DIELECTRICS AND MAGNETIC

PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
➢ Introduction to dielectrics
➢ Polarisation
➢ Permittivity and Dielectric constant
➢ Different types of polarisations
➢ Internal fields in a solid
➢ Clausius-Mossotti equation
➢ Ferroelectrics and Piezoelectrics
➢ Applications of dielectric materials
➢ Magnetisation
➢ permeability and susceptibility,
➢ Classification of magnetic materials
➢ Ferromagnetism and ferromagnetic domains,
➢ Hysteresis 1
➢ Applications of magnetic materials.
 Dipole -Dipole moment
Dielectrics are the materials having electric dipole moment permantly.
Dipole: A dipole is an entity in which equal positive and negative
charges are separated by a small distance..
DIPOLE moment (µele ):The product of magnitude of either of the
charges and separation distance b/w them is called Dipole moment.
µe = q . x → coul – m

+q -q
X
All dielectrics are electrical insulators and they are mainly used to store
electrical energy.

Ex: Mica, glass, plastic, water & polar molecules…

2
 Dielectric Constant

Dielectric Constant is the ratio between the permittivity of the

medium to the permittivity of free space.

r =
0

The characteristics of a dielectric material are determined by the

dielectric constant and it has no units.

3
 Electric Polarization
The process of producing electric dipoles by an electric field
is called polarization in dielectrics.

Polarizability:

The induced dipole moment per unit electric field is called

Polarizability.
The induced dipole moment is proportional to the intensity
of the electric field.
E
 = E
 → polarizabi lity constant
Is a Polarizability constant
4
 dipole
+ _

+
Electric field _
+ _

+ _ _
+

+
_
+ _
+ _
+ _
Dielectric atom
5
Polarization vector( )The dipole
moment per unit volume of the dielectric
material is called polarization vector. if N
is number of molecules per unit volume and
is the average dipole moment per
molecule then


P = N
6
Electric flux Density (D):
Electric flux density is defined as charge per unit area and it has
same units of dielectric polarization.
Electric flux density D at a point in a free space or air in terms of
Electric field strength is

D0 =  0 E - -  (1)

At the same point in a medium is given by

D = E - -  (2)
As the polarization measures the additional flux density arising
from the presence of material as compared to free space

i.e, D =  0E + P - -  (3) 7
 Using equations 2 & 3 we get

E =  0 E + P
( -  0 ) E = P
(or) ( r . 0 -  0 ) E = P
( r − 1) 0 .E = P
8
Electric susceptibility:
The polarization vector P is proportional to
the total electric flux density and direction
of electric field.
Therefore the polarization vector can be
written
P =  0e E

P
e =
0E

 0 ( r − 1) E
=
0E 9

e =  r −1
Various polarization processes:

When the specimen is placed inside a d.c. electric field,

polarization is due to four types of processes….
1.Electronic polarization
2.Ionic polarization
3.Orientation polarization
4.Space charge polarization

10
 Electronic Polarization
When an EF is applied to an atom, +vely charged
nucleus displaces in the direction of field and electron cloud in
opposite direction. This kind of displacement will produce an
electric dipole with in the atom.
i.e, dipole moment is proportional to the magnitude of field
strength and is given by
 e E
or
e =  e E
where ‘αe’ is called electronic Polarizability constant 11
 Expression for Electronic Polarization
Consider a atom in an EF of intensity ‘E’ since the nucleus
(+Ze) and electron cloud (-ze) of the atom have opposite
charges and acted upon by Lorentz force (FL).

Subsequently nucleus moves in the direction of field and

electron cloud in opposite direction.

