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Chapter 1 discusses individual differences in psychological attributes, emphasizing the variability in physical and psychological characteristics among individuals. It introduces the concept of situationism, which suggests that behavior is influenced by both personal traits and situational factors. The chapter also covers various assessment methods for psychological attributes, including formal and informal assessments, and outlines different domains of psychological attributes such as intelligence, personality, and values.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
18 views23 pagesDocument 10
Chapter 1 discusses individual differences in psychological attributes, emphasizing the variability in physical and psychological characteristics among individuals. It introduces the concept of situationism, which suggests that behavior is influenced by both personal traits and situational factors. The chapter also covers various assessment methods for psychological attributes, including formal and informal assessments, and outlines different domains of psychological attributes such as intelligence, personality, and values.
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We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Chapter-1 VARIATIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES
Weightage: 09 marks
1. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN HUMAN FUNCTIONING
Variability is a fact of nature. Individual variations are common within and across all
species.
Individuals vary in terms of :~
(a) Physical characteristics, such as height, weight, strength, hair colour, mn.
(b) Psychological dimensions, such as they may be intelligent o; .
submissive, creative or not so creative, outgoing or withdrawn, et
Each one of us is unique as different traits can exist in vary
Every individual exemplifies/ demonstrates a typical combinaty
Individual differences refer to distinctiveness and variaty
and behaviour patterns. While many psychologis!
influenced by our personal traits, some others
influenced more by situational factors (Situationism)
Situationism states that situations and circut
behaviour. Sometimes the situational i
differing personality traits respond to the:
is generally aggressive, may behave if si
boss. The situationist perspec
external and internal factors.
Il. ASSES
Psychological attril
react to a stimulus) s w
Assessment is the’
to the meast
multiple
domin:
‘up
ose.
Our as@¥ssment may be informal or formal.
us traits.
of
ENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES.
¢ simple phenomena (like reaction time, ie, time taken to
s highly global concepts (like happiness).
st step in understanding a psychological attribute. Assessment refers
f psychological attributes of individuals and their evaluation, often using
th in terms of certain standards of comparison. For example, assessment of
oP stress level in an individual. The attribute chosen for assessment depends
Formal assessment
Informal assessment
It is objective, standardised, and organised
It varies from case to case and from one
assessor to another
It holds very less/no chances of subjective
interpretations
It is open to subjective interpretations.
Psychologists are trained in making formal
assessment of psychological attributes
It does not require basic
observation skills required
training,
jominant or
's in an individual.
ig people’s characteristics
that our behaviours are
‘view that our behaviours are
ces in which one is placed influence one’s
‘are so powerful that individuals with
most the same ways. For e.g a person, who
issive manner in the presence of her/his top
uman behaviour as resulting from interaction of Psychological assessment uses systematic testing procedures to evaluate abilities,
behaviours, and personal qualities of individuals.
Some Domains of Psychological Attributes
Psychological attributes are not linear or unidimensional.
Psychological attributes are usually multi-dimensional, i.e, they are complex and expressed
in terms of dimensions. For e.g- a complete assessment of a person would require his/her
functioning in various domains or areas, such as cognitive, emotional, social, ett
Some important attributes categorised on the basis of varieties of tests us ological
literature are intelligence, aptitude, personality, interest, values.
Intelligence Personality Aptitude Interest Values
Intelligence Personality ‘Aptitude refers | Interest ‘Values are
refers to the] refers to unique| to an | individ, enduring beliefs
global and] and relatively| individual's pref r| about an ideal
aggregate stable qualities | underlying e ‘one | mode of
capacity of an| that potential for cific} behaviour
individual to} characterise an] acquiring skills. relative
think rationally, | individual’s ers.
act purposefully,| behaviour
and to deal! across different
effectively with] situations over
her/his period of time.
environment
Intelligence tests Assessment of| In value
provide a global
measure of a
person’s general
cognitive
competence
including the
ability to profit
from schooling.
le
ir
Personality tests itudg tests
try to assess an fed to
individual’s what an
unique ividual will
characterisgics, able to do if
given proper
environment
and training
interests. of
students may
help to decide
what subjects or
courses they
can _ pursue
comfortably and
with pleasure.
assessment, we
try to determine
the dominant
values of a
person (e.g,
political,
religious, social
or economic)
school-related
examinations
but their
success in life is
not associated
only with their
intelligence test
scores.
