of technological tools, resources
used to communicate, create, disseminate, store, and manage information.” These
technologies include computers, internet, broadcasting technologies (radio and
television) and telephony.
The relevant and contemporary content, lucid language, attractive illustrations
and constructive exercises make the learning of computers more meaningful and
enriching.
The journey of the student starts right from the ICT tools available in and around
such as Radio, Tape recorder, TV, Mobile and Computer. The students of primary level
learn to draw by using MS & Tux Paint, learn to type small words, sentences, paragraphs,
making documents by using typing tutor and MS Word. Moving away a little from these
applications, the students can learn MS Excel for mathematical calculations & graphs
and MS Power Point for making subject wise presentations. Further, the students learn
the concepts of Data Base Management System (DBMS), Internet, Networking and
computer languages, maintaining the computers and its peripherals. The students are
also introduced to learn about the Antivirus, Computer security and privacy and open
source software technologies.
This material is useful in acquiring the concepts in a better way which make the
student journey in learning more fruitful and engrossing. It has been developed in tune
with the guidelines given by NCF-2005 and with various activity based methods. This
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will lay down a path to create interest to take up high level computer education courses
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in future and career.

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 The government had initiated Computer Education and Computer Aided Learning
in selected Primary, Upper Primary and High Schools. A huge number of teachers in
the State already have been trained to use computers in their regular class room
transactions and a lot of computer aided learning material also has been developed and
supplied to schools.
As part of Education Technology Policy, the Education Department of Andhra
Pradesh has been developing a large quantity of material in the form of Audio
(Radio Programs under Vindam Nerchukundam), Audio and Video based programs (SIET
and SAP Net) and Computer based programs(CDs) in collaboration with NGOs.
The Objectives of the ICT in School Education:
To inculcate the ICT skills among the students of government schools.
To bridge the digital divide between rural and urban students.
To create computer awareness and literacy among students and teachers.
To provide ICT environment in schools to make teaching-learning process
effective and interesting
To train the teachers on computer syllabi, emerging information and
communication technologies.
To develop confidence in students to use computers in future.
Student-centered pedagogies that promote personalized and powerful learning
for students;
Extending learning beyond the classroom in ways most relevant to knowledge-
building and problem-solving in today’s world; and
ICT integration into pedagogy in ways that support learning goals. It is important
to note that ICT use is not a goal in itself, but a tool to broaden and deepen
learning opportunities.
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Teaching Learning Process
The ICT material has been developed from class 1 to class 10. The teacher can
act as a facilitator to help the students in their learning process. In every Unit the
teacher explains the concepts and students do the activities/projects with ICT tools and
finally able to integrate with their subjects.
Academic Standards and Assessment
Academic Standards
The students are shall operate and use the ICT tools;
Students are shall learn subject wise contents through the ICT tools.
Assessment Process
At the end of the each chapter exercises and projects have been given. On the
basis of the students performance appropriate grade may be awarded in summative
assessment.

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 Chapter - 1
Advantages of ICT Education –
Advantages
What is ICT – Advantages
Learning Objectives
In this chapter you will be able to understand about ;
ICT in Education
Advantages of ICT
Scope of ICT in Rural Development
Recent developments in Information and Communication Technology (ICT) have
introduced a plethora of opportunities for development in every conceivable area. ICT as
an enabler has broken all bounds of cost, distance and time. The fusion of computing and
communications, especially through the internet has reduced the world indeed into global
village creating new actors and new environments.
One of the major components and driving force of rural development is
communication. Conventionally, communication includes electronic media, human
communication & now information technology (IT). All forms of communications have
dominated the development scene in which its persuasive role has been most dominant
within the democratic political frame work of the country. Persuasive communication for
rural development has been given highest priority for bringing about desirable social and
behavioral change among the most vulnerable rural poor and women. Initially, the approach
lacked gender sensitivity and empathy of the communicators and development agents who
came from urban elite homes. Added to these constraints is political will that still influences
the pace and progress of rural development. Technological changes further compounded
the direction of rural development as information and communication technology (ICT)
has been thought by communication and development workers as a panacea for other ills
that obstructs the development process. It has lead to indiscriminate applications and use
of ICT in every aspect of information dissemination, management & governance of
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development. While there are few shining examples of achievements of ICT in development,
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there are a large number of failures and unauthenticated claims.

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 The closing decade of twentieth century was the opening of historic information and
communication technology interventions for development. This period has witnessed
enormous and unprecedented changes in every aspect of communications technologies
policies, infrastructure development and services. The ICT boom in India has already started
changing the lives of Indian masses. The role of ICT in Rural Development must be viewed
in this changing scenario.
Expected Role of ICT in Rural Development
Since the dawn of independence, concerted efforts have been made to ameliorate
the living standard of rural masses. So, rural development is an integrated concept of growth,
and poverty elimination has been of paramount concern in all the five year plans. Rural
Development (RD) programmes comprise of following:
Provision of basic infrastructure facilities in the rural areas e.g. schools, health
facilities, roads, drinking water, electrification etc.
Improving agricultural productivity in the rural areas.
Provision of social services like health and education for socio-economic development.
Implementing schemes for the promotion of rural industry increasing agriculture
productivity, providing rural employment etc.
Assistance to individual families and Self Help Groups (SHG) living below poverty
line by providing productive resources through credit and subsidy.
Communication has been seen by a large number of development planners as a
panacea for solving major social evils and problems. Apart from development, the
introduction of communication in the educational process for open and distance learning is
seen as step towards improving the quality of education and bridging the social and
educational gap. ICT can be used towards betterment of education, agriculture, social
awareness and health and hygiene.
Experiences and experiments
Communication has been seen by a large number of development planners as a
panacea for solving major social ills and problems. Apart from development, the introduction
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of communication in the educational process for open and distance learning is seen as step
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towards improving the quality of education and bridging the social and educational gap.
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However, experience indicates that those rich who could afford to have access to private
resources have hogged the advantage whether development or education. In this respect it
seems that communication technology has, in no way has helped the poor for improving
their socio-economic condition. Primarily the responsibility of rural development remained
with the government. In the pre-economic liberalization period, i.e. before 1992 broadcast
media were used to reach the large rural population or target groups for the rural development
projects. In the post economic liberalization period, rural development projects added
information and communication technology (ICT) to provide individual need based
information in broad development areas through Internet.
After independence, the government took upon itself the major responsibility of
development. Hence, the central and state governments carried out development projects.
Two such projects are briefly described.
Radio for Rural Development Popularly known as “Radio Farm Forum” was one of
the earliest efforts in the use of radio for rural development. The experiment was carried
out from February to April 1956 in five districts of Maharashtra State by All India Radio
(AIR). Rural listener groups were organized, who would listen to radio broadcasts twice a
week at 6.30p.m. for half an hour. “The group then stayed together for discussion of what
they had heard, the discussion lasted usually, about half an hour, seldom less, frequently
more”. The summative impact evaluation indicated positive outcome of radio rural forum.
Impressive knowledge gains as a result of radio listening were reported across illiterates
and literates, agriculturists and non-agriculturists, village leaders and others. However, over
a period of time the project withered away.
Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) is considered to be one of
the biggest techno-social communication experiments in education and rural development.
The one-year experiment (August 1975 - July1976) aimed to provide direct broadcasting
of instructional and educational television in 2400 villages in states of Andhra Pradesh,
Bihar, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Rajasthan. Over 500 conventional television
sets spread over 335 villages in Kheda district, Gujarat was also part of SITE. Satellite
technologists had called SITE as leap fogging from bullock cart stage to satellite
communication, which did not discriminate between rural poor and urban rich for information
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and communication. It had given 50 years communication lead to rural poor of the country.
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 SITE provided telecast for rural primary school children in the age group 5 - 12 years
studying in grades 1-5. Rural adults viewed television programmes on improved agricultural
practices, health and family planning. They were also able to view news. Television was
considered as window to the world. The telecast reliability was above 99 per cent during the
experiment period. More than 90 per cent direct reception television sets were in working.
Both quantitative (survey) and qualitative in-depth (anthropological holistic study)
evaluation indicated modest gains in some areas, whereas no gain or negative gain in other
areas. The one-year duration was thought to be too little for any positive results. Based on
the experiences and positive gains, INSAT satellite was launched in 1981. Since then a series
of INSAT satellites have been launched and used for nationwide television telecast for
education and development. The sad part is that, in spite of best efforts, satellite television
has been used for entertainment more than rural development. I am sad that my prediction
came true that satellite television will be used for entertainment and not rural development.
Communication Technology and Rural Development in India could not be
operationalised for large-scale implementation in one form or the other. Lack of political
will and indifference of bureaucracy killed the rural development project even before it
could help poor to take advantage of radio broadcast.
ICT and e-Governance for Rural Development
Several states have initiated the creation of State Wide Area Networks (SWAN) to
facilitate electronic access of the state and district administration services to the citizens
in villages. The Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) are being increasingly
used by the governments to deliver its services at the locations convenient to the citizens.
The rural ICT applications attempt to offer the services of central agencies (like district
administration, cooperative union, and state and central government departments) to the
citizens at their village door steps. These applications utilize the ICT in offering improved
and affordable connectivity and processing solutions.
Computerization of land records have been a great success in application of ICT in
rural development. Land records are great importance to contemporary socio economic
imperatives and their revision and updation are necessary for capturing the changes in rural
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social dynamics. Land records are an important part of rural development. The govt. of India
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started the centrally sponsored scheme of Computerization of Land Records (CoLR) in

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1988-89 with main objectives of:

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 Creating database of basic records
Facilitating the issues of copies of records
Reducing work load by elimination of drudgery of paper work
Minimizing the possibilities manipulation of land records, and
Creating a land management information system
The farmers were largely benefited CoLR. The farmers can get all necessary records
when they need it, these records are free from human arbitrations, the updating becomes
easy, free from harassment and the farmers had direct access to information regarding
their property.
Challenges of application of ICT in Rural Development
ICTs alone can’t bring about rural development. Education is one of the basic problem
for application of ICT as 40% of India’s population is illiterate. All modern economies
have demonstrated in the past that education is the first step to building the capacity which
people can then use. If the Indian economy grows at 5-6 per cent per annum as it has been
growing over last 2-3 years, then over 10-15 years the size of the Indian economy would
have doubled. Even with this level of growth it cannot by any means bridge disparities and
eradicate poverty. Therefore 8 introducing ICTs alone will not meet the development
challenge. For ICTs to succeed in India, education for all must be the first priority.
It is, of course, important to note that the proportion of the economy involved in
some or other form of adaptation or usage of ICT is still very small. The proportion of
people involved in the ICT Industry, especially in the rural areas is negligible. Thus, another
priority action, in order for the benefits of ICT to trickle down as well as contribute to the
rural prosperity, would involve setting up several rural and village level micro-enterprises.
The basic challenges that usage of ICT for rural development faces are- Illiteracy
amongst the vast multitude of people
Major power-cuts and ‘brown-outs’ affecting the country-side ranging from 5 to 12
hours every day. Even though uninterrupted power supply systems are used; yet they prove
insufficient to cope up with the power breakdowns.
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Serious band-width issues and connectivity problems. Even though technology is

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available to upgrade the band-width; not enough resources have been budgeted by the
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Government to change this scenario. However once a few projects for the upgradation of
the band-width on the anvil get commissioned, there should be a significant improvement
in the connectivity.
Financing difficulties encountered by the local grass root level institutions as well
as by the state governments. Drastic steps are needed to inject funds for the development
of the ICTs in the rural areas; increasingly by the participation of the private sector.
Acute shortage of project leaders and guides who could ensure implementation of
the ICTs at the grass root levels. Unfortunately most professionals want to work in the
urban areas where there are ample opportunities available to them for growth as well as
prosperity. In the absence of these ‘techno-catalytic’ resources; development of ICTs in
the rural areas will always be very slow.

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 Chapter - 2 More about Tablet PC

Learning Objectives
In this chapter you will be able to understand about ;
More about Tablet PC.
In our earlier class we have understand various types of tablet pc, in this chapter let
us understand the functionality and usage of tablet pen.
Using the tablet pen
One of the great things about a Tablet PC is that you can use the tablet pen to interact
with items on the screen. Here are some tips for using your tablet pen:
Make sure your Tablet PC screen and pen are properly calibrated
Calibration ensures that your Tablet PC correctly recognizes the position of your
pen. In Windows 7, when you calibrate for the first time, the screen uses 16 different
reference points. This initial calibration applies to all users of the Tablet PC. If you calibrate
again, only 4 points are used, and apply only to your user account.
Use your tablet pen even if you’re using a convertible Tablet PC in laptop
mode
You might find that this feels more natural than using a mouse or the pointing device
on your keyboard.
Turn on flicks
Use flicks to perform actions quickly and easily with your tablet pen. You can use
navigational flicks (drag up, drag down, move back, and move forward) and editing flicks
(copy, paste, undo, and delete). You can also customize flicks for actions that you use
often. For example, if you frequently use keyboard shortcuts, such as F5 or Ctrl+B, you
can assign flicks to perform the same functions as pressing those key combinations.
Use Snipping Tool to capture an area of your screen
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After snipping, you can use the captured image in an e mail message, a Windows
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Journal file, or anywhere else that you can paste an image. For example, use Snipping Tool
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to highlight important information in a spreadsheet and send it in e mail. Or, use it to capture
an interesting headline from a website to use in a presentation. You can also write on the
captured image with your tablet pen.
Use check boxes to select multiple items
Check boxes are the easiest way to select multiple items, such as files and folders,
with your tablet pen—just point to each item and select each item’s check box.
Making the most of Input Panel
With Tablet PC Input Panel, you can enter and correct text without using the keyboard.
Here are some tips to make Tablet PC Input Panel easier to use:
Customize how you access Input Panel. You can change where, when, and if Input
Panel appears on your screen
Use gestures to delete, split, and join words that you write, and to control the
insertion point. Gestures are motions that you make or symbols that you draw with your
tablet pen
Change how you use the Insert button. You can set the Insert button so that it
works when you point to it with your pen. This makes entering text faster because,
instead of tapping the button, you can just wave your pen over it.
Improving handwriting recognition accuracy
It can be frustrating if your Tablet PC doesn’t recognize your handwriting correctly.
Here are some tips for improving the chances that your handwriting is recognized correctly:
Provide lots of handwriting samples in Handwriting Personalization.
Open Handwriting Personalization by tapping the Start button . In the search box,
type personalize handwriting recognition, and then, in the list of results,
tap Personalize handwriting recognition.
Improve handwriting recognition for words such as proper names, acronyms, technical
terms, and abbreviations by adding those words to the handwriting dictionary.
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Using tablet buttons
You can use the buttons on your Tablet PC
(called tablet buttons) to perform
common tasks quickly. For example, if you
frequently open Windows Journal, you can
set a tablet button to do this for you.
Tablet buttons
You can assign two actions to most tablet
buttons. Press a button once quickly to
perform one action. Press and hold the
button to perform the other action.
Summary
In this chapter we have understand about the tablet PC pen tool.
Key Words

Snipping
Panel
Convertible
Calibrated.