When electron cloud and nucleus get shifted from their normal
positions, an attractive force b/w them is created and the
seperation continuous until columbic force FC is balanced with
Lorentz force FL, Finally a new equilibriums state is
12
established.
 E

+Ze x

No field fig(1) In the presence of field fig (2)

fig(2) represents displacement of nucleus and electron

cloud and we assume that the –ve charge in the cloud
uniformly distributed over a sphere of radius R and the
spherical shape does not change for convenience. 13
 Let ρ be the charge density of the sphere

− Ze
=
4
R 3
3
- Ze represents the total charge in the sphere.
Thus the - ve charge in the sphere of radius ' x' is
4
q e   .  .x 3
3
− ze 4
 4
.R 3 3 . . x 3
( )
3

− ze 3
= 3
x - - - - - (1)
R

qe .q p  − ze.x 3  − z 2e 2 x
Now Fc =
1
. =
1
  ( ze ) = - - - - -
14
(2)
4 0 x2 4 0 x 2  R 3  4 0 R 3
Force experienced by displaced nucleus in EF of Strength E
is FL = Eq = ZeE -----(3)

FL = Fc
− z 2e 2 x
= ZeE - - - - - (4)
4 0 R 3
− zex
=E
4 0 R 3

− zex − zex dipole moment

=  E=
4 0 R 3
e e

 e = 4 0 R 3

15
Hence electronic Polaris ability is directly proportional to cube of the
radius of the atom.
It increases with increase of volume of the atom.
This kind of polarization is mostly exhibited in Monatomic
gases.

He Ne Ar Kr Xe

 e = ____  10 -4 0F − m 2 0.18 0.35 1.46 2.18 3.54

It occurs only at optical frequencies (1015Hz)

It is independent of temperature. 16
 Ionic polarization

 The ionic polarization occurs, when atoms form

molecules and it is mainly due to a relative displacement
of the atomic components of the molecule in the presence
of an electric field.

 When a EF is applied to the molecule, the positive ions

displaced by X1 to the negative side electric field and
negative ions displaced by X2 to the positive side of field.

 The resultant dipole moment µ = q ( X1 + X2)..

17
+
Electric field _

+ _
+ anion _
cat ion
+ _

x1 x2
+
_
+ _
+ _
+ _
18
Restoring force constant depend upon the mass of the ion and
natural frequency and is given by

F = eE = m.w x 2
0

or
eE
x= 2
m.w0

 x1 + x2 =
eE
2
 1
m + 1
M

w0 19
Where ‘M’ mass of anion and ‘m’ is mass of cat ion

2
 ionic = e( x1 + x2 ) = 2
m +
e E 1 1
M

w0
ionic 2
or  ionic =
e
 2 m1 + M1 
E w0

This polarization occurs at frequency 1013 Hz (IR).

It is a slower process compared to electronic polarization.
20
It is independent of temperature.
 Expression for orientation polarization

 N .o2rie.E
Po = N .o rie  = N . o .E
3kT
o2rie
o =
3kT

 =  elec +  io n ic +  o ri = 4 o R +
3 e
w02
2
 1
M
+ 1
m
+ 3kT
o ri
2

This is called Langevin – Debye equation for total Polarisability in

dielectrics. 21
Internal fields or local fields

Local field or internal field in a dielectric is the

space and time average of the electric field
intensity acting on a particular molecule in the
dielectric material.

22
 Evaluation of internal field

Consider a dielectric be placed between the plates of a

parallel plate capacitor and let there be an imaginary
spherical cavity around the atom A inside the
dielectric.

The internal field at the atom site ‘A’ can be made up

of four components E1 ,E2, E3 & E4.

23
 + + + + + + + + + ++
_ _ _ _ _ _ _
+ + +
+
+ + Dielectric
+ + material
_ A _
_ _
_ _
Spherical
+ + + + _ _
Cavity + + +
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
E _
24
Field E1:
E1 is the field intensity at A due to the charge
density on the plates

D
E1 =
0
D = 0E + P
 E+P
E1 = 0
0
P
E1 = E + ..........(1)
0
25
Field E2:
E2 is the field intensity at A due to the charge
density induced on the two sides of the dielectric.