Personality
assessment
helps us to
explain an
individual's
behaviour and
predict. how
she/he __ will
behave in future
A person with
high mechanical
aptitude can
profit from
appropriate
training and can
do well as an
engineer.
Similarly, a
person having
high — language
aptitude can be
trained to be a
good writer.
Knowledge of
interests helps
us in’ making
choices that.
promote life
satisfaction and
performance on
jobs
‘A person having
a value sets a
standard for
guiding her/his
actions in life
and also for
judging others Assessment Methods
Psychological test is] Objective tests and] These tests are widely
Psychological | an objective and] projective tests have] used for the purposes of
Test standardised been developed to| clinical diagnosis,
measure of an| measure all _the| guidance, personnel
individual’s mental| dimensions of| selection, placement, and
and/or behavioural} psychological attributes | training.
characteristics. fe: intelligence,
aptitude, etc.) described
above.
Interview Interview involves] An interview can be! It can be’ when a
seeking information| structured or| counsglloj cts with a
from a person on a] unstructured depending f, ‘salesperson
one-to-one basis. upon nature and door-to-door
purpose of interview an employer
employees for
is organisation, or a
malist interviews a
‘political leader
Case Study | Case Study is an in- Case studies are widely
depth study of the used by clinical
individual in terms psychologists. Case
of her/his analyses of the lives of
psychological great people can also be
attributes, highly illuminating for
psychological those willing to learn from
history in the their life experiences.
context of her/his
psychosocial
physical
environment
Observation | Observajion A good _—observer| Certain phenomena such
invoh ying| knowswhat s/he is| as mother-child
looking for, whom s.he| interactions can be easily
and| wants to observe and| studied through
when and where | observation.
lures to] observation needs to be
rd behavioural} made
‘phenomena
occurring naturally
in real time.
Self Report is a
method in which a
person _ provides.
factual information
about
herself/himself
and/or opinions
beliefs, etc. that
s/he holds.
These are fairly
structured measures
scored in quantitative
terms and analysed
based on _ norms
developed for the test
‘Such information may be
obtained by using an
interview schedule or a
questionnaire, a
psychological test, or a
personal diary. ou
Ill. INTELLIGENCE
A. Definition:
Intelligence is a key construct employed to know how individuals differ from one another,
how people adapt their behaviour according to the environment they live in.
Alfred Binet was one of the first psychologists who worked on intelligence. He defined
intelligence as the ability to judge well, understand well, and reason well.
Wechsler defined intelligence as the global and aggregate capacity of an i
rationally, act purposefully, and to deal effectively with her/his environme!
tests are most widely used, and he understood intelligence in terms of i
value for adaptation to environment.
Gardner and Sternberg have suggested that an intelligent indi Q- adapts to the
environment, but also actively modifies or shapes it.
B. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
Theories of intelligence can be broadly g
psychometric/structural approach or an informatié!
Psychometric approach
The approach considers intelligence as
aggregate of abilities
‘as either representing a
sing approach.
Information-processing approach
‘approach describes the processes
fople use in intellectual reasoning and
roblem solving.
The major focus of this approach is on how
an intelligent person acts.
Focus is on structure of intellige! Emphasise studying cognitive functions
underlying dimensions underlying intelligent behaviour.
It expresses the individual’s perform:
. PSYCHOMETRIC APPROACHES
> Uni or one facts ry of intelligence by Alfred Binet
1. He was the fj sYGologist who tried to formalise the concept of intelligence in terms of
mental operal
intelligence was simple as it arose from his interest in differentiating more
intellj less intelligent individuals.