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 Chapter - 3 More about Web Camera

Learning Objectives
In this chapter you will be able to understand about ;
About Web Cameras
A webcam is a video camera that feeds its image in real time to a computer or
computer network. Unlike an IP camera (which uses a direct connection using ethernet or
Wi-Fi), a webcam is generally connected by a USB cable, FireWire cable, or similar cable.
Their most popular use is the establishment of video links,
permitting computers to act as videophones or videoconference
stations. The common use as a video camera for the World Wide
Web gave the webcam its name. Other popular uses include security
surveillance, computer vision, video broadcasting, and for recording
social videos.
Early development
First developed in 1991, a webcam was pointed at the Trojan Room coffee pot in the
Cambridge University Computer Science Department. The camera was finally switched off
on August 22, 2001. The final image captured by the camera can still be viewed at its
homepage. The oldest webcam still operating is FogCam at San Francisco State University,
which has been running continuously since 1994
Later developments
One of the most widely reported-on webcam sites was JenniCam, created in 1996,
which allowed Internet users to observe the life of its namesake constantly, in the same
vein as the reality TV series Big Brother, launched four years later. Other cameras are
mounted overlooking bridges, public squares, and other public places, their output made
available on a public web page in accordance with the original concept of a “webcam”.
Aggregator websites have also been created, providing thousands of live video streams or
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up-to-date still pictures, allowing users to find live video streams based on location or
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Uses
Childcare webcast video monitoring
Childcare webcams can offer improved security, communication, and increased
service value in daycare facilities. According to researchers and industry leaders, as many
as 100 childcare facilities add Internet viewing systems each month, and the total number
of centers with some form of Internet monitoring runs into the thousands. In the United
States, private services have been offering dedicated webcasting systems to centers
nationwide for several years as of 2010.
Commerce
Webcams have been increasingly used for Augmented Reality experiences online.
One such function has the webcam act as a ‘magic mirror’ to allow an online shopper to
view a virtual item on themselves. The Webcam Social Shopper is one example of software
that utilizes the webcam in this manner.
Videocalling and videoconferencing
As webcam capabilities have been added to instant messaging, text chat services
such as AOL Instant Messenger, and VoIP services such as Skype, one-to-one live video
communication over the Internet has now reached millions of mainstream PC users
worldwide. Improved video quality has helped webcams encroach on traditional video
conferencing systems. New features such as automatic lighting controls, real-time
enhancements (retouching, wrinkle smoothing and vertical stretch), automatic face tracking
and autofocus, assist users by providing substantial ease-of-use, further increasing the
popularity of webcams.
Video security
Webcams are also used as security cameras. Software is available to allow PC-
connected cameras to watch for movement and sound, recording both when they are detected.
These recordings can then be saved to the computer, e-mailed, or uploaded to the Internet.
In one well-publicised case, a computer e-mailed images of the burglar during the theft of
the computer, enabling the owner to give police a clear picture of the burglar’s face even
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 Recently webcam privacy software has been introduced by such companies such as
Stop Being Watched or Webcamlock. The software exposes access to a webcam and prompts
the user to allow or deny access by showing what program is trying to access the webcam.
Allowing the user to accept a trusted program the user recognizes or terminate the attempt
immediately. Other companies on the market manufacture and sell sliding lens covers that
allow users to retrofit the computer and close access to the camera lens.
In December 2011, Russia announced that 290,000 Webcams would be installed in
90,000 polling stations to monitor the Russian presidential election, 2012.
Summary
In this chapter we have learnt about web camera, video conferencing.
Key Words

Video calling
Video conferencing
Magic Mirror

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 Chapter - 4 Understand Modem

About Modems
With the evolution of technology, world has contracted in to a small village. One
single click on your computer can connect you to any part of the globe. All of this has been
possible due to a small electronic device called Modem. In this information guide we will
discuss in detail about modem, its types, history, working and other important things. What
is a Modem? Modem is an electronic device that converts computer’s digital information
into analog carrier signals and vice versa. Computers use modems to communicate with
each other over a network. The word modem is derived from “modulator-demodulator”
that defines the functions it performs. How Modem Works? Modems are computer
hardware typically used to transmit digital data over a phone line. The working of modems
can be easily understood from this. Modems always work in pair. The sending modem
converts computer’s digital information into specific frequencies compatible with the phone
line, the process is called modulation. The receiving modem decodes the signal back into
the digital information, the process is known as demodulation. In wireless modems, digital
data is converted into radio signals and vice versa.

Origin Of Modems
The requirement of communication between distant computers led to the usage of
phone line for data transmission. Since the phone lines were designed to carry analog
information (voices) only and computers and its related network devices work in digital
form, a interface was needed to bridge this gap, which could act as a converter between the
two systems. The result came in the form of Modems.
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Initially modems were primarily used to communicate data between terminals and a
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was around 1960 when modems came into existence. 1960s were the age of time-shared
computers. A business would often buy computer time from a time-share facility and connect
to it via a 300-bit-per-second (bps) modem. Now modems are used for different functions.
Their applications include textual and voice mail systems, facsimiles, and they are integrated
into cellular phones, pdas, and notebook computers enabling them to send data from
anywhere. All these needs have increased the modemspeed up to 28.8 kbps.
Types of Modem
The classification of modems can be done on the basis of a number of criteria that
includes line type, operation mode, synchronization, modulation, and range. Keeping aside
all these types of modems, in this section we will discuss some of the most common and
popularly used types of modems worldwide.
DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) Modem
DSL modems are the type of modems used
to connect a PC to the Internet. These modems
provide fast Internet access as they work on high-
speed DSL connections that are considered much
faster than dial-up Internet connections. The
foremost advantage of DSL is its ability to use the
phone line to make or receive calls while connected
to the Internet. The traditional dial-up service can’t provide this service without the use of a
second phone line. DSL achieves this by adding a filter on the phone jacks in a location that
will have telephones connected to them. A DSL modem provides similar service to that
provided by a dial-up modem, the only exception is the high speed. But the setup and
technological make up of DSL modems differs from the dial up. Other major difference is
that DSL modems are external modems and connects to a computer via a USB or Ethernet
port, while the dial-up modems are usually installed inside computer terminals.
ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line) Modem
ADSL modem provides faster downloading
(getting data) than uploading (sending data). These
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telephone line can be used while accessing the Internet. ADSL service is like an “always
on” connection that cannot be left connected indefinitely. ADSL modem is faster than a
dial-up modem. Due to available bandwidth on the dedicated copper wire, ADSL modem
can accommodate a telephone conversation. An ADSL modem needs ADSL service through
an Internet Service Provider (ISP). It can’t work with a dial-up account.
SDSL (Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line) Modem
SDSL modems works on SDSL lines that provide equal bandwidth in both directions.
Such types of modems are useful for those businesses which need to upload as well as
download large files or programs to or from the Internet. These modems use voice traffic
lanes to expand bandwidth, and therefore aborting the possibility of a conversation when
the SDSL modem is connected. For this purpose a dedicated phone line is required.
Cable Modem
Cable modems are the types of modems that
uses cable TV wiring instead of the phone line to
provide Internet connectivity. They provides bi-
directional data communication via radio frequency
channels on cable television infrastructure. Cable
modems mainly deliver broadband Internet access in
the form of cable Internet taking the benefit of the high
bandwidth of a cable television network. Cable modems
work on the same principle as the DSL modem. One
needs to have service from cable TV provider for
Internet connectivity and also some network cables. The
frequencies used for data traffic and TV traffic do not
interfere each other. Cable modems are commonly
deployed in Europe, North and South America, and Australia.
Sat Modem (Satellite Modem)
One of the least common types of cable modem is a satellite modem, or sat modem. It is a
wireless modem converting digital data into radio waves to communicate with a satellite
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Internal Modem
Internal modems are installed inside desktops or laptop computers, enabling the
computer to communicate with other connected computers over a network. Internal modems
are of two types, dial-up and WiFi. Dial up modem operates over a telephone line and needs
a network access phone number and log-on credentials to do the connection. A wi-fi modem
can connect wirelessly and without credentials in certain cases.
External Modem
All the modems initially used were external modems. They were in proprietary use
for decades prior to 1981, which marks the release of the first affordable and practical
modem for public use. External modems are useful in situations when no internal slots are
available, or if the modem needs to be shared between computers that are not networked.
An external modem connected to a desktop system can easily be disconnected and connected
to different desktop or laptop. External modems for dial-up service are easy to setup and
come with instructions. They are inexpensive and available at all places where computers
are sold. These modems also include fax capability at the software level.
Summary
In this chapter we have understood about modem and types of modem.
Key Words

Satellite
Modulator
Demodulator
Asymnetric
Subscriber

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 Factors Effecting Computer
Chapter - 5
Performance
Learning Objectives
In this chapter you will be able to understand about ;
The factors affecting the computer performance.
You may be wondering why you computer is slow at times and there are other times
when it is fast in processing. This could be caused by a number of factors. They include: the
speed of the CPU, the space on the hard disk, the size of the RAM, the type of the graphics
card, the speed of the hard disk,, if the computer is multitasking, the defragmenting files.
1) The speed of the CPU The speed of the CPU is also known as the clock speed of
the CPU. The clock speed of the CPU is the frequency of which the processor
executes instructions or the frequency by which data is processed by the CPU. It
is measured in millions of cycles per second or megahertz (MHz). If the Clock
speed of the CPU is fast then definitely the performance of the computer will be
affected positively, in other words the computer will carry out processing functions
at a faster pace.
2) The size of the RAM (Random Access Memory) The RAM is referred to as the
active part of the computer. This is because the RAM has the capability of storing
data that the computer is currently using, because of the fact that it is fast to
retrieve data stored in the RAM. With the definition above, a large RAM size will
mean a faster computer performance and a smaller RAM size will result to slower
computer performance.
3) The speed of the hard disk. The hard disk speed is defined as the rate at which
material and content can be read and written on it. The hard disk speed of different
hard disks is not consistent because they vary by manufacturer, drive type and the
use of the hard disk. It therefore means that the higher the speed of the hard disk
the faster the performance of the computer and vice versa.
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 a slower performance of the computer. The hard disk is filled with data this will
use most of the memory leaving less memory for the operations of the processor.
5) Multiple applications running on the computer Multi-tasking tends to slow down
the performance of the computer because memory is used to support more than
one applications compared to when one application has all the memory to itself.
This means that the more applications that are running the slower the computer
will perform. Likewise if less or one application is running the performance of
the computer will be faster.
6) Type of graphic card When it comes to quality of pictures and animations graphic
cards are the main factors. So if a machine processes many graphics and it has a
weak graphic card it will perform slower. This means that the more powerful the
graphic card is the faster the performance of the computer.
7) Defragmenting files Files that are broken or it takes long to read them will mean
that the computer will have to defragment them first. This will slow down the
performance of the computer.
Summary
In this chapter we have understood about the factor effecting computer
performance.

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 Chapter - 6 Configuring Windows for Networks

Learning Objectives
In this chapter you will be able to understand about ;
Configure a printer in Windows
Share a printer in Windows
Add a network printer to your system
Create a new user account
Assign a password for a user account
Change the name of the computer
Change the name of a Workgroup
Configuring a Printer
A printer attached to a computer needs to be configured before you use it. You can
configure a printer in Windows either for a printer attached to your computer or for a
printer shared across the network.
Printer Driver refers to the software that enables applications such as MS Word,
Notepad, and so on, to communicate with the printer regardless of its model.
To configure a local printer in Windows:
1. Choose Start ? Printers and Faxes option. The Printers and Faxes window is displayed.
The window will be empty if there are no printers attached to it.
2. Double-click Add Printer icon. The Add Printer Wizard is displayed.
3. Click Next to continue with the wizard.
4. Choose the Local printer option to configure a local printer or the option Network
printer to configure a network printer and click Next.
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 7. In the dialog box displayed, select the model and the manufacturer of your printer.
Based on the selected model and the manufacturer, the corresponding printer software
is automatically installed.
8. Type a name for the printer in the Printer name text box and click Next.
9. Select Do not share this printer in Printer Sharing Dialog Box. Click Next.
10. Select the Yes option to print a test page, otherwise, click No.
11. Finally, click Finish to complete the configuration.
This will configure a local printer attached to the computer.
Sharing a Printer
Hardware resources, like printers are expensive. Connecting a printer to each
computer on a network is very expensive. Hence, a single printer on a network can be shared
and accessed by other users in a LAN. Printers can be shared after they are configured, by
following the steps given below.
To share a printer:
1. Choose Start ? Printers and Faxes option.
2. Right-click the printer icon which you want to share.
3. Select the Sharing option from the pop-up menu.
4. Select the Share this printer option and specify a Share name.
5. Click the Apply button and then click the OK button.
User Accounts
A user is a person who uses the resources on a computer and the network. Each user
has a user account. A user account contains information such as user name and password
for the account. User name is an identification of a user on a network and should be unique.
Types of user accounts :
The Computer Administrator account is used to
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Create, change and delete accounts

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Make system-wide changes

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 Install various programs and access files
The Limited account is used to
Change or remove your password
Change your picture, theme and desktop setting
View the files that you created
View the contents of the Shared Documents folder
Users with limited account will not be able to install certain programs. Therefore, it
is better to choose the computer administrator account type.
Logging in as Different User
There can be many user accounts for a single PC. Each user can have their own files
and documents. The Log Off option is used to log off from the current user. Once you have
logged off, you can log in as a new user, but when you log off from the current account, you
have to close all applications running currently. Only after you exit all applications, you
will be able to log off.
To log in as a different user:
1. Click Start ? Shut Down… Option Select Log Off User name.
2. Click the OK button.
The Windows desktop will be opened for the new user.
Computer Name
Every computer on a network should have a
unique name. This helps you identify the computer
easily in the network. A computer name can consist
of alphanumeric characters with no spaces in between.
The name specified at the time of installation can be
changed at any point of time.
To change the name of a computer:
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2. From the pop up menu displayed, select the
Properties option.
3. System Properties dialog box is displayed.
4. Select the Computer Name tab from the System
Properties dialog box.
5. Click the Change….button.
A Computer Name Changes dialog box is
displayed.
6. Type a new name in Computer Name text box,
and click the OK button.
The Computer Name Changes dialog
A message asking you to restart the Computer box
to apply the changes is displayed.
7. Click the OK button to close the System Properties dialog box. A message will be
displayed where the system will ask if you want to restart the machine.
8. Click Yes and restart the computer since the change will take effect only when you
restart the computer.
Workgroup Name
A workgroup is a logical grouping of computers, which enable users to browse the
network.
Consider a network of 20 computers. Let the name of the workgroup be ‘Workgroup1’.
Here, assume that you want to isolate the last five computers and form a separate workgroup.
This can be easily implemented by changing the workgroup name for the last five computers.
They will now form a new workgroup and will not be a part of ‘Workgroup1’.
To change the workgroup name:
1. Right click the My Computer icon on the desktop.
2. From the pop up menu displayed, select the Properties option.
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3. System Properties dialog box is displayed.

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4. Select the Computer Name tab from the System Properties dialog box.
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5. Click the Change….button.
A Computer Name Changes dialog box is displayed.
6. Type a new name in the Workgroup text box of Member of section, and click the OK
button.
A message asking you to restart the Computer to apply the changes is displayed.
7. Click the OK button to close the System Properties dialog box . A message will be
displayed where the system will ask if you want to restart the machine.
8. Click Yes and restart the computer since the change will take effect only when you
restart the computer.
Summary
A printer can be configured either for a printer attached to a local computer or for a
printer shared across a network.
A printer can be configured using the Add Printer Wizard.
A printer on a network can be shared and accessed by users on a network.
To access a printer attached to another computer on the network, the printer should be
added to your local computer.
A user is a person who uses the resources on a computer and network. Each user has a
user account. The user account contains information such as user name and password
for the account.
The two types of user accounts that can be created are Computer Administrator and
Limited.
Creating a password for a user account restricts the access to the account, only to
users who know the password.
Every computer on a network should have a unique name. This helps you identify the
computer easily on the network. This name can be changed using the System option.
A workgroup is a logical grouping of computers, which enable users to browse the
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 Teacher Activity

Demonstrate printer configuration.

Test Your Knowledge

Fill in the blanks

1. Refers to the software that enables applications such as MS Word to communicate
with the printer.
2. A network printer can be added to your computer by using the wizard.
3. A user account contains information such as and for the account.
4. The account is used to install various programs.
5. The limited account is used to view the contents of the folder.
6. A password can have________ _, __________ and _________ .
7. The option is used to switch between users without closing the currently running
programs.
8. A computer name can consist of characters.
9. A is a logical grouping of computers, which enable users to browse the network.
10. The user account is used to change or remove your password.