−P
E2 = ...........(2)
0

Field E3:
E3 is the field intensity at A due to the atoms
contained in the cavity, we are assuming a cubic
26
structure, so E3 = 0.
 + + +
+
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ A +
_  d r _
_ _
r R
E _ _
_ p q
dA _ _ _
_ _ 27
Field E4:
1.This is due to polarized charges on the
surface of the spherical cavity.

dA = 2 . pq.qR
dA = 2 .r sin  .rd
dA = 2 .r sin d
2

Where dA is Surface area between θ & 28

θ+dθ…
2.The total charge present on the surface area dA
is…
dq = ( normal component of polarization ) X (
surface area )

dq = p cos  dA
dq = 2r p cos . sin  .d
2

29
3.The field due to this charge at A, denoted by dE4 is
given by
1dq
dE4 =
4 0 r 2

1 dq cos
The field in θ = 0 direction dE4 =
4 0 r2

1
dE4 = (2r p cos . sin  .d ) cos
2

4 0 r 2

P
dE4 = cos  . sin  .d
2
30
2 0
 

4.Thus the total field

E4 =  dE 4

E4 due to the charges 0


on the surface of the P
entire cavity is = 
0
2 0
cos 2  . sin  .d


P
=   . sin  .d
2
cos
2 0 0

let..x = cos  → dx = − sin d

−1
−P
=  .dx
2
x
2 0 1

− P x 3 −1 − P −1 −1
= ( )1  ( )
2 0 3 2 0 3
P 31
E4 =
3 0
The internal field or Lorentz field can be written as

Ei = E1 + E2 + E3 + E4
p p p
Ei = ( E + ) − + 0 +
o o 3 o
p
Ei = E +
3 o

32
Classius – Mosotti relation:
Consider a dielectric material having cubic
structure , and assume ionic Polarizability
& Orientational polarizability are zero..

i = 0 = 0
polarization..P = N
P = N e Ei ......where.,  =  e Ei
P
where., Ei = E +
3 0

33
P = N e Ei
P
P = N e ( E + )
3 0
P
P = N e E + N e
3 0
P
P − N e = N e E
3 0
N e
P(1 − ) = N e E
3 0
N e E
P= ...................(1)
N e
(1 − ) 34
3 0
We known that the polarizati on vector
P =  0 E ( r − 1)............(2)
from eq n s (1) & ( 2)
N e E
=  0 E ( r − 1)
N e
(1 − )
3 0
N e N e E
1− =
3 0  0 E ( r − 1)
N e N e E
1= +
3 0  0 E ( r − 1)
N e N e
1= +
3 0  0 ( r − 1)
N e 3
1= (1 + )
3 0  r −1
N e 1
=
3 0 (1 +
3
)
 r −1
35
N e  r −1
= ...... → Classius Mosotti relation
3 0 r + 2
 Ferro electric materials or Ferro electricity
 Ferro electric crystals exhibit spontaneous polarization I.e.
electric polarization with out electric field.
 Ferro electric crystals possess high dielectric constant.

 each unit cell of a Ferro electric crystal carries a

reversible electric dipole moment.
Examples: Barium Titanate (BaTiO3) , Sodium nitrate
(NaNO3) ,Rochelle salt etc..

36
37
What is Magnet?

38
 Magnets are used in many application involving motors,
power generation, tape recording, and date storage. Strong
magnets are also the basis of transportation systems in which
the vehicles are levitated above a track.
 The earliest known magnets were probably naturally
occurring permanent magnets of the Fe3O4 type and were
probably more of a curiosity.