‘ualised intelligence as consisting of one similar set of abilities which can be used
g any or every problem in an individual’s environment. His theory of intelligence is
>» Two-factor theory of intelligence by Charles Spearman (1927)
1, Employing a statistical method called factor analysis, he showed that intelligence consisted
of a general factor (g-factor) and some specific factors (s-factors).
2. The g-factor includes mental operations which are primary and common to all performances,
‘There are also many specific abilities which are contained in the s-factor. 3. Excellent singers, architects, scientists, and athletes may be high on g-factor, but in
addition to this, they have specific abilities which allow them to excel in their respective
domains.
> Theory of primary mental abilities by Louis Thurstone
1, It states that intelligence consists of seven primary abilities, each of which is relatively
independent of the others.
2. These primary abilities are:
(i) Verbal Comprehension (grasping meaning of words, concepts, and ideas),
i) Numerical Abilities (speed and accuracy in numerical and computationgl skill),
(ii) Spatial Relations (visualising patterns and forms),
(iv) Perceptual Speed (speed in perceiving details),
(Word Fluency (using words fluently and flexibly),
(vi) Memory (accuracy in recalling information), and gD
(vii) Inductive Reasoning (deriving general rules from pre ).
> Hierarchical model of intelligence by Arthur Jensen
1. The model consists of abilities operating at two levels, el | and Level II.
2. Level I is the associative learning in which output r less similar to the input (e.g.,
rote learning and memory).
3. Level If, called cognitive competence, involves hifer-order skills as they transform the input
to produce an effective output.
> Structure-of-intellect model by J.P.
1. It classifies intellectual traits amo
iimensions: operations, contents, and products.
2. This classification includes 6 x jegories, therefore, the model has 180 cells. Each cell
is expected to have at least qpe facl¥¥ or ability; some cells may have more than one factor.
Each factor is described in terM of all three dimensions.
3. Operations are what indent does. These include cognition, memory recording,
memory retention, div@en®production, convergent production, and evaluation.
4. Contents refer to of materials or information on which intellectual operations are
performed. These imide visual, auditory, symbolic (e.g., letters, numbers), semantic (e.g.,
words) and ‘al (e.g., information about people’s behaviour, attitudes, needs, etc.).
5. Productsgeferié the form in which information is processed by the respondent. Products are
classifie its, classes, relations, systems, transformations, and implications.
B2. INFORMATION-PROCESSING APPROACHES
> THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES by Howard Gardner
1, According to him, intelligence is not a single entity; rather distinct types of intelligences exist.
Each of these intelligences are independent of each other. This means that, if a person
exhibits one type of intelligence, it does not necessarily indicate being high or low on other
types of intelligences. 2. Different types of intelligences interact and work together to find a solution to a problem.
Gardner studied extremely talented persons, who had shown exceptional abilities in their
respective areas, and described eight types of intelligence.
3. The cight type of intelligences are as follows:
1) Linguistic Intelligence-
* Skills involved in the production and use of language
"It is the capacity to use language fluently and flexibly to express one’s thinking and
understands others.
"Persons high on this intelligence are ‘word-smart,, i.e. they are sensitive to di des
of word meanings, are articulate, and can create linguistic images in their mgd.
*E.g Poets, writers, orators
2) Logical-Mathematical Intelligence-
* Skills in scientific thinking and problem solving
= Persons high on this type of intelligence can think logically and @
"They engage in abstract reasoning, and can manipulate gy solve mathematical
in
problems.
"E.g- Scientists, Mathematicians, Economists Nobel Prizggffint
3) Spatial Intelligence-
* Skills in forming visual images and patterns
*It refers to the abilities involved in forming, usi sforming mental images
* The person high on this intelligence can easily nt the spatial world in the mind
*E.g- Pilots, sailors, sculptors, painters, argifi terior decorators, and surgeons
4) Musical Intelligence-
sensitivity to musical rhythms and pi
"It is the capacity to produce, crea| ipulate musical patterns
= Persons high on this intelligence sensitive to sounds and vibrations, and in creating
new patterns of sounds
"E.g- singers, instrument playeM music composers
5) Bodily-Kinaesthetic icegiee
"using whole or portion’ body flexibly and creatively
*This consists of the whole body or portions of it for display or construction of
products and olving.