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 Chapter - 7 Computer Virus
Learning Objectives
In this chapter you will be able to understand about ;
Different types of virus.
Malware
Malware, or malicious software, is a term that encompasses any software designed
to corrupt one’s computer. Viruses, trojans, worms, and spyware are some examples of
malware. The entire purpose of malware is to disrupt or deny the computer’s ability to
function properly, and possibly access private information such as credit card numbers,
passwords, social security numbers, or tax information that one may have saved in a folder.
In the following sections we will discuss some of the common types of malware.
Computer Viruses
A computer virus works just like a virus would in the human body. It is an infected
file that makes its way onto your computer. It then reproduces itself, spreading throughout
your computer and even onto other computers by attaching itself to files shared on a network
and accessed by other people.
To initiate the ability to reproduce, a virus will hide in executable files, in other
words, in files that run programs. The virus may lie dormant in this file until you actually
run the program, at which point the virus will also start running, reproducing, and wreaking
havoc on your computer. An example scenario would be that you download a game or
computer program from a pirating website or program, such as Limewire. Once downloaded,
you click to run the executable file, unknowingly downloading the virus that is attached to
your computer.
Trojans
You may remember the story of the Trojan Horse in mythology. This was a large
wooden structure built and given to Troy by the Greeks as a “peace” offering. The Trojans
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accepted the gift, and the horse was wheeled into the walled city. Hidden inside were Greek
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soldiers, who attacked the sleeping Trojans from inside their own walls. A trojan horse, or
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trojan, is just that, a seemingly innocuous file containing hidden malicious code waiting to
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attack your computer when you least expect it. This is not a virus, as it does not reproduce
itself, but it is still just a dangerous. A trojan file will appear to be a simple computer
program that you have downloaded, for example a program that states it will remove malware,
when it too is malware. Once running, it will appear to be removing the malicious software
while at the same time trying to access and steal your personal information.
How to Avoid Downloading Malicious Software
The most obvious thing to do to avoid downloading malware onto your computer is
to not download at all. However, this is not always possible since sometimes you need to
download software required to do your work such as Open Office, Java, Adobe, etc. So,
when downloading a file, always make certain you are accessing the file from a reputable
site. CNET.com is one site example that is normally quite secure to download programs
from. Be particularly careful to avoid downloading anything from advertisements and pop-
ups.
Also, make certain that your computer is running an up-to-date scanning software.
The purpose of these programs are to help catch, contain, and sometimes removal malicious
software that may have made it on to your computer. These programs may be free, such
as AVG free, or have paid versions that require a yearly subscription, such as Webroot.
Test Your Knowledge

Answer the following.

1) List at least two ways, not mentioned in the lesson, a virus may get on to your computer.
What steps could have been done to avoid this happening?
2) What does it mean when a virus scanner has “quarantined” an infected file on your
computer?
3) What does it mean to reformat your computer? Why would someone have to do this?

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 Chapter - 8 Windows - Files and Folders
Learning Objectives
In this chapter you will be able to understand about ;
Rename files and folders
Copy and move files and folders
Select multiple files and folders
Delete files and folders
Empty the Recycle Bin
Restore a file from the Recycle Bin
Introduction
Windows allows you to change file names. Windows also allows you to copy, move
and delete files and folders. Such actions performed on files are called file operations. These
actions can be performed on folders also. All these operations can be performed by using
either My Computer or Windows Explorer.
Renaming Files and Folders
Changing the names of files or folders
is called renaming.
In the previous class, you had created a
text file having your friends’ names and
addresses. The name of the file is “New Text
Document”. Suppose you want the file name
to be changed to “Addresses”.
To rename a file:
Figure 1: The Rename option on the File
1. Select the “New Text Document” file. menu
2. Click the File menu.
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3. Click the Rename option (refer Figure 1).

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The file name “New Text Document” is highlighted (refer Figure 2).
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4. Type the name “Addresses”.
5. Press the Enter key. Figure 2: Highlighted file
The file name changes to “Addresses”. name

Alternatively,
1. Right-click the file.
A pop-up menu appears.
2. Click the Rename option as shown in Figure 3.
Tip : Alternatively, press the F2 key to rename a file.
Suppose you now want to change the name of your
folder to “MyFolder”. Renaming a folder is similar to
renaming a file. You can use any of the above methods to
rename the folder.
Figure 3: The Shortcut menu
Copying a File or Folder
You now know how to create a folder and then, create a file in it. Suppose you want
to make a copy of the text file “Addresses” on the desktop.
You can copy files and folder using My Computer or Windows Explorer. To copy
the file by using Windows Explorer:
1. Open the Windows Explorer window.
2. Select the file “Addresses”.
3. Click the Edit menu.
4. Click the Copy option (refer Figure 4).
5. Select the Desktop icon in the left pane of the window.
6. Click the Edit menu.
Figure 4: The Copy
7. Click the Paste option. option on the Edit
menu
Your file has now been copied to the desktop.
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Moving Files and Folders
Your folder is currently in the C: drive. Suppose you want it to be moved to the My
Documents folder.
To move files or folders by using Windows Explorer:
1. Select the “MyFolder” folder.
2. Click the Edit Menu.
3. Click the Cut option.
4. Select the My Documents folder.
5. Click the Edit menu.
6. Click the Paste option.
Now, the MyFolder folder has been moved Figure 5 : Folder after being moved into
to the My Documents folder (refer Figure 5). My Documents

Note : Alternatively, right-click the file or folder and select the Cut option on the
pop-up menu.
Selecting Multiple Folders and Files
Consider the following situation.
You have created a new folder called “My Pictures” under the My Documents folder.
You also created a number of drawings in Paint and saved the pictures under this folder.
You want to make a copy of all these pictures on the desktop. But it is very time-
consuming to copy the files one by one. Windows helps you by
allowing you to copy or move multiple files at the same time. For
this, you must know how to select multiple files.
To select all files and folders within a folder:
1. Open the folder. The contents of the folder appear in the right
pane.
2. Click the Edit menu.
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Figure 6: The Select

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3. Click the Select All option (refer Figure 6). All option
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All the files within the “My Pictures” folder are selected as shown in the Figure 7.
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 Now, you have to use the Copy
and Paste options only once to copy
the pictures to the desktop.
Tip : Alternatively, press the Ctrl
and A keys together to select all
the files and folder in a folder.
Consider a situation where you do
not want to select all the files but
want to select the last three files. The
Shift key can used to select
Figure 7: Files selected using the Select All option
consecutive files and folders.
To select consecutive files by using the Shift key:
1. Click the first item to be selected, in this case, the file “My House”.
2. Press and hold the Shift key.
3. Click the last item to be selected, in this case, the file “Town”.
All the files between the first and the last item you clicked are selected. The selected
files and folder are shown as in Figure 8.
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Figure 8: Files selected using the Shift key

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 Windows also provides an option to select all the files and folder within a particular
folder.
You just saw how to select consecutive files from a folder. Windows also allows you
to select non-consecutive files in a folder. This is possible by using the Ctrl key.
To select multiple files by using the Ctrl key:
1. Click the first item to be selected.
2. Press and hold the Ctrl key.
3. Click each of the items to be selected.
The selected files and folder are shown as in Figure 9.

Figure 9: Files selected using the Ctrl key

Deleting Files and Folders
Windows allows you to delete files and folders on your computer. Deleting files
that you no longer need frees disk space and also keeps your data well organised.
For example, if you want to delete the file “Addresses” from the folder “MyFolder”:
1. Select the file you want to delete.
2. Click the File menu.
3. Click the Delete option.
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Figure 10 where it asks for confirmation

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The Recycle Bin
The Recycle Bin holds all the deleted items. When a file or folder
is deleted, it is deleted from the folder or drives and stored in the Figure 11: The
Recycle Bin icon
Recycle Bin.
1. Double-click the Recycle Bin icon (refer Figure 11).
2. The Recycle Bin window is displayed (refer Figure 12).

Figure 12: The Recycle Bin window

To restore a file or folder back to its original location,

1. Select the file or folder.
2. Click the File menu.
3. Click the Restore option.
Alternatively, right-click the file or folder and click the Restore option on the shortcut
menu.
Tip : You can also restore a file or folder by selecting it and clicking the Restore
this item option from the left pane.
To restore all the items,
Click the Restore all items option from the left pane (refer Figure 12).
To delete a file or folder permanently from the Recycle Bin, perform the following
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1. Select the file or folder.
2. Click the File menu.
3. Click the Delete option.
Figure 13: Warning dialog box
Alternatively, select the file and press the
Delete key.
A warning dialog box is displayed asking for confirmation before deleting a file or
folder. If you really want to delete the file or folder, click Yes. Otherwise, click No.
Note : Once you delete the file from the Recycle Bin, you cannot restore it again.
To empty the Recycle Bin,
1. Click the Empty the Recycle Bin option on the
left pane.
A warning dialog box is displayed asking for the
Figure 14 : Warning dialog box confirmation. (refer Figure: 14)
If you want to empty the Recycle Bin, click Yes.Otherwise, click No.
Sharing a Folder
A folder is a means of organising programs and documents on a disk and can hold
both files and additional folders within it. Folders can contain different types of files such
as documents, music, pictures and programs. Windows XP allows you to share a folder on
the network. Sharing allows other users to access the folder on your computer through the
network.
To share a folder,
1. Click the Start button. Select this
option to
2. Click the My Computer option. share the
folder on the
3. Double-click the drive where the folder is network
placed.
4. Select and right-click the folder that has to be
Figure 15 : Folderpropertiesdialogbox
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5. Click the Sharing and Security option on the shortcut menu.

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 The Properties dialog box of the folder is displayed (refer Figure 15).
6. Select the Share this folder on network checkbox.
If you do not want the network users to make any changes to this folder, clear the
Allow network users to change my file checkbox.
7. Click the Apply button, and then click the OK button.
Note : The Sharing option is not available for the Documents and Settings,
Program Files and Windows system folders.
You can also change the shared name of the folder. To change the name of the folder
on the network, enter a new name in the Share Name text box. This will not change the
name of the folder on your computer, but will only the name as others will see.
Now You Know :
You can rename, copy, move or delete a folder using Windows Explorer.
Teacher Activity

Demonstrate all menu options.

Student Activity

My Folder

My School My Favourites

1. Create a folder in the C.

2. Rename the folder as “MyFolder”.
3. Create two folders under “MyFolder” namely, “MySchool” and “MyFavourites”.
4. Create two Text documents under the folder “MySchool” and rename it as “Marklist”
and “Friendslist” respectively.
5. Create a Paint file under the “MyFavourites” folder and rename it as “FavouritePicture”.
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6. Move the “FavouritePicture” file from the “MyFavourite” folder to the “MySchool”
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7. Copy the “Friendslist” file from the “MySchool” folder to the “MyFavourite” folder.
8. Make a copy of the “Friendslist” file in the “MyFavourites” folder.
9. Delete the “Friendslist” document in the “MySchool” folder.
10. Open the Recycle Bin and restore the deleted file.
11. Permanently delete the copy of the “Friendslist” file in the “MyFavourites” folder.
12. Share the folder “My Folder”.

Test Your Knowledge

Fill in the blanks

1. You can change the name of your folder using the ____________ option.
2. The _________ option is used to copy a file from one place to another.
3. To select the files successively the _________key is used.
4. When a file is deleted from a folder, they are moved to the ______________.
5. The ___________ option is used to delete all the files and folders in the Recycle Bin.
6. Data, information and other resources can be shared across machines by sharing the
_____________.
True or False
1. You cannot delete a folder, if it is going to hold few files.
2. You can change the name of a folder or file.
3. The Ctrl key is used to select the files and folders that are consecutive.
4. The Select All option is used to select all the files and folders.

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 Chapter - 9 Animations in Power Point
Learning Objectives
In this chapter you will be able to understand about ;
Add custom animations to slide objects
Time your presentation
Adding Custom Animation
Rahul shows the presentation created by him to his father. He has also added slide
transitions to his slides. His father suggests that he add some more special effects to the
presentation. Rahul asks his father how he could do this. His father tells him that he can
animate the different objects present in the slides.
The Custom Animation option is used to create your own animation schemes. This
allows you to control how and when you want an item to appear on a slide, during your
presentation. For example, you can make the slide text fly in from the left when you click
the mouse.
Custom animations make the presentation more attractive and professional since
the user is allowed to choose suitable effects for each item on the slide.
To apply custom animation:
1. Select the slide that has the text or objects you want to animate.
2. Select the object you want to animate.
3. Click the Animations tab.
4. Click the Custom Animation button from the Animations group.
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The Custom Animation button in the Animations group

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The Custom Animation task pane appears.
5. In the Custom Animation task pane, click
the button and choose one or
more animation effect(s) for the objects.
The Add Effect list allows you to add one
or more custom animation effects to the
selected object.
The options available in the Add Effect
list are:
Entrance: Used to set the entry
animation for an object.
Emphasis: Used to set the animation for
an object, which starts after the object enters
the slide.
The Custom Animation task pane

Exit: Used to set the exit animation for an object.

Motion Paths: Used to move the objects in a specific
path.
Each of the above options displays some commonly
used effects. You can view the other effects by clicking the
More Effects option available under each category.
6. Select the required Property option.
The Property drop-down list is used to specify the
direction from which the animation should play.
7. Select the required Start option.
The Start drop-down down list is used to specify the The Add Effects list
timing of the animation event in relation to the other events on the slide. The choices
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On Click – Animation event begins when you click the mouse on the slide.
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 With Previous – Animation sequence begins at the same time as the previous item in
the list (that is, one click can execute two animation effects).
After Previous – Animation sequence begins immediately after the previous animation
in the list is finished playing, that is, no additional click is required to make the next
sequence start.
8. Set the speed in the Speed list.
The Speed option is used to specify the speed level at which the text or object should
appear during the show. The various speed levels are Very Slow, Slow, Medium, Fast
and Very Fast.
9. Change the sequence of animations if you want to, by using the Re-order option. The
objects along with the effects appear in the Custom Animation list, in the order you
apply them. To change the order, select the item you want to move from the list and
drag it to another position in the list.
10. Click the Play button to preview the animation.
Note : If you want to remove an effect, select the animation item in the Custom
Animation list and then click the button in the Custom Animation task
pane.
Motion Paths
Motion Path refers to a path that a specified object or text will follow as part of an
animation sequence for a slide.
To apply or draw a motion path:
1. Select the text or object you want to animate.
2. In the Custom Animation task pane, click the Add Effect button and select the Motion
Paths option.
3. Apply a preset motion path or create a custom motion path by using the options available
under it.
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Timing Your Presentation
Rahul asks his father what he must do if he wants the presentation to move forward
on its own. His father suggests that he use the rehearsal mode. The rehearsal mode lets you
adjust the timing so that viewers have enough time for each slide.
To apply timings for slide transition:
1. Click the Slide Show tab.
2. Click the Rehearse Timings button from the
Set Up group.
The presentation enters the Slide Show mode The Rehearse Timings button from the
Slide Show tab
and the Rehearsal dialog box appears.
3. Type the amount of time for which the current effect
should appear.

The Rehearsal toolbar 4. Click the arrow button on the Rehearsal dialog box
to move to the next effect.
5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 until all the effects have been timed.
After the timings for all the slides in the presentation have been rehearsed, a dialog
box as in appears. It displays the total time for the slide show and the question “Do you want
to record the new slide timings and use them when you view the slide show?” is displayed.
Click the Yes button to record the new timings or the No button to retain the previous
timings.

Microsoft PowerPoint dialog box

Summary
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 Teacher Activity

Demonstrate animation effects.