39
40
EQUIVALENT OF A MAGNETIC DIPOLE

41
N
• Magnetic dipole
can be viewed as a
pair of magnetic
S charges by analogy
I
with electric dipole.
FORCES EXERTED ON A MAGNETIC
DIPOLE IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

42
N

S B
MAGNETIC INDUCTION OR
MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY (B)
 It is the number of magnetic force lines passing
through unit area
 Units: Wbm-2 or Tesla

43
MAGNETIC FIELD INTENSITY (H)
 The Magnetic field intensity at any point in the
magnetic field is the force experienced by an unit
north pole placed at that point.
 Units: Am-1

44
 FUNDAMENTAL RELATIONS

1. RELATION BETWEEN B, H and M

A magnetic field can be expressed in terms of Magnetic field intensity
(H) and Magnetic flux density. In free space, these quantities are
related as

B = 0 H (1.1)

In a magnetic material, above relation is written as

B = H (1.2)

Here 0 = absolute permeability of free space,

 = absolute permeability of the medium and

/ 0 = r = relative permeability of the magnetic material. 45

 where μ0 is the permeability of a vacuum.
 The SI unit for magnetic induction B is the tesla (T).
 The units for H are A/m, and those for permeability are T-m/A.
 The magnitude of μ0 is 4π × 10-7 T-m/A.
 [Note: The tesla can be defined in terms of units you are
more familiar with, as 1T = 1(V-s)/m2.
 To give you a feeling for the magnitude of a tesla, the
magnetic induction of the earth is ~6 × 10-5T and a typical
-
bar magnet has an induction of ~1T.

46
MAGNETIZATION (M)
Magnetization is defined as magnetic moment per unit volume and
expressed in ampere/ meter. It is proportional to the applied magnetic
field intensity (H).

M = H (1.3)

Here,  = r – 1 = Magnetic susceptibility (cm-3).

Let us consider B = H
 B = 0  r H = 0  r H − 0 H + 0 H
 B = (  r − 1) 0 H + 0 H
 B =  0 H + 0 H
 B = 0 M + 0 H  B = 0 ( M + H ) 47
(1.4)
 MAGNETIC PERMEABILITY

The ratio between inductance or

magnetization and magnetic field.
It is a measure of the ease with
which magnetic flux lines can
‘‘flow’’ through a material.
48
MAGNETIZATION

The total magnetic moment

per unit volume

49
MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY(Χ)
 The ratio between magnetization and the applied field.

M
=
H

50
PERMEABILITY CONCEPT (CONT’D)

 The concepts of magnetization and magnetic dipole

moment distribution are introduced to relate
microscopic phenomena to the macroscopic fields.
 The introduction of permeability eliminates the need
for us to explicitly consider microscopic effects.
 Knowing the permeability of a magnetic material
tells us all we need to know from the point of view
of macroscopic electromagnetics.

51
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY
 The relative permeability of a magnetic material is
the ratio of the permeability of the magnetic
material to the permeability of free space


r =
0
52
 Classification of magnetic materials

Ferro Magnetic
Dia Magnetic Material Para Magnetic Material
Material

➢No permanent ➢Posses enormous

dipole moment ➢Permanent dipole permanent dipole
➢Susceptibility is moment moment
negative(it is ➢Susceptibility is +Ve ➢Susceptibility is
independent of and very small positive and
Temperature) ➢Χ=C/T large(depends on
➢No spin alignment ➢ In the presence of temperature)
is present magnetic field the ➢Χ=C/T-θ
➢The magnetic lines magnetic lines of ➢All spins are
of forces expelled in forces are attracted orderly oriented
presence of Magnetic towards the center of ➢Bin>>>Bout
Field the material.(Bin >Bout ➢ Curie 53
➢Bin =0(Bout >Bin ) ) Temperature
➢Bi,Zn,Gold,H2O ➢ Al,Pt,Mn,Cucl2 ➢Fe, Co, Ni, MnO
 Ferro Magnetic Materials

Anti Ferro Magnetic Materials Ferri Magnetic Materials

➢Equal number of opposite spins

with same magnitude. ➢Equal number of opposite spins
➢Susceptibility is small and with different magnitude
positive. ➢Susceptibility is positive and
➢Spin alignment is anti parallel. very large
➢Neel Temperature. ➢Spin alignment is antiparellel
➢Χ=C/T+θ ➢Χ=C/T±θ
➢FeO,MnO,Cr2O3 ➢ZnFe2 O4, CuFe2O4

54
 Anti ferromagnetism - Arrangement of
magnetic moments such that the magnetic
moments of atoms or ions cancel out causing
zero net magnetization.