tle aspects of others’ behaviours
Il of understanding the motives, feelings and behaviours of other people so as
*E.g- Psychologists, counsellors, politicians, social workers, and religious leaders
7) Intrapersonal Intelligence-
"awareness of one’s own feelings, motives, and desires
"This refers to the knowledge of one’s internal strengths and limitations and using that
knowledge to effectively relate to others
*Persons high on this ability have finer sensibilities regarding their identity, human
existence, and meaning of life *E.g- Philosophers and spiritual leaders present
8) Naturalistic intelligence-
* Sensitivity to the features of the natural world
*This involves complete awareness of our relationship with the natural world
it is useful in recognising the beauty of different species of flora and fauna, and making
subtle discriminations in the natural world
*E.g.- Hunters, farmers, tourists, botanists, zoologists, and bird watchers
Sternberg views intelligence as “the ability to adapt, to shape and selec
accomplish one’s goals and those of one’s society and culture”.
According to this theory, there are three basic types of intelli fomponential,
Experiential, and Contextual
1, Componential Intelligence
*It is also called as Analytical intelligence
*It involves the analysis of information to solve problems
*Persons high on this ability think analytically and criticg antfficceed in schools.
*‘This intelligence has three components, each serving ight function
First is the knowledge acquisition component, iM responsible for learning and
acquisition of the ways of doing things.
> TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE by Robert Sternberg (1985)
ndfonment to
‘The second is the meta or a higher order cor , Which involves planning concerning
what to do and how to do.
‘The third is the performance component, wi Wolves actually doing things
"Eg: learning the procedure to ride@QpicYple or prepare a dish, learning paper quilling,
reading and understanding a partjgu el
METACOMPONENTS
Contel, monitor and
evahuate cognitive
processing,
FERFORWANCE COMPONENTS
Execute strategies
‘asec by
retacomponents
KNOWLEDGE ACQUISITION
COMPONENTS
code, combine and
‘compare information
Pig. 1.1 : Blements of Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
2. Experiential Intelligence
tis also called Creative intelligence
*It is involved in using past experiences creatively to solve novel problems it is reflected in creative performance
*Persons high on this aspect integrate different experiences in an original way to make new
discoveries and inventions.
"They quickly find out which information is crucial in a given situation.
*E.g- maintain balance while riding a bicycle with different postures, preparing a learnt dish
in unique manner, keeping making different art pieces using quilling,
3. Contextual Intelligence
*It is also called Practical intelligence
{ involves the ability to deal with environmental demands encountered on a dail
It may be called ‘street smartness’ or ‘business sense’
"Persons high on this aspect easily adapt to their present conmgagy ict a more
favourable environment than the existing one, or modify the environm« fit their needs
Q
«They turn out to be successful in life.
*E.g- riding a bicycle with different gears/ functions, prep:
items, preparing quilling material from available resources Ii
dish with limited
> PLANNING, ATTENTION-AROUSAL, AND SIMULTANR@US-SYCCESSIVE (PASS) MODEL
OF INTELLIGENCE by J.P. Das, Jack Naglieri, and 4)
"According to this model, intellectual activity involvdg th¥g@terdependent functioning of three
neurological systems, called the functional un; in. These units are responsible for
arousal/attention, coding or processing, and piping respectively.
a) Arousal/Attention
"Arousal refers to a state of being physiolo; fwake or alert
z
*State of arousal is basic to any behay it helps us in attending to stimuli, Arousal and
attention enable a person to procggs it ation.
*An optimal level of arousal focus: tention to the relevant aspects of a problem.