Student Activity

1. Create a presentation on „Pollution :

a) In the first slide, insert the title „ ‘Pollution’.
b) In the second slide, list the various „types of pollution .
c) In the third slide, list the Causes for each type of pollution.
d) Open the Custom Animation task pane.
e) Apply the, Diamond Out custom animation effect to all the objects in the presentation.
f) Set the Speed to ‘Slow’ , and the Sound to „ ‘Wind’.
g) Set the Advance Slide option to „ ‘Automatically’ after and set the timing to 3
seconds.
h) Time your presentation.
Test Your Knowledge

Fill in the Blanks

1. To add animation effects, the______________option is used.
2. To move an object in a specific path, the______________option is used.
3. The_____________option is used to change the sequence of animation.
4. The_____________mode lets you adjust the timing of each slide.
5. The_____________drop-down list provides the options for specifying the direction
of animation.

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 Chapter - 10 Creating Tables Word Document
Learning Objectives
In this chapter you will be able to understand about ;
Create a table
Enter data into a table
Add rows at the end of a table
Insert rows and columns
Change the row height and column width
Repeat the table heading in subsequent pages
Delete rows and columns
Select and delete a table
Creating a Table
Your teacher wants to keep a record of the test results in a Word table since a table
helps to organise and present data. It would also be more convenient to perform calculations
and sort the data present in a Word table than in a register. Since she is not familiar with
Word, she gives you the task of creating a table in Word to maintain the test results.
Note : A table is made up of rows and columns of cells, in which you can enter data or
insert graphics.
To insert a table in a Word document:
1. Place the cursor at the position where you want the
table.
2. Click the Insert Tab.
3. Select the Table list from the Tables group.
4. Select the Insert Table option from the submenu.
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 box appears. You can specify the number of rows and columns in the Table size
section. Word inserts a table with 2 rows and 5 columns at the cursor position.

The inserted table

Entering Details into the Table

The table has been created. You have to enter the name and marks scored in each
subject for all the students into the table. The first row will have the column headings and
the second row onwards will have the details about each student.
To enter values in the table:
1. Place the cursor inside the first cell of the first row.
2. Type the heading “Name”.

Name

Adding text in a table

3. Press the Tab key.

4. The cursor moves to the next cell, that is, the second cell of the first row.
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5. Type the heading “English”.

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6. Press the Tab key again. The cursor moves to the next cell.
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7. Similarly, enter the subject names Telugu, Maths and Science to the third, fourth and
fifth cell of the first row respectively.
8. After entering the subject name in the last column of the row, press the Tab key to move
the cursor to the first cell of the next row.
9. Type the first student name (Ajay) in the first cell of the second row.
10. Press the Tab key to move the cursor to the next cell in the same row.
11. Type the marks scored in English in the cell.
12. Similarly, enter the marks scored by the student in the other subjects in the second row
of the table.

Name English Telugu Maths Science

Ajay 80 80 97 75
The table with the marks of one student
Adding Rows at the End of a Table
The table has the marks of one student. To enter the name and marks of the other students,
you have to add more rows to the table.
To add rows to a table:
1. Place the cursor in the last cell of the last row, in this the second row.
2. Press the Tab key.
A new row gets added to the table as shown.
Name English Telugu Maths Science
Ajay 80 80 97 75

Table after adding a row

The marks of the second student can now be entered in the new row. Similarly, you
can add more rows to the table and enter the name and marks of all the other students.
Inserting Rows and Columns
You want to enter the marks scored in “Computer Science” also to the table. The
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column for this subject has to appear before the last column, “Science”. You can do this by
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To insert a column:
1. Place the cursor in the column titled “Science”.
2. Click the Layout tab.
3. Choose the Insert Left option from the Rows & Columns group.

Insert Left option in the Layout tab

A new column gets inserted Type the heading “Computer Science” in the first cell of
the column and enter the Computer Science marks for each student in the corresponding
row.
Name English Telugu Maths Computer Science Science
Ajay 80 80 97 75
Ameeta 85 82 92 85
Arun 76 72 81 85
Table with the inserted column

You realise that you missed out the mark details of a student, Sathya. Since you are
entering names in alphabetical order, you have to insert a row before the last row of the
table to add the mark details of that student.
To insert a row:
1. Place the cursor in the row before which you want to insert a row, in this case, the last
row.
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 A new row gets inserted before the last row. Now, add the name and marks of the
student to the table.
Meena 80 83 90 78
Naresh 73 70 65 60

Sujatha 76 87 79 67
The inserted row

Note : You can also place the cursor in the row after which you want to insert a row. In
such a case, you have to select the Rows Below option.
Changing the Row Height and Column Width
In case the contents of a column do not fit within the column, the column width can
be increased. You will notice that the heading “Computer Science” does not fit within the
column. So, the column width has to be increased.
To resize a column:
1. Move the mouse pointer over the border of the column, which you want to resize.
The mouse pointer changes to a double-headed arrow .
2. Click and drag the boundary until the column width changes to the width you want.
By increasing the column width of one column, the column width of the immediate
column will decrease. So, you can change the column width of the other columns in the
same way.

Name English Telugu Maths Computer Science Science

Ajay 80 80 97 75
Ameeta 85 82 92 85
Arun 76 72 81 85
The table after resizing the columns

Similarly, you can resize rows too. To resize a row

1. Move the mouse pointer over the border of the row, which you want to resize.
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 Similarly, you can change the row height of the other rows. In the following figure,
all rows except the first row have been resized .

Name English Telugu Maths Computer Science Science

Ajay 80 80 97 75
Ameeta 85 82 92 85
Arun 76 72 81 85
Table after resizing rows and columns
Repeating a Table Heading
You find that the table is so long that it continues to the next page. You want the
heading to appear in the second page also.
To repeat the table heading in subsequent pages:
1. Place the cursor in any one of the cells of the
heading column.
2. Right click.
3. Select the Table properties option.
4. From the Row tab, check Repeat as header row at
the top of each page.
Table with the heading repeated
Word repeats the table heading on the second
page.
Even if the table continues to the third page, the heading will appear in that page.
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Table with the heading repeated

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Deleting Rows and Columns
You entered the mark details of the student “Suresh”
twice by mistake. The repeated row has to be removed from
the table.
To delete a row :
1. Place the cursor in the row, which you want to delete.
2. Click the Layout tab.
3. Click Delete list from the Rows & Columns group.
4. Select Delete Rows option.
The row gets deleted from the table. Similarly, you can delete columns. To delete a
column:
1. Place the cursor in the column, which you want to delete.
2. Click the Layout tab.
3. Click Delete list from the Rows & Columns group.
4. Select Delete Columns option.
The column gets deleted from the table.
Deleting a Table
You can not only remove rows and columns from a table but also remove an entire
table and its contents from a document.
To delete a table:
1. Place the cursor in the table, which you want to delete.
2. Click the Layout tab.
3. Click Delete list from the Rows & Columns group.
4. Select Delete Table option. The table gets deleted.
Note : Alternatively, to select the table, click the table move handle that appears
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Summary
To insert a table, click the Inset Tab and select the Table list.
The Tab key can be used to navigate between the cells of the table.
To insert a row, click the Rows Above or Rows Below option from the Rows & Columns
group
To insert a column, click the Columns to the Left or Columns to the Right option from
the Rows & Column group.
The column can be resized using the double-headed arrow mouse pointer.
The row can be resized using the double-headed arrow mouse pointer.
The table heading can be made to repeat in the subsequent pages using the Repeat as
header row at the top of each page option from the Table properties dialog box.
To delete a row, click the Delete Rows option from the Rows and Column group.
To delete a column, click the Delete Columns option from the Rows and Column group.
To remove a table, select the table, select the Delete list from the Rows & Columns
group and select Delete Table option from the Layout tab.

Teacher Activity

Demonstrate all the options tought in this chapter to the students with examples.
Student Activity

1. Create a new document and type the following table.

Elements Compounds
Are pure substances Are pure substances made of one or more

Have their own properties Have properties different from that of the
constituent elements
Example: Sodium Example: Sodium Chloride (Common Salt)
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2. Insert a column for “mixtures”, a new row and enter the text as shown below.

Elements Mixtur Compounds

Are pure substances eees
Are combination of two Are pure substances
or made of one or
more substances more substances

Cannot be divided Divisible into Divisible into

into two or more constituent elements constituent elements
substances
Have their own Constituents retain their Have properties
properties properties different
from that of the
constituents
elements

Ex: Sodium Ex: Air Ex: Sodium Chloride

3. Resize the columns and rows to make the contents clear.

4. Make the table headings repeat in the subsequent page.
5. Remove the last row and the last column.
6. Remove the table from the document.
Test Your Knowledge

Fill in the blanks

1. While creating a table, the number of rows and columns are specified in the
______________ dialog box.
2. The____________key is used to navigate from one cell to another in a table.
3. The double-headed arrow mouse pointer is used to resize_________ .
4. To add rows or columns the___________group of the Layout tab is used.
5. Clicking the table move handle will ___________ the table.

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 Chapter - 11 Charts in Excel
Working with Charts
Learning Objectives
In this chapter you will be able to understand about ;
Create charts
Modify charts
Print charts
Introduction to Charts
Your teacher has asked you to create a chart that shows the class average in English,
Maths and Science in the Marks.xlsx workbook.
A chart is a picture that is used to represent the data in a worksheet. As you know, a
picture is worth a thousand words. A chart helps you to understand the data stored in a
worksheet in a better manner.
Excel charts are simple to create. You can create an embedded chart or an independent
chart sheet. An embedded chart is a chart that is a part of the worksheet that contains the
data. A chart sheet is a separate sheet like a worksheet within a workbook.
The worksheet data and the chart that you create are linked. Due to this, whenever
you change the data in the worksheet, the chart also changes automatically.
Excel lets you create various types of charts: Column, Line, Pie, Bar and Area. A
simple chart has two lines
The horizontal line is called the X-axis and the vertical line is called the Y-axis.
When two sets of information have to be compared, the data will be plot pertaining to one
set in the X- axis and the other in the Y-axis in case of simple charts.
Creating Charts
To create a chart that shows the average mark in English, Maths and Science in the Marks.xlsx
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B19, C19 and D19 respectively. Format the cells to hold only two decimal places.
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 Selecting the data for preparing chart

To insert a Bar chart:

1. Select the cells containing the data for the chart.
2. Click the Insert tab.
3. On the Charts group the various types of chart icons are displayed along with their names.
4. Click on the Bar Chart icon.
5. All the subtypes of Bar chart will be displayed.
6. Select the required subtype.
7. The chart will be placed in the current worksheet. The chart can be moved to any location
in the worksheet.

Charts group in the Insert Tab

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 Note : If the data is not continuous, i.e., if the data is not present in successive cells,
press Ctrl key for selecting the non - continuous data before creating a chart.
To create a Pie chart,
1. Click the Insert tab.
2. On the Charts group, click on the Pie chart icon.
All the subtypes of Pie chart will be displayed.
3. Select the required subtype. A blank chart appears (Note that
we have not selected any cells in the beginning).
You can specify the data range at this point of time.
4. Select the blank chart and right click your mouse.
5. Choose the option ‘Select Data’. (Alternatively you can click
the Select Data icon from the Design tab)
The Select Data Source dialog box will be displayed.
6. Click the Data Source button from the Chart data range text box.
The Select Data Source dialog box will minimize automatically.
7. Select the cells containing the data range.
Data range gets filled in the Chart data range box.
8. Click the Data Source button to view the dialog box.
9. Click the OK button.
Modifying Charts
Once a chart is created, it can also be modified further.
Changing the title
To change the chart title, click the chart title, delete the existing title and type a new
title.
Changing the source data
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If the source data is changed, the chart need not be created again. The changes will
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To change the source data:
1. Right-click on the chart.
2. On the shortcut menu, click Source Data.
The Source Data dialog box is displayed.
3. Click the Data Range button.
4. Select the range of cells that should appear in the chart.
5. Click the data range button again.
6. Click the OK button.
Changing the chart type :
Even after the chart is created, the chart type can be changed later on. To change the
chart type.
1. Right-click the chart area.
2. Choose Change Chart Type.
3. Alternatively you can click the Change Chart type icon from the Design tab.
4. In the Change Chart Type dialog box, choose any other chart type
5. Click the OK button.
Formatting the chart
Once the chart is completed, the size, colour and the font of various elements in the
chart can be changed.
a. To format the chart area,
1. Right-click on the chart area.
2. Choose Format Chart Area.
3. The Format Chart Area dialog box will be displayed.
4. The left side pane that is displayed has various options using which the appearance of
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2. Choose the colour from the colour options.
3. Select the Solid line option.
4. Click the Color icon.
5. A list of colours will be displayed.
6. Select the colour.
7. Click the Border Color button.
c. To make the border thicker,
1. Click the Border Styles button.
2. Increase the width to the required points by using the spin arrows.
d. To fill the chart area with different colour.
1. Click the Fill button.
2. Choose the Solid fill option.
3. Click the Color icon.
4. Select the colour from the colour box.
5. Click the Close button.
Printing Charts
You can print charts in the same way as you print worksheets.
Summary
Charts represent data in a worksheet in the form of a picture.
You can create charts by using the Chart group on the Insert Tab.

Teacher Activity

Demonstrate with example how to create a chart, format it and print the chart.
Student Activity

1. Open the Marks.xlsx file.

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2. Create an embedded column chart that has the student names in the X-Axis and the
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3. Change the mark of any student and observe the change in the chart.
4. Change the chart to a bar chart.
5. Remove the last student’s data from the chart by changing the data range.
Test Your Knowledge

True or False
1. Charts are pictures that represent the data in a worksheet.
2. The Chart option is available on the Chart group.
3. The chart type cannot be changed.
4. If you change the data of the source cells, the chart will not reflect the changes.
5. Embedded charts cannot be printed.

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 Chapter - 12
Understand Queries, Forms and
Reports in MS Access
Learning Objectives
In this chapter you will be able to understand about ;
Create a table by using the Table Templates
Create a table by using the Design View
Create a table by using the Datasheet View
Set primary key
Save a table
Opening a Database
You can open an existing database by using the following steps.
1. Click the Microsoft Office button and then click Open.
2. In the Open Dialog Box, browse the
database that you want to open.
3. Select the required database.
4. Click the Open button.
Table Template
In the previous versions of MS
Office Access, Access Table Wizard was The Open dialog box
used to quickly create a table from sample
tables and fields. In Office Access 2007, table templates and field templates can be used to
create a table.
A table template is an empty table that can be used as it is or modified to suit the
needs.
In Office Access 2007, five table templates are available. They are:
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Contacts Tasks Issues Events Assets

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 Contacts: A table for managing business contact information, which includes e-
mail addresses, Web page URLs and so on
Tasks: A table for tracking tasks that includes a field for attachments
Issues: A table for tracking issues, which includes a field for attachments. It also
has an append-only Memo field that keeps a history of old field values
Events: A table for managing events
Assets: A table for managing business assets
After a table is created by using a table template, fields may be added using field
templates. A field template is a predefined field that can be added to any table in the Datasheet
view.
Create a New Table by Using a Table Template
Steps to create a new table by using a table template,
1. Click the Microsoft Office Button and then click Open.
2. In the Open dialog box, select and open the database in which a table has to be created.
3. On the Create tab, in the Tables group, click Table Templates and then select one of the
available templates from the list.
4. A new table is inserted, based on the table template that is chosen.
The components of the table window are shown in the following figure.
Quick Access
Toolbar Tabs
Ribbon

Navigation Groups
Pane
Components of the table window
Creating a Table using the Design View
To create a new table in a new database,
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2. In the File Name box, type a file name. To change the location, click the folder icon to
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3. Click Create.
4. The new database is opened and a new table named Table1 is created and opened in
Datasheet view.
To switch to Design view,
1. Right-click the table name in the Navigation Pane and then click Design View.
Or
2. Right-click the table name in the Table’s Document tab and then click Design View.
Or
3. Click the Design View option on right bottom corner of the Status bar.
4. It will prompt the user to save the existing table to switch into Design View. To create a
new table in an existing database,

Field
entry

Field
Properties
pane

The Design view of the table

1. Click the Microsoft Office Button and then click Open.
2. In the Open dialog box, select the database that you want to open and then click Open.
3. On the Create tab, in the Tables group, click Table Design.
4. A new table is inserted in the database and the table opens in Design View.
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Similarly, you can create Player Details table using the Design view option in the
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The Design view of the table consists of two parts:
The Field entry pane – Is used for entering the field names, data type and their
description.
The Field Properties pane – Is used for setting the required properties for each of the
fields.
The Field Properties pane is used to set the properties for each of the fields in the
Field Entry pane. Some of the important options of the Field Properties pane are as follows:
Field Size – It determines the number of characters or digits that can be stored in a
field.
Format – It is used to specify the format in which a particular field value has to be
displayed. The format varies for different data types.
Input Mask – It allows you to control the user input. It consists of literal characters
such as brackets, periods or hyphens and mask characters, which specify the valid
characters allowed to be stored in the field.
Caption – It can be used to display alternate names for fields in forms and reports.
Default Value – It is used to specify a value that will be automatically displayed in the
field. This value can be changed during data entry, if required.
Validation Rule – It is used to specify a condition for the input. Only those values that
follow the given condition will be accepted.
Validation Text – It is used to display an error message if the Validation Rule is not
satisfied.
Required – This property when set to Yes ensures that the user does not skip an entry
for the field during data entry.
Allow Zero Length – This property when set to Yes denotes that the field can be left
blank.
Indexed – An index is used for faster data retrieval. Indexed property indicates whether
the table data should be indexed based on the specific field. The fields, whose data are
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retrieved often, can be indexed to facilitate faster retrieval of records.