 Ferromagnetism- The net magnetization

of magnetic substances is not zero since
antiparallel moments are of different
magnitudes. Hence it possesses a net
magnetic moment.

55
DIAMAGNETIC MATERIALS
 In the absence of applied magnetic field, each
atom has net zero magnetic dipole moment.
 In the presence of an applied magnetic field, the
angular velocities of the electronic orbits are
changed.
 These induced magnetic dipole moments align
themselves opposite to the applied field.
 Thus, m < 0 and r < 1.

56
DIAMAGNETIC MATERIALS (CONT’D)
 Usually, diamagnetism is a very miniscule effect
in natural materials - that is r  1.
 Diamagnetism can be a big effect in
superconductors and in artificial materials.
 Diamagnetic materials are repelled from either
pole of a magnet.

57
PARAMAGNETIC MATERIALS
 In the absence of applied magnetic field, each
atom has net non-zero (but weak) magnetic
dipole moment. These magnetic dipoles moments
are randomly oriented so that the net
macroscopic magnetization is zero.
 In the presence of an applied magnetic field, the
magnetic dipoles align themselves with the
applied field so that m > 0 and r > 1.

58
PARAMAGNETIC MATERIALS (CONT’D)
 Usually, paramagnetism is a very miniscule
effect in natural materials - that is r  1.
 Paramagnetic materials are (weakly) attracted to
either pole of a magnet.

59
FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS DOMAIN THEORY
 Ferromagnetic materials include iron, nickel and
cobalt and compounds containing these elements.
 In the absence of applied magnetic field, each atom
has very strong magnetic dipole moments due to
uncompensated electron spins.
 Regions of many atoms with aligned dipole
moments called domains form.
 In the absence of applied magnetic field, the
domains are randomly oriented so that the net
macroscopic magnetization is zero.

60
FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS (CONT’D)
 In the presence of an applied magnetic field, the
domains align themselves with the applied field.
 The effect is a very strong one with m >> 0 and r
>> 1.
 Ferromagnetic materials are strongly attracted
to either pole of a magnet.

61
FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS (CONT’D)
 In ferromagnetic materials:
 the permeability is much larger than the
permeability of free space
 the permeability is very non-linear
 the permeability depends on the previous history of
the material

62
DOMAIN THEORY OF FERROMAGNETISM
 The small region within which all spin magnetic
moments are aligned in a specific direction is
known as magnetic domain.
 The smallest region in which there is an
alignment of spin in one direction is known as
ferromagnetic domain.
 The size of the domain will be of the order 10-6
m or larger.
 Each domain act as a single magnetic dipole and
it is oriented in random direction.
 The net magnetization is 0 in absence of
magnetic field
63
 Each domain is separated from the other
domains by a wall known as block or domain
wall.
 When an external magnetic field is applied,
the domain which are parallel or nearly
parallel to the applied field , grown in size at
the expense of other domains.
 The domains which are not parallel to the
applied field have a decrease in the size.
 During the absence of the field , even though
magnetic domains are ordered, the net
magnetization force in a cubic ferromagnetic
crystal is zero.
64
 Domain growth depends

o Magnetostatic energy
 Anisotropy energy

 Domain walls energy

 Magnetostriction energy

65
MAGNETOSTATIC ENERGY
 The potential energy stored inside the
magnetic material is known as Magnetostatic
energy and it is very high.
 This energy can be reduced by splitting the
domain into several parts

66
ANISOTROPY ENERGY
 It is the minimum energy required to magnetize a
magnetic material.

67
BLOCH OR DOMAIN WALL ENERGY
 The minimum potential energy of the domain
wall is known as Domain wall energy
 It depends on the anisotropy nature of the
material

68
MAGNETOSTRICTION
• Magnetostriction constant(λ)=Δl/l
Δl be the change in length due to magnetic field
‘l’ original length of the magnetic material.
λ reaches saturation when the field reaches
saturation.
The energy associated with the Magnetostriction is called
Magnetostriction energy.
“Noise in transformers”

69
 HYSTERESIS

Hysteresis of ferromagnetic materials refers to the lag of magnetization

behind the magnetizing field.