0) terfere with attention.
jer about a test which s/he plans to hold, it would arouse
"Too much or too little arous:
"For e.g., when told by yonr t
you to attend to the 5
learning and revising
ters. Arousal forces you to focus your attention on reading
fents of the chapters.
b) Simultaneous sive Processing
"The information be integrated into knowledge system either simultaneously or
successively
= SimultangousWfrocessing takes place when you perceive the relations among various
concept {tegrate them into a meaningful pattern for comprehension. For example, in
Ravg ssive Matrices (RPM) Test requires simultaneous processing helps you in
‘the meaning and relationship between the given abstract figures to choose one of
the six Options that best completes the missing design
"Successive processing takes place when you remember all the information serially so that
the recall of one leads to the recall of another. For example, learning of digits, alphabets,
multiplication tables, ete.
"For e.g. while simultaneous processing is require while listening to music and writing,
successive processing is required while solving mathematical problem step-wise
¢) Planning "After the information is attended to and processed, planning is activated
*It allows us to think of the possible courses of action, implement them to reach a target, and
evaluate their effectiveness
“If a plan does not work, it is modified to suit the requirements of the task or situation.
"For example, to take the test scheduled by your teacher, you would have to set goals, plan a
time schedule of study, get clarifications in case of problems and if you are not able to tackle
the chapters assigned for the test, you may have to think of other ways (e.g., give more time,
study with a friend, ete.) to meet your goals.
+ ‘These PASS processes operate on a knowledge base developed either formally ding,
writing, and experimenting) or informally from the environment.
* These processes are interactive and dynamic in nature; yet each hag it ‘distinctive
functions.
* Das and Naglieri have also developed a battery of tests, the Cognitive
Assessment System (CAS)-
1) It consists of verbal as well as non-verbal tasks that me: piffc cognitive functions
presumed to be independent of schooling.
2) The battery of tests is meant for individuals between 5 af 189~Ars of age.
3) The results of assessment can be used to remedy cos cits of children with learning
problems.
C. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN INTELLI
C1. Interplay of Nature and Nurture ( il or environmental factors)
1) Role of Heredity/ Nature
‘The evidence for hereditary infh nn intelligence comes mainly from studies on twins
(identical and fraternal) and ggopteAhildren.
jue ‘Reared together ‘Reared apart
0.90 0.72
0.60 J
0.50 0.25
«The intellige: ntical twins reared together correlate almost 0.90.
f identical twins reared in different environments correlate 0.72,
twins reared together correlate almost 0.60,
ity and behavioural characteristics.
brothers and sisters reared together correlate about 0.50
* Siblings reared apart correlate about 0.25.
* Another line of evidence comes from the studies of adopted children, which show that
children’s intelligence is more similar to their biological rather than adoptive parents
2) Role of Environment/ Nurture
* Studies have reported that as children grow in age, their intelligence level tends to move
closer to that of their adoptive parents. * Children from disadvantaged homes adopted into families with higher socioeconomic status
exhibit a large increase in their intelligence scores.
* ‘There is evidence that environmental deprivation lowers intelligence while rich nutrition,
good family background, and quality schooling increases intelligence.
3) Conclusion
+ There is a general consensus among psychologists that intelligence is a product of complex
interaction of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture).
* Heredity can best be viewed as something that sets a range within which an jndividual’s
development is actually shaped by the support and opportunities of the environmé
C2. Assessment of Intelligence Ved
1. Measurement of intelligence
Name Year Deseriptic
‘Alired Binet | 1905 | «first successful attempt to fo sure intelligence
and “the scale was revised, the concept of Mental
‘Theodore | 1908] Age (MA), which is a mgure@fa person's intellectual
Simon development relative her/his age group
* Chronological Age
“Retardation was det
biological age from birth.
Binet and Simon as being
Sw the chronological age
William: 1912 | *Devised the conc of Intelligence Quotient (IQ).
Stern #1Q refers t ge divided by chronological age, and
multiplied 0. The number 100 is used as a
multi oid the decimal point.
iId’s performance on an intelligence test equals the
average performance level of g grouBypf 5-year olds.
+ A bright child’s MA is more # r/his CA; for a dull child, MA is below the CA
"When the MA equals the 1Q equals 100.
>CA), 1Q is more than 100 (IQ>100)
1 CA (MA