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5. Enter the data in the Field entry and Field Properties areas.
The table is created in the Design view.
Tip : The Tab key is used to switch between the Field Name, Data Type and Description.

Note : To view the table in Design view, right click the table in the Navigation Pane,
select Design View.

Design view option from the Navigation Pane

Setting the Primary Key

Before you set a field as the primary key of a table, you need to ensure that the field
uniquely identifies each record stored in the table.
The Primary key is a column or combination of columns whose values uniquely
identify a row or record in the table. The Primary key field must be selected based on the
condition that the concerned field will have a unique data.
The primary key(s) will have a unique value for each record or row in the table. The
characteristics of a perfect primary key are:
It uniquely identifies each row.
There is always a value, that is, it is never empty or null.
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It rarely changes.
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 Access uses primary key fields to quickly bring data together from multiple tables.
Often, there is a unique identification number, such as an ID number, a serial number
or a code, that serves as a primary key. For example, in a Customers table, each customer
has a unique customer ID number. The customer ID field is the primary key of the table.
A primary key for a table should always be specified. Access automatically creates an
index for the primary key, which helps to speed up queries and other operations. Access also
ensures that every record has a value in the primary key field and that it is always unique.
When a new table created is in Datasheet View, Access automatically creates a
primary key and assigns it a field name of ID and the AutoNumber data type. The field is
hidden in Datasheet View, but it can be seen if switched to Design View.
To Set the Primary Key,
1. Open the table in Design view.
2. Select the field or fields that need to be used as the primary key.
3. To select one field, click the row selector for the field you want.
4. To select more than one field, hold down the Ctrl key and then click the row selector for
each field.
5. On the Design tab, in the Tools group, click Primary Key.
A key indicator is added to the left of the field or fields that is specified as the
primary key.
Tip : Alternatively, to set the primary key
1. Select the field to be set as primary key.
2. Select and right click the field.
3. Select the Primary Key option from the shortcut- menu displayed.
Saving a Table
To save a table:
1. Click the Microsoft Office Button and then click Save. (or)
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2. Right-click the table’s document tab and then click Save on the shortcut menu. (or)
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3. Click Save on the Quick Access Toolbar.
Caution
If you try to save a table without setting the primary key, Access displays a warning
message asking you whether the table needs a primary key or not. If you click the Yes
button, Access automatically creates an autonumber field as the primary key.
Creating a Table Using the Datasheet View
You can also create a table by using another option called the Datasheet View. In the
Datasheet View, you cannot set the data type of a field, change the properties of a field or
set a primary key.
To create a new table in a new database by using Datasheet View,
1. Click the Microsoft Office Button and then click New.
2. In the File Name box, type a file name for the new database.
3. To save the database in a different location, click the folder icon.
4. Click Create.
5. The new database opens and a new table named Table1 is created and opened in Datasheet
view.

The datasheet view

To create a new table in an existing database by using Datasheet View,

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2. In the Open dialog box, select the database that needs to be opened and then click Open.
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3. On the Create tab, in the Tables group, click Table.
4. A new table is inserted in the database and the table opens in Datasheet view.
Extracting data across tables
Access allows you to retrieve data across tables. When related data are distributed
across tables, you have to establish relationship among tables to retrieve data. For example,
if you have a database on cricket and have different tables where you save the details of all
player. You might want to retrieve the details of players playing for the South African team
you need to relate Player Details and Team Details tables.
Types of Relationship
Relationship is a vital part in designing a database. The relationship between tables
explains, how each table is related with the other and their dependent values. It is used to
establish a connection between a pair of logical related entities.
For example, consider the relationship between an employee and department. Here,
the entities are Employee and Department. An employee works in a particular department
and a single department can have various employees. The relationship between them is
Works. The relationship explained above is represented as follows.
Employee Works Department
Entity Relationship Entity
Entity Relationship

The three types of relationships are:

One-to-one (1:1) relationship
One-to-many (1: m) or Many- to-one (m:1)
Many-to-many (m:m)
Definition of Normalization
Normalization is a scientific method of breaking down complex table structures
into simple table structures by using certain rules. Using this method, you can, reduce
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Summary :
The five table templates in Office Access 2007 are Contacts, Tasks, Issues, Events and
Assets
The Design View option can be used to create a table to suit the needs
A Datasheet View is mainly used to enter values in fields created in the Design View
The Primary key is a column or combination of columns whose values uniquely identify
a row or record in the table
The Primary key field must be selected based on the condition that the concerned field
will have a unique data
If a table created by using the Table Design option is saved without setting a primary
key, Microsoft Access displays a warning message asking whether the table needs a
primary key or not. If the Yes button is clicked, Microsoft Access automatically creates
an auto number field as the primary key
Teacher Activity

Demonstrate creation of data sheet.

Student Activity

1. Open the Cricket database.

2. Create Player Details table in design view. The table should contain the following
fields:
Player ID, Player Name, Runs Scored, Wickets Taken, No of Centuries and No of
Matches Played.
3. Set the Player ID field as the primary key.
4. Create Team Details table in Datasheet view. The table should contain the following
fields: Team ID, Team Name, Coach Name and Overall Ranking.
5. Set the Team ID field as the primary key.
6. Open the Player Details table in datasheet view and enter the following data.
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 Player Player Runs Wickets No of No of
ID Name Scored Taken Centuries Matches
Played
P001 Sachin Tendulkar 11000 106 33 297
P002 Michael Bevan 5400 70 6 101
P003 MuthiahMuralidharan 300 302 0 210
P004 Glenn Mcgrath 250 251 0 178
P005 Saurav Ganguly 6300 57 19 205
P006 Nasir Hussain 5855 45 1 170
P007 Jacques Kallis 5673 100 8 130
P008 Wasim Akram 3000 420 0 350
P009 Anil Kumble 560 250 0 200
P010 Ricky Ponting 6547 10 10 210

7. Enter the following data in the Team Details table.

Team ID Team Name Coach Name Overall
Ranking
T001 India John Wright 5
T002 Australia John Buchanan 1
T003 England Duncan Fletcher 6
T004 Sri Lanka Dave Whatmore 3
T005 South Africa Eric Simons 2
T006 Pakistan Richard Pybus 4
T007 New Zealand Enis Eberhart 7
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 Test Your Knowledge

Fill in the blanks.

1. The Table option on the___________tab is used to create the New Table.
2. To create the table in Design View, the Design View is selected from the ___________
group.
3. In the Datasheet View, you cannot set the data type of a field. (True/false)
4. ___________ property of the Design view is used to set the field length.
5. The Primary Key option is available on the ___________ tab and the ___________
group.

*****
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 Chapter - 13
Object Oriented Programming
(Oops) - Concept
Introduction to Object-Oriented Programming
Introduction
This lesson is a collection of lectures to be held in the on-line course Introduction
to Object-Oriented Programming Using C++ . In this course, object-orientation is
introduced as a new programming concept which should help you in developing high quality
software. Object-orientation is also introduced as a concept which makes developing of
projects easier. However, this is not a course for learning the C++ programming language.
If you are interested in learning the language itself, you might want to go through other
tutorials, such as C++: Annotations by Frank Brokken and Karel Kubat. In this tutorial
only those language concepts that are needed to present coding examples are introduced.
And what makes object-orientation such a hot topic? To be honest, not everything that is
sold under the term of object-orientation is really new. For example, there are programs
written in procedural languages like Pascal or C which use object-oriented concepts. But
there exist a few important features which these languages won’t handle or won’t handle
very well, respectively.
Some people will say that object-orientation is “modern”. When reading
announcements of new products everything seems to be “object-oriented”. “Objects” are
everywhere. In this tutorial we will try to outline characteristics of object-orientation to
allow you to judge those object-oriented products.
Unstructured Programming
Usually, people start learning programming by writing small and simple programs
consisting only of one main program. Here “main program” stands for a sequence of
commands or statements which modify data which is global throughout the whole program.
We can illustrate this as shown in Fig.
Unstructured programming. The main program directly
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same statement sequence is needed at different locations within the program, the sequence
must be copied. This has lead to the idea to extract these sequences, name them and offering
a technique to call and return from these procedures.
Procedural Programming
With procedural programming you are able to combine returning
sequences of statements into one single place. A procedure call is
used to invoke the procedure. After the sequence is processed, flow
of control proceeds right after the position where the call was made.
Execution of procedures. After processing flow of controls
proceed where the call was made.
With introducing parameters as well as procedures of procedures ( subprocedures)
programs can now be written more structured and error free. For example, if a procedure is
correct, every time it is used it produces correct results. Consequently, in cases of errors
you can narrow your search to those places which are not proven to be correct.
Now a program can be viewed as a sequence of procedure calls . The main program
is responsible to pass data to the individual calls, the data is processed by the procedures
and, once the program has finished, the resulting data is presented. Thus, the flow of data
can be illustrated as a hierarchical graph, a tree, as shown in Fig. the below for a program
with no sub procedures.
Procedural programming. The main program
coordinates calls to procedures and hands over
appropriate data as parameters.
To sum up: Now we have a single program which
is devided into small pieces called procedures.
To enable usage of general procedures or groups
of procedures also in other programs, they must
be separately available. For that reason, modular programming allows grouping of procedures
into modules.
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Modular Programming
With modular programming procedures of a
common functionality are grouped together into
separate modules. A program therefore no longer
consists of only one single part. It is now devided
into several smaller parts which interact through
procedure calls and which form the whole program.
Modular programming. The main program
coordinates calls to procedures in separate modules and hands over appropriate data as
parameters.
Each module can have its own data. This allows each module to manage an internal
state which is modified by calls to procedures of this module. However, there is only one
state per module and each module exists at most once in the whole program.
An Example with Data Structures
Programs use data structures to store data. Several data structures exist, for example lists,
trees, arrays, sets, bags or queues to name a few. Each of these data structures can be
characterized by their structure and their access methods.
Handling Single Lists
You all know singly linked lists which use a very simple structure, consisting of
elements which are strung together, as shown in below picture.
Structure of a singly linked list.

Singly linked lists just provides access methods to append a new element to their
end and to delete the element at the front. Complex data structures might use already existing
ones. For example a queue can be structured like a singly linked list. However, queues
provide access methods to put a data element at the end and to get the first data element
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(first-in first-out (FIFO) behaviour).

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 We will now present an example which we use to present some design concepts.
Since this example is just used to illustrate these concepts and problems it is neither
complete nor optimal. Refer to chapter 10 for a complete object-oriented discussion about
the design of data structures.
Suppose you want to program a list in a modular programming language such as C or
Modula-2. As you believe that lists are a common data structure, you decide to implement
it in a separate module. Typically, this requires you to write two files: the interface definition
and the implementation file. Within this chapter we will use a very simple pseudo code
which you should understand immediately. Let’s assume, that comments are enclosed in “/
* ... */”. Our interface definition might then look similar to that below:
/*
* Interface definition for a module which implements
* a singly linked list for storing data of any type.
*/
MODULE Singly-Linked-List-1
BOOL list_initialize();
BOOL list_append(ANY data);
BOOL list_delete(); list_end();
ANY list_getFirst();
ANY list_getNext();
BOOL list_isEmpty();
END Singly-Linked-List-1
Interface definitions just describe what is available and not how it is made available.
You hide the information of the implementation in the implementation file. This is a
fundamental principle in software engineering, so let’s repeat it: You hide information of
the actual implementation (information hiding). This enables you to change the
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storing elements without the need to change other modules of your program: The calls to
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 The idea of this interface is as follows: Before using the list one has to call
list_initialize() to initialize variables local to the module. The following two procedures
implement the mentioned access methods append and delete. The append procedure needs
a more detailed discussion. Function list_append() takes one argument data of arbitrary
type. This is necessary since you wish to use your list in several different environments,
hence, the type of the data elements to be stored in the list is not known beforehand.
Consequently, you have to use a special type ANY which allows to assign data of any type to
it. The third procedure list_end() needs to be called when the program terminates to enable
the module to clean up its internally used variables. For example you might want to release
allocated memory.
With the next two procedures list_getFirst() and list_getNext() a simple mechanism
to traverse through the list is offered. Traversing can be done using the following loop:
ANY data;

data <- list_getFirst();

WHILE data IS VALID DO
doSomething(data);
data <- list_getNext();
END
Now you have a list module which allows you to use a list with any type of data
elements. But what, if you need more than one list in one of your programs?
Handling Multiple Lists
You decide to redesign your list module to be able to manage more than one list. You
therefore create a new interface description which now includes a definition for a list handle.
This handle is used in every provided procedure to uniquely identify the list in question.
Your interface definition file of your new list module looks like this:
/*
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* A list module for more than one list.