▪ A hysteresis loop is a curve

showing the change in magnetic
induction of a ferromagnetic
material with an external field.

▪ When the external magnetic field

is increased the magnetic
induction increases.
70
71
✓ Once magnetic saturation has been achieved, a decrease in the
applied field back to zero results in a macroscopically permanent
or residual magnetization, known as remanance, Mr. The
corresponding induction, Br, is called retentivity or remanent
induction of the magnetic material. This effect of retardation by
material is called hysteresis.

✓ The magnetic field strength needed to bring the induced

magnetization to zero is termed as coercivity, Hc. This must be
applied anti-parallel to the original field.

✓ A further increase in the field in the opposite direction results in a

maximum induction in the opposite direction. The field can once
again be reversed, and the field-magnetization loop can be closed,
72
this loop is known as hysteresis loop or B-H plot or M- H plot.
▪ Below the ferromagnetic Curie temperature ferromagnetic
substances exhibit hysteresis.

▪ The phenomenon of hysteresis can be explained with domain

theory.

▪ A region in a ferromagnetic material where all the magnetic

moments are aligned in the same direction is called a domain.

▪ Each of these domains is separated from the rest by domain

boundaries / domain walls.

▪ Boundaries, also called Bloch walls, are narrow zones in which the
direction of the magnetic moment gradually and continuously
changes from one domain to that of the next.
73
 Domain Structure and
the Hysteresis Loop

 Domains - Small regions within a single or polycrystalline

material in which all of the magnetization directions are
aligned.
 Bloch walls - The boundaries between magnetic domains.
 Saturation magnetization - When all of the dipoles have
been aligned by the field, producing the maximum
magnetization.
 Remanance - The polarization or magnetization that
remains in a material after it has been removed from the
field.
 Hysteresis loop - The loop traced out by magnetization in
a ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material as the magnetic
field is cycled. 74
 ©2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning is a trademark used herein under license.

Figure 19.5 (a) A qualitative sketch of magnetic domains in a

polycrystalline material. The dashed lines show demarcation
between different magnetic domains; the dark curves show the
grain boundaries. (b) The magnetic moments in adjoining
atoms change direction continuously across the boundary
between domains. 75
DOMAINS AND
HYSTERESIS

What happens when magnetic field is applied to the ferromagnetic

crystal? 76
According to Becker, there are two independent processes which take
place and lead to magnetization when magnetic field is applied.

1. Domain growth:
Volume of domains oriented favourably w. r. t to the field at the
expense of less favourably oriented domains.

2. Domain rotation:

Rotation of the directions of magnetization towards the direction 77

of the field.
 ©2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning
is a trademark used herein under license.

Figure 19.6 When a magnetic field is first applied to a magnetic

material, magnetization initially increases slowly, then more
rapidly as the domains begin to grow. Later, magnetization slows,
as domains must eventually rotate to reach saturation. Notice the
permeability values depend upon the magnitude of H. 78
Figure 19.7 (a) The ferromagnetic hysteresis M-H loop showing the
effect of the magnetic field on inductance or magnetization. The
dipole alignment leads to saturation magnetization (point 3), a
remanance (point 4), and a coercive field (point 5). (b) The
corresponding B-H loop. Notice the end of the B-H loop, the B value
does not saturate since B = μ0H + μ0M. (Source: Adapted from
Permanent Magnetism, by R. Skomski and J.M.D. Coey, p. 3, Fig. 1-
1. Edited by J.M.D. Coey and D.R. Tilley. Copyright © 1999 Institute
of Physics Publishing. Adapted by permission.) 79
 Magnetization by
domain rotation
Domain growth
irreversible boundary
displacements.

Domain growth reversible

boundary displacements.
80
Q. If Exchange energy, then why not all spins of the piece of material
become parallel and form only one single domain

ORIGIN OF DOMAINS

According to Neel, origin of domains in the ferromagnetic materials

may be understood in terms of thermodynamic principle that
IN EQUILIBRIUM, THE TOTAL ENERGY OF THE SYSTEM IS
MINIMUM.

Total energy:
1. Exchange energy;

2. Magnetic energy;

3. Anisotropy energy and

81
4. Domain wall or Bloch wall energy.
Based on the definition of these energies a scheme is drawn below which
helps in minimization of energy of the system:

Domain closure

Single domain Domain halved Elimination of magnetic

Magnetic energy magnetic energy energy by domain closure
high reduced 82
Soft and Hard magnetic materials
a. The area within the Hysteresis loop represents magnetic energy
loss per unit volume of the material per magnetization and
demagnetization cycle.

b. Both Ferri- and Ferro-magnetic materials are classified as soft

or hard on the basis of their Hysteresis characteristic.
Examples:
Soft magnetic materials: Commercial Iron
ingot (99.95Fe), Silicon-Iron (97Fe, 3Si),
45 Permalloy (55Fe, 45Ni), Ferroxcube A
(48MnFe2O4, 52ZnFe2O4) etc.
Hard magnetic materials: Tungsten steel
(92.8 Fe, 6 W, 0.5 Cr, 0.7 C), Sintered
Ferrite 3 (BaO-6Fe2O3), Cobalt rare
earth 1 (SmCo5) etc. 83
Characteristics of soft magnetic materials:
1. High initial permeability.
2. Low coercivity.
3. Reaches to saturation
magnetization with a relatively
low applied magnetic field.
4. It can be easily magnetized and
demagnetized.
5. Low Hysteresis loss.
6. Applications involve, generators,
motors, dynamos and switching
circuits.
Important: Saturation magnetization can be altered by altering
composition of the materials. For example substitution of Ni2+ in place of
Fe2+ changes saturation magnetization of ferrous-Ferrite. However,
susceptibility and coercivity which also influence the shape of the
Hysteresis curve are sensitive to the structural variables rather than 84
composition. Low value of coercivity corresponds to the easy movement
of domain walls as magnetic field changes magnitude and/ or direction.
Characteristics of Hard magnetic materials:
1. Low initial permeability.
2. High coercivity.
3. High remanence.
4. High saturation flux density.
5. Reaches to saturation
magnetization with a high applied
magnetic field.
6. It can not be easily magnetized
and demagnetized.
7. High Hysteresis loss.
8. Used in permanent magnets.

Important: Two important characteristics related to applications of

these materials are (i) Coercivity and (ii) energy product expressed as
(BH)max with units in kJ/m3. This corresponds to the area of largest B-H
rectangle that can be constructed within the second quadrant of the
85
Hysteresis curve. Larger the value of energy product harder is the
material in terms of its magnetic characteristics.
 Applications of Magnetic Materials

 Soft Magnetic Materials - Ferromagnetic materials are

often used to enhance the magnetic flux density (B)
produced when an electric current is passed through the
material. Applications include cores for electromagnets,
electric motors, transformers, generators, and other
electrical equipment.
 Data Storage Materials - Magnetic materials are used for
data storage.
 Permanent Magnets - Magnetic materials are used to
make strong permanent magnets
 Power - The strength of a permanent magnet as
expressed by the maximum product of the inductance
and magnetic field. 86
Figure 19.9 (a) Comparison of the hysteresis
loops for three applications of ferromagnetic
and ferrimagnetic materials. 87
88
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