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 MODULE Singly-Linked-List-2

DECLARE TYPE list_handle_t;

list_handle_t list_create();
list_destroy(list_handle_t this);
BOOL list_append(list_handle_t this, ANY data);
ANY list_getFirst(list_handle_t this);
ANY list_getNext(list_handle_t this);
BOOL list_isEmpty(list_handle_t this);

END Singly-Linked-List-2;
You use DECLARE TYPE to introduce a new type list_handle_t which represents
your list handle. We do not specify, how this handle is actually represented or even
implemented. You also hide the implementation details of this type in your implementation
file. Note the difference to the previous version where you just hide functions or procedures,
respectively. Now you also hide information for an user defined data type called
list_handle_t.
You use list_create() to obtain a handle to a new thus empty list. Every other procedure
now contains the special parameter this which just identifies the list in question. All
procedures now operate on this handle rather than a module global list.
Now you might say, that you can create list objects. Each such object can be uniquely
identified by its handle and only those methods are applicable which are defined to operate
on this handle.
Object-Oriented Programming
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Object-oriented programming solves some of the problems just mentioned. In

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contrast to the other techniques, we now have a web of interacting objects, each house-
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 Object-oriented programming.
Objects of the program interact by
sending messages to each other.
Consider the multiple lists
example again. The problem here with
modular programming is, that you must
explicitly create and destroy your list
handles. Then you use the procedures of
the module to modify each of your
handles.
In contrast to that, in object-
oriented programming we would have as many list objects as needed. Instead of calling a
procedure which we must provide with the correct list handle, we would directly send a
message to the list object in question. Roughly speaking, each object implements its own
module allowing for example many lists to coexist.
Each object is responsible to initialize and destroy itself correctly. Consequently,
there is no longer the need to explicitly call a creation or termination procedure.
You might ask: So what? Isn’t this just a more fancier modular programming
technique? You were right, if this would be all about object-orientation. Fortunately, it is
not. Beginning with the next chapters additional features of object-orientation are introduced
which makes object-oriented programming to a new programming technique.
Properties of Abstract Data Types
The example of the previous section shows, that with abstraction you create a well-
defined entity which can be properly handled. These entities define the data structure of a
set of items. For example, each administered employee has a name, date of birth and social
number.
The data structure can only be accessed with defined operations. This set of operations
is called interface and is exported by the entity. An entity with the properties just described
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An ADT which consists of an abstract data structure and operations. Only the
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operations are viewable from the outside and define the interface.
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 Abstract data type (ADT).
Once a new employee is “created” the data
structure is filled with actual values: You now have an
instance of an abstract employee. You can create as
many instances of an abstract employee as needed to
describe every real employed person.
Let’s try to put the characteristics of an ADT in a more formal way:
Definition (Abstract Data Type) An abstract data type (ADT) is characterized by the
following properties:
1. It exports a type.
2. It exports a set of operations. This set is called interface.
3. Operations of the interface are the one and only access mechanism to the type’s data
structure.
4. Axioms and preconditions define the application domain of the type.
With the first property it is possible to create more than one instance of an ADT as
exemplified with the employee example. You might also remember the list example of
chapter 2. In the first version we have implemented a list as a module and were only able to
use one list at a time. The second version introduces the “handle” as a reference to a “list
object”. From what we have learned now, the handle in conjunction with the operations
defined in the list module defines an ADT List:
1. When we use the handle we define the corresponding variable to be of type List.
2. The interface to instances of type List is defined by the interface definition file.
3. Since the interface definition file does not include the actual representation of the handle,
it cannot be modified directly.
4. The application domain is defined by the semantical meaning of provided operations.
Axioms and preconditions include statements such as
“An empty list is a list.”
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“Let l=(d1, d2, d3, ..., dN) be a list. Then l.append(dM) results in l=(d1, d2, d3, ..., dN,
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 “The first element of a list can only be deleted if the list is not empty.”
However, all of these properties are only valid due to our understanding of and our
discipline in using the list module. It is in our responsibility to use instances of List according
to these rules.
Importance of Data Structure Encapsulation
The principle of hiding the used data structure and to only provide a well-defined
interface is known as encapsulation. Why is it so important to encapsulate the data structure?
To answer this question consider the following mathematical example where we
want to define an ADT for complex numbers. For the following it is enough to know that
complex numbers consists of two parts: real part and imaginary part. Both parts are
represented by real numbers. Complex numbers define several operations: addition,
substraction, multiplication or division to name a few. Axioms and preconditions are valid
as defined by the mathematical definition of complex numbers. For example, it exists a
neutral element for addition.
To represent a complex number it is necessary to define the data structure to be used
by its ADT. One can think of at least two possibilities to do this:
Both parts are stored in a two-valued array where the first value indicates the real part
and the second value the imaginary part of the complex number. If x denotes the real
part and y the imaginary part, you could think of accessing them via array subscription:
x=c[0] and y=c[1].
Both parts are stored in a two-valued record. If the element name of the real part is r
and that of the imaginary part is i, x and y can be obtained with: x=c.r and y=c.i.
Point 3 of the ADT definition says that for each access to the data structure there
must be an operation defined. The above access examples seem to contradict this
requirement. Is this really true?
Let’s look again at the two possibilities for representing imaginary numbers. Let’s
stick to the real part. In the first version, x equals c[0]. In the second version, x equals c.r. In
both cases x equals “something”. It is this “something” which differs from the actual data
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declare x to be equal to the real part of the complex number c: both cases archieve the same
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 If you think of more complex operations the impact of decoupling data structures
from operations becomes even more clear. For example the addition of two complex numbers
requires you to perform an addition for each part. Consequently, you must access the value
of each part which is different for each version. By providing an operation “add” you can
encapsulate these details from its actual use. In an application context you simply “add two
complex numbers” regardless of how this functionality is actually archieved.
Once you have created an ADT for complex numbers, say Complex, you can use it in
the same way like well-known data types such as integers.
Let’s summarize this: The separation of data structures and operations and the
constraint to only access the data structure via a well-defined interface allows you to choose
data structures appropriate for the application environment.
Generic Abstract Data Types
ADTs are used to define a new type from which instances can be created. As shown
in the list example, sometimes these instances should operate on other data types as well.
For instance, one can think of lists of apples, cars or even lists. The semantical definition
of a list is always the same. Only the type of the data elements change according to what
type the list should operate on.
This additional information could be specified by a generic parameter which is
specified at instance creation time. Thus an instance of a generic ADT is actually an instance
of a particular variant of the ADT. A list of apples can therefore be declared as follows:
List<Apple> listOfApples;
The angle brackets now enclose the data type for which a variant of the generic ADT
List should be created. listOfApples offers the same interface as any other list, but operates
on instances of type Apple.
Notation :
As ADTs provide an abstract view to describe properties of sets of entities, their use
is independent from a particular programming language. Each ADT description consists of
two parts:
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 Operations: This part describes valid operations for this ADT, hence, it describes its
interface. We use the special operation constructor to describe the actions which are
to be performed once an entity of this ADT is created and destructor to describe the
actions which are to be performed once an entity is destroyed. For each operation the
provided arguments as well as preconditions and post conditions are given.
As an example the description of the ADT Integer is presented. Let k be an integer
expression:
ADT Integer is Data
A sequence of digits optionally prefixed by a plus or minus sign. We refer to this
signed whole number as N.
Operations
constructor
Creates a new integer.
add(k)
Creates a new integer which is the sum of N and k.
Consequently, the postcondition of this operation is sum = N+k. Don’t confuse this
with assign statements as used in programming languages! It is rather a mathematical equation
which yields “true” for each value sum, N and k after add has been performed.
sub(k)
Similar to add, this operation creates a new integer of the difference of both integer
values. Therefore the postcondition for this operation is sum = N-k.
set(k)
Set N to k. The postcondition for this operation is N = k.
...
end
The description above is a specification for the ADT Integer. Please notice, that we
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the semantics is described by the associated pre- and postconditions. However, it is always a
good idea to combine both to make reading of ADT specifications easier.
Real programming languages are free to choose an arbitrary implementation for an
ADT. For example, they might implement the operation add with the infix operator “+”
leading to a more intuitive look for addition of integers.
Abstract Data Types and Object-Orientation
ADTs allows the creation of instances with well-defined properties and behaviour.
In object-orientation ADTs are referred to as classes. Therefore a class defines properties
of objects which are the instances in an object-oriented environment.
ADTs define functionality by putting main emphasis on the involved data, their
structure, operations as well as axioms and preconditions. Consequently, object-oriented
programming is “programming with ADTs”: combining functionality of different ADTs to
solve a problem. Therefore instances (objects) of ADTs (classes) are dynamically created,
destroyed and used.
More Object-Oriented Concepts
Peter Müller Globewide Network Academy (GNA) [email protected]
Whereas the previous lecture introduces the fundamental concepts of object-oriented
programming, this lecture presents more details about the object-oriented idea. This section
is mainly adopted from [2].
Relationships
In exercise 3.6.5 you already investigate relationships between abstract data types
and instances and describe them in your own words. Let’s go in more detail here.
A-Kind-Of relationship
Consider you have to write a drawing program. This program would allow drawing of
various objects such as points, circles, rectangles, triangles and many more. For each object
you provide a class definition. For example, the point class just defines a point by its
coordinates:
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class Point {
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 methods:
setX(int newX)
getX()
setY(int newY)
getY()
}
You continue defining classes of your drawing program with a class to describe
circles. A circle defines a center point and a radius:
class Circle {
attributes:
int x, y,
radius

methods:
setX(int newX)
getX()
setY(int newY)
getY()
setRadius(newRadius)
getRadius()
}
Comparing both class definitions we can observe the following:
Both classes have two data elements x and y. In the class Point these elements describe
the position of the point, in the case of class Circle they describe the circle’s center.
Thus, x and y have the same meaning in both classes: They describe the position of
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 Both classes offer the same set of methods to get and set the value of the two data
elements x and y.
Class Circle “adds” a new data element radius and corresponding access methods.
Knowing the properties of class Point we can describe a circle as a point plus a
radius and methods to access it. Thus, a circle is “a-kind-of” point. However, a circle is
somewhat more “specialized”. We illustrate this graphically as shown below.
Illustration of “a-kind-of” relationship.
In this and the following figures, classes
are drawn using rectangles. Their name always
starts with an uppercase letter. The arrowed
line indicates the direction of the relation, hence, it is to be read as “Circle is a-kind-of
Point.”
Is-A relationship
The previous relationship is used at the class level to describe relationships between
two similar classes. If we create objects of two such classes we refer to their relationship
as an “is-a” relationship.
Since the class Circle is a kind of class Point, an instance of Circle, say acircle, is a
point . Consequently, each circle behaves like a point. For example, you can move points
in x direction by altering the value of x. Similarly, you move circles in this direction by
altering their x value.
Below diagram illustrates this relationship. In this and the following figures, objects
are drawn using rectangles with round corners. Their name only consists of lowercase letters.
Illustration of “is-a” relationship.

Part-Of relationship
You sometimes need to be able to build objects by combining them out of others.
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 Let’s come back to our drawing program. You already have created several classes
for the available figures. Now you decide that you want to have a special figure which
represents your own logo which consists of a circle and a triangle. (Let’s assume, that you
already have defined a class Triangle.) Thus, your logo consists of two parts or the circle
and triangle are part-of your logo:
class Logo {
attributes:
Circle circle
Triangle triangle

methods:
set(Point where)
}
We illustrate this as below.
Illustration of “part-of” relationship.

Has-A relationship
This relationship is just the inverse version of the part-of relationship. Therefore we
can easily add this relationship to the part-of illustration by adding arrows in the other
direction show in the below diagram.
Illustration of “has-a” relationship.

Inheritance
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our point and circle example, we can define a circle which inherits from point:
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 class Circle inherits from Point {
attributes:
int radius

methods:
setRadius(int newRadius)
getRadius()
}
Class Circle inherits all data elements and methods from point. There is no need to
define them twice: We just use already existing and well-known data and method definitions.
On the object level we are now able to use a circle just as we would use a point,
because a circle is-a point. For example, we can define a circle object and set its center
point coordinates:
Circle acircle
acircle.setX(1) /* Inherited from Point */
acircle.setY(2)
acircle.setRadius(3) /* Added by Circle */
“Is-a” also implies, that we can use a circle everywhere where a point is expected.
For example, you can write a function or method, say move(), which should move a point in
x direction:
move(Point apoint, int deltax) {
apoint.setX(apoint.getX() + deltax)
}
As a circle inherits from a point, you can use this function with a circle argument to
move its center point and, hence, the whole circle:
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 move(acircle, 10) /* Move circle by moving */
/* its center point */
Let’s try to formalize the term “inheritance”:
Definition (Inheritance) Inheritance is the mechanism which allows a class A to
inherit properties of a class B. We say “A inherits from B”. Objects of class A thus have
access to attributes and methods of class B without the need to redefine them. The
following definition defines two terms with which we are able to refer to participating
classes when they use inheritance.
Definition (Superclass/Subclass) If class A inherits from class B, then B is called
superclass of A. A is called subclass of B. Objects of a subclass can be used where objects
of the corresponding superclass are expected. This is due to the fact that objects of the
subclass share the same behaviour as objects of the superclass.
In the literature you may also find other terms for “superclass” and “subclass”.
Superclasses are also called parent classes. Subclasses may also be called child classes or
just derived classes.
Of course, you can again inherit from a subclass, making this class the superclass of
the new subclass. This leads to a hierarchy of superclass/subclass relationships. If you draw
this hierarchy you get an inheritance graph.
A common drawing scheme is to use arrowed lines to indicate the inheritance
relationship between two classes or objects. In our examples we have used “inherits-from”.
Consequently, the arrowed line starts from the subclass towards the superclass as illustrated
in below diagram.
A simple inheritance graph.
In the literature you also find illustrations where the arrowed lines
are used just the other way around. The direction in which the arrowed
line is used, depends on how the corresponding author has decided to
understand it.
Anyway, within this tutorial, the arrowed line is always directed towards the
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superclass.
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Multiple Inheritance
One important object-oriented mechanism is multiple inheritance. Multiple
inheritance does not mean that multiple subclasses share the same superclass. It also does
not mean that a subclass can inherit from a class which itself is a subclass of another class.
Multiple inheritance means that one subclass can have more than one superclass. This
enables the subclass to inherit properties of more than one superclass and to “merge” their properties.
As an example consider again our drawing program. Suppose we already have a class
String which allows convenient handling of text. For example, it might have a method to
append other text. In our program we would like to use this class to add text to the possible
drawing objects. It would be nice to also use already existing routines such as move() to
move the text around. Consequently, it makes sense to let a drawable text have a point which
defines its location within the drawing area. Therefore we derive a new class DrawableString
which inherits properties from Point and String as illustrated in below diagram.
Derive a drawable string which inherits properties of Point and String.
In our pseudo language we write this by simply
separating the multiple superclasses by comma:
class DrawableString inherits from Point, String {
attributes:
/* All inherited from superclasses */

methods:
/* All inherited from superclasses */
}
We can use objects of class DrawableString like both points and strings. Because a
drawablestring is-a point we can move them around
DrawableString dstring
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Since it is a string, we can append other text to them:
dstring.append(“The red brown fox ...”)
Now it’s time for the definition of multiple inheritance:
Definition (Multiple Inheritance) If class A inherits from more than one class, ie.
A inherits from B1, B2, ..., Bn, we speak of multiple inheritance. This may introduce
naming conflicts in A if at least two of its superclasses define properties with the same
name.
The above definition introduce naming conflicts which occur if more than one
superclass of a subclass use the same name for either attributes or methods. For an example,
let’s assume, that class String defines a method setX() which sets the string to a sequence of
“X” characters. The question arises, what should be inherited by DrawableString? The Point,
String version or none of them?
These conflicts can be solved in at least two ways:
The order in which the superclasses are provided define which property will be
accessible by the conflict causing name. Others will be “hidden”.
The subclass must resolve the conflict by providing a property with the name and by
defining how to use the ones from its superclasses.
The first solution is not very convenient as it introduces implicit consequences
depending on the order in which classes inherit from each other. For the second case,
subclasses must explicitly redefine properties which are involved in a naming conflict.
A special type of naming conflict is introduced if a class
D multiply inherits from superclasses B and C which
themselves are derived from one superclass A. This leads
to an inheritance graph as shown in below diagram.
A name conflict introduced by a shared superclass of
superclasses used with multiple inheritance.
The question arises what properties class D actually
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 the properties of A plus
the properties of B and C without the properties they have inherited from A.
Consequently, D cannot introduce naming conflicts with names of class A. However,
if B and C add properties with the same name, D runs into a naming conflict.
Another possible solution is, that D inherits from both inheritance paths. In this
solution, D owns two copies of the properties of A: one is inherited by B and one by C.
Although multiple inheritance is a powerful object-oriented mechanism the problems
introduced with naming conflicts have lead several authors to “doom” it. As the result of
multiple inheritance can always be achieved by using (simple) inheritance some object-
oriented languages even don’t allow its use. However, carefully used, under some conditions
multiple inheritance provides an efficient and elegant way of formulating things.
Polymorphism
Polymorphism allows an entity (for example, variable, function or object) to take a
variety of representations. Therefore we have to distinguish different types of polymorphism
which will be outlined here.
The first type is similar to the concept of dynamic binding. Here, the type of a variable
depends on its content. Thus, its type depends on the content at a specific time:
v := 123 /* v is integer */
... /* use v as integer */
v := ‘abc’ /* v “switches” to string */
... /* use v as string */
Definition (Polymorphism (1)) The concept of dynamic binding allows a variable
to take different types dependent on the content at a particular time. This ability of a
variable is called polymorphism. Another type of polymorphism can be defined for
functions. For example, suppose you want to define a function isNull() which returns TRUE
if its argument is 0 (zero) and FALSE otherwise. For integer numbers this is easy:
boolean isNull(int i) {
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 else
return FALSE
endif
}
However, if we want to check this for real numbers, we should use another comparison
due to the precision problem:
boolean isNull(real r) {
if (r < 0.01 and r > -0.99) then
return TRUE
else
return FALSE
endif
}
In both cases we want the function to have the name isNull. In programming languages
without polymorphism for functions we cannot declare these two functions because the
name isNull would be doubly defined. Without polymorphism for functions, doubly defined
names would be ambiguous. However, if the language would take the parameters of the
function into account it would work. Thus, functions (or methods) are uniquely identified
by:
the name of the function (or method) and
the types of its parameter list.
Since the parameter list of both isNull functions differ, the compiler is able to figure
out the correct function call by using the actual types of the arguments:
var i : integer
var r : real
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 ...

if (isNull(i)) then ... /* Use isNull(int) */

...
if (isNull(r)) then ... /* Use isNull(real) */
Definition (Polymorphism (2)) If a function (or method) is defined by the
combination of
its name and
the list of types of its parameters
we speak of polymorphism. This type of polymorphism allows us to reuse the same
name for functions (or methods) as long as the parameter list differs. Sometimes this type
of polymorphism is called overloading.
The last type of polymorphism allows an object to choose correct methods. Consider
the function move() again, which takes an object of class Point as its argument. We have
used this function with any object of derived classes, because the is-a relation holds.
Now consider a function display() which should be used to display drawable objects.
The declaration of this function might look like this:
display(DrawableObject o) {
...
o.print()
...
}
We would like to use this function with objects of classes derived from
DrawableObject:
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Circle acircle
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Point apoint
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 display(apoint) /* Should invoke apoint.print() */
display(acircle) /* Should invoke acircle.print() */
display(arectangle) /* Should invoke arectangle.print() */
The actual method should be defined by the content of the object o of function
display(). Since this is somewhat complicated, here is a more abstract example:
class Base {
attributes:

methods:
virtual foo()
bar()
}
class Derived inherits from Base {
attributes:

methods:
virtual foo()
bar()
}

demo(Base o) {
o.foo()
o.bar()
}
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 Derived aderived

demo(abase)
demo(aderived)
In this example we define two classes Base and Derived. Each class defines two
methods foo() and bar(). The first method is defined as virtual. This means that if this method
is invoked its definition should be evaluated by the content of the object.
We then define a function demo() which takes a Base object as its argument.
Consequently, we can use this function with objects of class Derived as the is-a relation
holds. We call this function with a Base object and a Derived object, respectively.
Suppose, that foo() and bar() are defined to just print out their name and the class in
which they are defined. Then the output is as follows:
foo() of Base called.
bar() of Base called.
foo() of Derived called.
bar() of Base called.
Why is this so? Let’s see what happens. The first call to demo() uses a Base object.
Thus, the function’s argument is “filled” with an object of class Base. When it is time to
invoke method foo() it’s actual functionality is chosen based on the current content of the
corresponding object o. This time, it is a Base object. Consequently, foo() as defined in
class Base is called.
The call to bar() is not subject to this content resolution. It is not marked as virtual.
Consequently, bar() is called in the scope of class Base.
The second call to demo() takes a Derived object as its argument. Thus, the argument
o is filled with a Derived object. However, o itself just represents the Base part of the
provided object aderived.
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 Definition (Polymorphism (3)) Objects of superclasses can be filled with objects
of their subclasses. Operators and methods of subclasses can be defined to be evaluated
in two contextes:
1. Based on object type, leading to an evaluation within the scope of the superclass.
2. Based on object content, leading to an evaluation within the scope of the contained
subclass.
The second type is called polymorphism.
Introduction to C++
Peter Müller
Globewide Network Academy (GNA)
[email protected]
This section is the first part of the introduction to C++. Here we focus on C from
which C++ was adopted. C++ extends the C programming language with strong typing,
some features and - most importantly - object-oriented concepts.
The C Programming Language
Developed in the late 1970s, C gained an huge success due to the development of
UNIX which was almost entirely written in this language. In contrast to other high level
languages, C was written by programmers for programmers. Thus it allows sometimes, say,
weird things which in other languages such as Pascal are forbidden due to its bad influence
on programming style. Anyway, when used with some discipline, C is as good a language as
any other.
The comment in C is enclosed in /* ... */. Comments cannot be nested.
Data Types
Below shown table describes the built-in data types of C. The specified Size is
measured in bytes on a 386 PC running Linux 1.2.13. The provided Domain is based on the
Size value. You can obtain information about the size of a data type with the sizeof operator.
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 Built-in types.
Type Description Size Domain
Char Signed character/byte. 1 -128..127
Characters are enclosed
in single quotes
double Double precision number 8 ca. 10-308..10308
int Signed interer 4 –231 ..231 – 1
float Floating point number 4 ca. 10-38 ..1038
long (int) Signed long integer 4 –231 ..231 – 1
long long (int) Signed very long integer 8 –263 ..263 –1
Shot (int) Short Integer 2 –215 ..215 – 1

unsigned char Unsigned character/byte 1 0..255

unsigned (int) Unsigned integer 4 0..232 – 1
unsigned long (int) Unsigned long integer 4 0..232 – 1
unsigned long long (int) Unsigned very long integer 8 0..264 – 1
unsigned short (int) Unsigned short integer 2 0..216 – 1
Variables of these types are defined simply by preceeding the name with the type:
int an_int;
float a_float;
long long a_very_long_integer;
With struct you can combine several different types together. In other languages
this is sometimes called a record:
struct date_s {
int day, month, year;
} aDate;
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The above definition of aDate is also the declaration of a structure called date_s.
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We can define other variables of this type by referencing the structure by name:
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 struct date_s anotherDate;
We do not have to name structures. If we omit the name, we just cannot reuse it.
However, if we name a structure, we can just declare it without defining a variable:
struct time_s {
int hour, minute, second;
};
We are able to use this structure as shown for anotherDate. This is very similar to a
type definition known in other languages where a type is declared prior to the definition of
a variable of this type.
Variables must be defined prior to their use. These definitions must occur before any
statement, thus they form the topmost part within a statement block.
Statements
C defines all usual flow control statements. Statements are terminated by a semicolon
“;”. We can group multiple statements into blocks by enclosing them in curly brackets.
Within each block, we can define new variables:
{
int i; /* Define a global i */
i = 1; /* Assign i the value 0 */
{ /* Begin new block */
int i; /* Define a local i */
i = 2; /* Set its value to 2 */
} /* Close block */
/* Here i is again 1 from the outer block */
}
lists all flow control statements:
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 Statements.
Statement Description
break; Leave current block. Also used to leave case
statement in switch.
continue; Only used in loops to continue with next loop
immediately.
do Execute stmt as long as expr is TRUE.
stmt
while (expr) :
for ([expr]; [expr]; [expr] This is an abbreviation for a while loop where
the first expr is the initialization, the second
expr is the condition and the third expr is the step.
goto label; Jumps to position indicated by label.
The destination is label followed by colon “:”.
if (expr) stmt [else stmt] IF-THEN-ELSE in C notation.
return [expr]; Return from function. If function returns
void return should be used with-out additional
argument. Otherwise the value of expr is
returned.
switch (expr) { Ater evaluation of expr its value is compared
case const-expr; stmts with the case clauses. Execution continues at
case const-expr; stmts the one that matches. BEWARE : You must
... use break to leave the switch if you don’t
[default : stmts] want execution of following case clauses! If
} no case clause matches and a default clause
exists, the statements of the default clause
are executed.
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What follows are two blocks which are totally equal in their functionality. One uses the
while loop while the other the for variant:
{
int ix, sum;
sum = 0;
ix = 0; /* initialization */
while (ix < 10) { /* condition */
sum = sum + 1;
ix = ix + 1; /* step */
}
}

{
int ix, sum;
sum = 0;
for (ix = 0; ix < 10; ix = ix + 1)
sum = sum + 1;
}
To understand this, you have to know, that an assignment is an expression.
Expressions and Operators
In C almost everything is an expression. For example, the assignment statement “=”
returns the value of its righthand operand. As a “side effect” it also sets the value of the
lefthand operand. Thus,
ix = 12;
sets the value of ix to 12 (assuming that ix has an appropriate type). Now that the
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 What happens? The first assignment assigns kx the value of its righthand side. This is
the value of the assignment to jx. But this is the value of the assignment to ix. The value of
this latter is 12 which is returned to jx which is returned to kx. Thus we have expressed
ix = 12;
jx = 12;
kx = 12;
in one line.
Truth in C is defined as follows. The value 0 (zero) stands for FALSE. Any other
value is TRUE. For example, the standard function strcmp() takes two strings as argument
and returns -1 if the first is lower than the second, 0 if they are equal and 1 if the first is
greater than the second one. To compare if two strings str1 and str2 are equal you often see
the following if construct:
if (!strcmp(str1, str2)) {
/* str1 equals str2 */
}
else {
/* str1 does not equal str2 */
}
The exclamation mark indicates the boolean NOT. Thus the expression evaluates to
TRUE only if strcmp() returns 0.
Expressions are combined of both terms and operators. The first could be constansts,
variables or expressions. From the latter, C offers all operators known from other languages.
However, it offers some operators which could be viewed as abbreviations to combinations
of other operators. Below table lists available operators. The second column shows their
priority where smaller numbers indicate higher priority and same numbers, same priority.
The last column lists the order of evaluation.
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Operators.
Operator Priority Description Order
() 1 Function Call operator from left
[] 1 Subscript operator from left
–> 1 Element selector from left
! 2 Bookean NOT from right
-
2 Binary NOT from right
++ 2 Post-/Preincrement from right
–– 2 Post-/Predecrement from right
– 2 Unary minus from right
(type) 2 Type cast from right
* 2 Derefence operator from right
& 2 Address operator from right
sizeof 2 Size-of operator from right
* 3 Multiplication operator from left
/ 3 Division operator from left
% 3 Modulo operator from left
+ 4 Addition operator from left
– 4 Subtraction operator from left
<< 5 Left shift operator from left
>> 5 Right shift operator from left
< 6 Lower-than operator from left
<= 6 Lower-or-equal operator from left
> 6 Greater-than operator from left
>= 6 Greater-or-equal operator from left
== 7 Equal operater from left
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!= 7 Not-equal operator from left

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 Operator Priority Description Order
| 10 Binary OR from left
&& 11 Boolean AND from left
|| 12 Boolean OR from left
?: 13 Conditional operator from right
= 14 Assignment operator from right
op = 14 Operator assignment operator from right
, 15 Comma operator from left

Most of these operators are already known to you. However, some need some
more description. First of all notice that the binary boolean operators &, ^ and | are of
lower priority than the equality operators == and !=. Consequently, if you want to check for
bit patterns as in
if ((pattern & MASK) == MASK) {
...
}
you must enclose the binary operation into parenthesis.
The increment operators ++ and can be explained by the following example. If you
have the following statement sequence
a = a + 1;
b = a;
you can use the preincrement operator
b = ++a;
Similarly, if you have the following order of statements:
b = a;
a = a + 1;
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 Thus, the preincrement operator first increments its associated variable and then
returns the new value, whereas the postincrement operator first returns the value and then
increments its variable. The same rules apply to the pre- and postdecrement operator .
Function calls, nested assignments and the increment/decrement operators cause
side effects when they are applied. This may introduce compiler dependencies as the
evaluation order in some situations is compiler dependent. Consider the following example
which demonstrates this:
a[i] = i++;
The question is, whether the old or new value of i is used as the subscript into the
array a depends on the order the compiler uses to evaluate the assignment.
The conditional operator ?: is an abbreviation for a commonly used if statement.
For example to assign max the maximum of a and b we can use the following if statement:
if (a > b)
max = a;
else
max = b;
These types of if statements can be shorter written as
max = (a > b) ? a : b;
The next unusual operator is the operator assignment. We are often using assignments of
the following form
expr1 = (expr1) op (expr2)
for example
i = i * (j + 1);
In these assignments the lefthand value also appears on the right side. Using informal
speech we could express this as “set the value of i to the current value of i multiplied by
the sum of the value of j and 1”. Using a more natural way, we would rather say “Multiply
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i with the sum of the value of j and 1”. C allows us to abbreviate these types of assignments
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 i *= j + 1;
We can do that with almost all binary operators. Note, that the above operator
assignment really implements the long form although “j + 1” is not in parenthesis.
The last unusal operator is the comma operator ,. It is best explained by an example:
i = 0;
j = (i += 1, i += 2, i + 3);
This operator takes its arguments and evaluates them from left to right and returns
the value of the rightmost expression. Thus, in the above example, the operator first evaluates
“i += 1” which, as a side effect, increments the value of i. Then the next expression “i += 2”
is evaluated which adds 2 to i leading to a value of 3. The third expression is evaluated and
its value returned as the operator’s result. Thus, j is assigned 6.
The comma operator introduces a particular pitfall when using n-dimensional arrays
with . A frequent error is to use a comma separated list of indices to try to access an
element:
int matrix[10][5]; // 2-dim matrix
int i;
...
i = matrix[1,2]; // WON’T WORK!!
i = matrix[1][2]; // OK
What actually happens in the first case is, that the comma separated list is interpreted
as the comma operator. Consequently, the result is 2 which leads to an assignment of the
address to the third five elements of the matrix!
Some of you might wonder, what C does with values which are not used. For example in the
assignment statements we have seen before,
ix = 12;
jx = 12;
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 we have three lines which each return 12. The answer is, that C ignores values which
are not used. This leads to some strange things. For example, you could write something
like this:
ix = 1;
4711;
jx = 2;
But let’s forget about these strange things. Let’s come back to something more
useful. Let’s talk about functions.
Functions
As C is a procedural language it allows the definition of functions. Procedures are
“simulated” by functions returning “no value”. This value is a special type called void.
Functions are declared similar to variables, but they enclose their arguments in
parenthesis (even if there are no arguments, the parenthesis must be specified):
int sum(int to); /* Declaration of sum with one argument */
int bar(); /* Declaration of bar with no arguments */
void foo(int ix, int jx);
/* Declaration of foo with two arguments */
To actually define a function, just add its body:
int sum(int to) {
int ix, ret;
ret = 0;
for (ix = 0; ix < to; ix = ix + 1)
ret = ret + ix;
return ret; /* return function’s value */
} /* sum */
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Pointers and Arrays
One of the most common problems in programming in C (and sometimes C++) is
the understanding of pointers and arrays. In C (C++) both are highly related with some
small but essential differences. You declare a pointer by putting an asterisk between the
data type and the name of the variable or function:
char *strp; /* strp is ‘pointer to char’ */
You access the content of a pointer by dereferencing it using again the asterisk:
*strp = ‘a’; /* A single character */
As in other languages, you must provide some space for the value to which the pointer
points. A pointer to characters can be used to point to a sequence of characters: the string.
Strings in C are terminated by a special character NUL (0 or as char ‘’). Thus, you can have
strings of any length. Strings are enclosed in double quotes:
strp = “hello”;
In this case, the compiler automatically adds the terminating NUL character. Now,
strp points to a sequence of 6 characters. The first character is ‘h’, the second ‘e’ and so
forth. We can access these characters by an index in strp:
strp[0] /* h */
strp[1] /* e */
strp[2] /* l */
strp[3] /* l */
strp[4] /* o */
strp[5] /* \0 */
The first character also equals “*strp” which can be written as “*(strp + 0)”. This
leads to something called pointer arithmetic and which is one of the powerful features of
C. Thus, we have the following equations:
*strp == *(strp + 0) == strp[0]
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 Note that these equations are true for any data type. The addition is not oriented to
bytes, it is oriented to the size of the corresponding pointer type!
The strp pointer can be set to other locations. Its destination may vary. In contrast
to that, arrays are fix pointers. They point to a predefined area of memory which is specified
in brackets:
char str[6];
You can view str to be a constant pointer pointing to an area of 6 characters. We are
not allowed to use it like this:
str = “hallo”; /* ERROR */
because this would mean, to change the pointer to point to ‘h’. We must copy the string into
the provided memory area. We therefore use a function called strcpy() which is part of the
standard C library.
strcpy(str, “hallo”); /* Ok */
Note however, that we can use str in any case where a pointer to a character is expected,
because it is a (fixed) pointer.
A First Program
Here we introduce the first program which is so often used: a program which prints
“Hello, world!” to your screen:
#include <stdio.h>

/* Global variables should be here */

/* Function definitions should be here */

int
main() {
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puts(“Hello, world!”);
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 The first line looks something strange. Its explanation requires some information
about how C (and C++) programs are handled by the compiler. The compilation step is
roughly divided into two steps. The first step is called “preprocessing” and is used to prepare
raw C code. In this case this step takes the first line as an argument to include a file called
stdio.h into the source. The angle brackets just indicate, that the file is to be searched in the
standard search path configured for your compiler. The file itself provides some declarations
and definitions for standard input/output. For example, it declares a function called put().
The preprocessing step also deletes the comments.
In the second step the generated raw C code is compiled to an executable. Each
executable must define a function called main(). It is this function which is called once the
program is started. This function returns an integer which is returned as the program’s exit
status.
Function main() can take arguments which represent the command line parameters.
We just introduce them here but do not explain them any further:
#include <stdio.h>

int
main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
int ix;
for (ix = 0; ix < argc; ix++)
printf(“My %d. argument is %s\n”, ix, argv[ix]);
return 0;
} /* main */
The first argument argc just returns the number of arguments given on the command
line. The second argument argv is an array of strings. (Recall that strings are represented
by pointers to characters. Thus, argv is an array of pointers to characters.)
What Next?
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section. Some concepts of C are improved in C++. For example, C++ introduces the concept
of references which allow something similar to call by reference in function calls.
We suggest that you take your local compiler and start writing a few programs (if
you are not already familiar with C, of course). One problem for beginners often is that
existing library functions are unknown. If you have a UNIX system try to use the man
command to get some descriptions. Especially you might want to try:
man gets
man printf
man puts
man scanf
man strcpy
We also suggest, that you get yourself a good book about C (or to find one of the on-
line tutorials). We try to explain everything we introduce in the next sections. However,
there is nothign wrong with having some reference at hand.
8 From C To C++
Peter Müller Globewide Network Academy (GNA) [email protected]
This section presents extensions to the C language which were introduced by C++
[6]. It also deals with object-oriented concepts and their realization.
Basic Extensions
The following sections present extensions to already introduced concepts of C.
C++ adds a new comment which is introduced by two slashes (//) and which lasts until the
end of line. You can use both comment styles, for example to comment out large blocks of
code:
/* C comment can include // and can span over
several lines. */
// /* This is the C++ style comment */ until end of line
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Data Types
C++ introduces a new data type called reference. You can think of them as if they
were “aliases” to “real” variables or objects. As an alias cannot exist without its corresponding
real part, you cannot define single references. The ampersand (&) is used to define a reference.
For example:
int ix; /* ix is “real” variable */
int &rx = ix; /* rx is “alias” for ix */

ix = 1; /* also rx == 1 */
rx = 2; /* also ix == 2 */
References can be used as function arguments and return values. This allows to pass
parameters as reference or to return a “handle” to a calculated variable or object.
The provides you with an overview of possible declarations. It is not complete in that
it shows not every possible combination and some of them have not been introduced here,
because we are not going to use them. However, these are the ones which you will probably
use very often.
Declaration expressions.
Declaration name is ... Example
type name ; type int count ;
type name [ ] ; (open) array of type int count [ ] ;
type name [n] ; array with n elements of type type int count [3] ;
(name[0], name [1], ..., name [n-1])
type * name ; pointer to type int * count ;
type * name [] ; (open) array of pointers to type int * count [] ;
type * (name []) ; (open) array of pointers to type int * (count []) ;
type (* name) []; pointer to (open) array of type int (* count) [] ;
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type name (); function returning type int count ( ) ;

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type * name () ; function retruning pointer to type int * count () ;

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 Declaration name is ... Example
type * (name ()) ; function returning pointer to type int * (count ());
type (* name) () ; pointer to function returning type int (*count) () ;
type & name (); function returning reference to type int & count () ;

In C and C++ you can use the modifier const to declare particular aspects of a variable
(or object) to be constant. The next table 8.2 lists possible combinations and describe their
meaning. Subsequently, some examples are presented which demonstrate the use of const.
Constant declaration expresssions.
Declaration name is ....
const type name = value ; constant type
type * const name = value ; constant pointer to type
const type * name = value ; (variable) pointer to constant type
const type * const name = value ; constant pointer to constant type
Now let’s investigate some examples of contant variables and how to use them.
Consider the following declarations (again from [1]):
int i; // just an ordinary integer
int *ip; // uninitialized pointer to
// integer
int * const cp = &i; // constant pointer to integer
const int ci = 7; // constant integer
const int *cip; // pointer to constant integer
const int * const cicp = &ci; // constant pointer to constant
// integer
The following assignments are valid:
i = ci; // assign constant integer to integer
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 cip = &ci; // change pointer to constant integer
cip = cicp; // set pointer to constant integer to
// reference variable of constant pointer to
// constant integer
The following assignments are invalid:
ci = 8; // cannot change constant integer value
*cip = 7; // cannot change constant integer referenced
// by pointer
cp = &ci; // cannot change value of constant pointer
ip = cip; // this would allow to change value of
// constant integer *cip with *ip
When used with references some peculiarities must be considered. See the following
example program:
#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
const int ci = 1;
const int &cr = ci;
int &r = ci; // create temporary integer for reference
// cr = 7; // cannot assign value to constant reference
r = 3; // change value of temporary integer
print(“ci == %d, r == %d\n”, ci, r);
return 0;
}
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When compiled with GNU g++, the compiler issues the following warning:
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 What actually happens is, that the compiler automatically creates a temporay integer
variable with value of ci to which reference r is initialized. Consequently, when changing r
the value of the temporary integer is changed. This temporary variable lives as long as
reference r.
Reference cr is defined as read-only (constant reference). This disables its use on
the left side of assignments. You may want to remove the comment in front of the particular
line to check out the resulting error message of your compiler.
Functions
C++ allows function overloading as defined in Polymorphism. For example, we can
define two different functions max(), one which returns the maximum of two integers and
one which returns the maximum of two strings:
#include <stdio.h>

int max(int a, int b) {

if (a > b) return a;
return b;
}

char *max(char *a, char * b) {

if (strcmp(a, b) > 0) return a;
return b;
}

int main() {
printf(“max(19, 69) = %d\n”, max(19, 69));
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 The above example program defines these two functions which differ in their
parameter list, hence, they define two different functions. The first printf() call in function
main() issues a call to the first version of max(), because it takes two integers as its argument.
Similarly, the second printf() call leads to a call of the second version of max().
References can be used to provide a function with an alias of an actual function call
argument. This enables to change the value of the function call argument as it is known
from other languages with call-by-reference parameters:
void foo(int byValue, int &byReference) {
byValue = 42;
byReference = 42;
}

void bar() {
int ix, jx;

ix = jx = 1;
foo(ix, jx);
/* ix == 1, jx == 42 */
}
First Object-oriented Extensions
In this section we present how the object-oriented concepts used in C++.
Classes and Objects
C++ allows the declaration and definition of classes. Instances of classes are called
objects. Recall the drawing program example of “a - kind - of” relationship. There we have
developed a class Point. In C++ this would look like this:
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class Point {
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int _x, _y; // point coordinates

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 public: // begin interface section
void setX(const int val);
void setY(const int val);
int getX() { return _x; }
int getY() { return _y; }
};

Point apoint
This declares a class Point and defines an object apoint. You can think of a class
definition as a structure definition with functions (or “methods”). Additionally, you can
specify the access rights in more detail. For example, _x and _y are private, because
elements of classes are private as default. Consequently, we explicitly must “switch” the
access rights to declare the following to be public. We do that by using the keyword public
followed by a colon: Every element following this keyword are now accessible from outside
of the class.
We can switch back to private access rights by starting a private section with private:.
This is possible as often as needed:
class Foo {
// private as default ...

public:
// what follows is public until ...

private:
// ... here, where we switch back to private ...
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 };
Recall that a structure struct is a combination of various data elements which are
accessible from the outside. We are now able to express a structure with help of a class,
where all elements are declared to be public:
class Struct {
public: // Structure elements are public by default
// elements, methods
};
This is exactly what C++ does with struct. Structures are handled like classes.
Whereas elements of classes (defined with class) are private by default, elements of
structures (defined with struct) are public. However, we can also use private: to switch to a
private section in structures.
Let’s come back to our class Point. Its interface starts with the public section where
we define four methods. Two for each coordinate to set and get its value. The set methods
are only declared. Their actual functionality is still to be defined. The get methods have a
function body: They are defined within the class or, in other words, they are inlined methods.
This type of method definition is useful for small and simple bodies. It also improve
performance, because bodies of inlined methods are “copied” into the code wherever a call
to such a method takes place.
On the contrary, calls to the set methods would result in a “real” function call. We
define these methods outside of the class declaration. This makes it necessary, to indicate
to which class a method definition belongs to. For example, another class might just define
a method setX() which is quite different from that of Point. We must be able to define the
scope of the definition; we therefore use the scope operator “::”:
void Point::setX(const int val) {
_x = val;
}
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void Point::setY(const int val) {

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 _y = val;
}
Here we define method setX() (setY()) within the scope of class Point. The object
apoint can use these methods to set and get information about itself:
Point apoint;

apoint.setX(1); // Initialization
apoint.setY(1);

//
// x is needed from here, hence, we define it here and
// initialize it to the x-coordinate of apoint
//

int x = apoint.getX();
The question arises about how the methods “know” from which object they are
invoked. This is done by implicitly passing a pointer to the invoking object to the method.
We can access this pointer within the methods as this. The definitions of methods setX()
and setY() make use of class members _x and _y, respectively. If invoked by an object, these
members are “automatically” mapped to the correct object. We could use this to illustrate
what actually happens:
void Point::setX(const int val) {
this->_x = val; // Use this to reference invoking
// object
}
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void Point::setY(const int val) {

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 this->_y = val;
}
Here we explicitly use the pointer this to explicitly dereference the invoking object.
Fortunately, the compiler automatically “inserts” these dereferences for class members,
hence, we really can use the first definitions of setX() and setY(). However, it sometimes
make sense to know that there is a pointer this available which indicates the invoking object.
Currently, we need to call the set methods to initialize a point object. However, we
would like to initialize the point when we define it. We therefore use special methods
called constructors.
How to Write a Program
Until now, we have only presented parts of or very small programs which could
easily be handled in one file. However, greater projects, say, a calendar program, should be
split into manageable pieces, often called modules. Modules are implemented in separate
files and we will now briefly discuss how modularization is done in C and C++. This
discussion is based on UNIX and the GNU C++ compiler. If you are using other constellations
the following might vary on your side. This is especially important for those who are using
integrated development environments (IDEs), for example, Borland C++.
Roughly speaking, modules consist of two file types: interface descriptions and
implementation files. To distinguish these types, a set of suffixes are used when compiling
C and C++ programs. The below shows some of them.
Extensions and file types.
Extension (s) File Type
.h, .hxx, .hpp interface descriptions (“header” or “include files”)
.c implementation files of C
.cc, .c, .cxx, .cpp .c++ implementation files of C++
.tpl interface description (templates)
In this tutorial we will use .h for header files, .cc for C++ files and .tpl for template
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definition files. Even if we are writing “only” C code, it makes sense to use .cc to force the
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compiler to treat it as C++. This simplifies combination of both, since the internal mechanism
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Compilation Steps
The compilation process takes .cc files, preprocess them (removing comments, add
header files) and translates them into object files. Typical suffixes for that file type are .o or
.obj.
After successful compilation the set of object files is processed by a linker. This
program combine the files, add necessary libraries and creates an executable. Under UNIX
this file is called a.out if not other specified. These steps are illustrated in below figure.
Compilation steps.
With modern compilers both steps can be combined.
For example, our small example programs can be compiled
and linked with the GNU C++ compiler as follows
(“example.cc” is just an example name, of course):
gcc example.cc
A Note about Style
Header files are used to describe the interface of
implementation files. Consequently, they are included in
each implementation file which uses the interface of the
particular implementation file. As mentioned in previous
sections this inclusion is achieved by a copy of the content
of the header file at each preprocessor #include statement, leading to a “huge” raw C++
file.
To avoid the inclusion of multiple copies caused by mutual dependencies we use
conditional coding. The preprocessor also defines conditional statements to check for
various aspects of its processing. For example, we can check if a macro is already defined:
#ifndef MACRO
#define MACRO /* define MACRO */
...
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#endif
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The lines between #ifndef and #endif are only included, if MACRO is not already
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 /*
** Example for a header file which ‘checks’ if it is
** already included. Assume, the name of the header file
** is ‘myheader.h’
*/

#ifndef __MYHEADER_H
#define __MYHEADER_H

/*
** Interface declarations go here
*/

#endif /* __MYHEADER_H */
__MYHEADER_H is a unique name for each header file. You might want to follow the
convention of using the name of the file prefixed with two underbars. The first time the file
is included, __MYHEADER_H is not defined, thus every line is included and processed.
The first line just defines a macro called __MYHEADER_H. If accidentally the file should
be included a second time (while processing the same input file), __MYHEADER_H is
defined, thus everything leading up to the #endif is skipped.
Excercises
1.
Polymorphism. Explain why
void display(const DrawableObject obj);
does not produce the desired output.
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The List - A Case Study

Peter Müller
Globewide Network Academy (GNA)
[email protected]
Generic Types (Templates)
In C++ generic data types are called class templates or just templates for short. A
class template looks like a normal class definition, where some aspects are represented by
placeholders. In the forthcoming list example we use this mechanism to generate lists for
various data types:
template <class T>
class List : ... {
public:
...
void append(const T data);
...
};
In the first line we introduce the keyword template which starts every template
declaration. The arguments of a template are enclosed in angle brackets.
Each argument specifies a placeholder in the following class definition. In our
example, we want class List to be defined for various data types. One could say, that we want
to define a class of lists. In this case the class of lists is defined by the type of objects they
contain. We use the name T for the placeholder. We now use T at any place where normally
the type of the actual objects are expected. For example, each list provides a method to
append an element to it. We can now define this method as shown above with use of T.
An actual list definition must now specify the type of the list. If we stick to the class
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 List<int> integerList;
Here we create a class instance of a List which takes integers as its data elements.
We specify the type enclosed in angle brackets. The compiler now applies the provided
argument “int” and automatically generates a class definition where the placeholder T is
replaced by int, for example, it generates the following method declaration for append():
void append(const int data);
Templates can take more than one argument to provide more placeholders. For
example, to declare a dictionary class which provides access to its data elements by a key,
one can think of the following declaration:
template <class K, class T>
class Dictionary {
...
public:
...
K getKey(const T from);
T getData(const K key);
...
};
Here we use two placeholders to be able to use dictionaries for various key and data
types.
Template arguments can also be used to generate parameterized class definitions.
For example, a stack might be implemented by an array of data elements. The size of the
array could be specified dynamically:
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 template <class T, int size>
class Stack {
T _store[size];

public:
...
};

Stack<int,128> mystack;
In this example, mystack is a stack of integers using an array of 128 elements. However, in
the following we will not use parameterized classes.

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