 Classification of gears, – Gear tooth

terminology, - Fundamental Law of

toothed gearing and involute gearing, –
Length of path of contact and contact
ratio, - Interference and undercutting, -
Gear trains, – Simple, compound and
Epicyclic gear trains - Differentials

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 Spur Gears

Gears: Gears are machine

elements that transmit motion
by means of successively
engaging teeth. The gear teeth
act like small levers.

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Belt/Rope Drives - Large center distance of the shafts

Chain Drives - Medium center distance of the shafts

Gear Drives - Small center distance of the shafts

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Conveyor / Counting Gear train

Watch gear Gear Pump

wheels

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Printing machinery parts Diesel engine builders

Rotary die cutting machines Hoists and Cranes

Blow molding machinery Boat out drives

Agricultural equipment

Automotive prototype and reproduction

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Newspaper Industry Plastics machinery

Motorcycle Transmissions Polymer pumps

Automotive applications

Commercial and Military operations

Special gear box builders

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Heavy earth moving vehicles

Canning and bottling machinery builders

Special machine tool builders

Book binding machines Marine applications

Injection molding machinery

Military off-road vehicles Stamping presses

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Gears may be classified according to the relative
position of the axes of revolution. The axes may be
parallel, intersecting and neither parallel nor
intersecting.

1. Gears for
connecting
parallel shafts

Spur Gears: External contact Internal contact

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Parallel Helical gears Heringbone gears
(Double Helical gears)

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2. Gears for connecting
intersecting shafts – Bevel
Gears

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Spiral bevel Straight bevel
gears gears

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Crossed-helical Worm & Worm Wheel
gears

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Addendum: The radial distance between the
Pitch Circle and the top of the teeth.
Arc of Action: Is the arc of the Pitch Circle
between the beginning and the end of the
engagement of a given pair of teeth.
Arc of Approach: Is the arc of the Pitch Circle
between the first point of contact of the gear
teeth and the Pitch Point.
Arc of Recession: That arc of the Pitch Circle
between the Pitch Point and the last point of
contact of the gear teeth.
Backlash: Play between mating teeth.
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Base Circle: The circle from which is generated the
involute curve upon which the tooth profile is based.
Center Distance: The distance between centers of
two gears.
Chordal Addendum: The distance between a chord,
passing through the points where the Pitch Circle
crosses the tooth profile, and the tooth top.
Chordal Thickness: The thickness of the tooth
measured along a chord passing through the points
where the Pitch Circle crosses the tooth profile.
Circular Pitch: Millimeter of Pitch Circle
circumference per tooth.
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Circular Thickness:- The thickness of the tooth
measured along an arc following the Pitch Circle

Clearance:- The distance between the top of a

tooth and the bottom of the space into which it
fits on the meshing gear.

Contact Ratio:- The ratio of the length of the Arc

of Action to the Circular Pitch.

Dedendum:- The radial distance between the

bottom of the tooth to pitch circle.

Diametral Pitch - Teeth per mm of diameter.

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Face: The working surface of a gear tooth,
located between the pitch diameter and the
top of the tooth.
Face Width: The width of the tooth measured
parallel to the gear axis.
Flank: The working surface of a gear tooth,
located between the pitch diameter and the
bottom of the teeth
Gear: The larger of two meshed gears. If both
gears are the same size, they are both called
"gears".
Land: The top surface of the tooth.
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Line of Action: That line along which the point of
contact between gear teeth travels, between the
first point of contact and the last.
Module: Millimeter of Pitch Diameter to Teeth.
Pinion: The smaller of two meshed gears.
Pitch Circle: The circle, the radius of which is equal
to the distance from the center of the gear to the
pitch point.
Diametral pitch: Number of Teeth per millimeter of
pitch diameter.
Pitch Point: The point of tangency of the pitch
circles of two meshing gears, where the Line of
Centers crosses the pitch circles.
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Pressure Angle: Angle between the Line of Action
and a line perpendicular to the Line of Centers.
Profile Shift: An increase in the Outer Diameter and
Root Diameter of a gear, introduced to lower the
practical tooth number or achieve a non-standard
Center Distance.
Ratio: Ratio of the numbers of teeth on mating
gears.
Root Circle: The circle that passes through the
bottom of the tooth spaces.
Root Diameter: The diameter of the Root Circle.
Working Depth: The depth to which a tooth extends
into the space between teeth on the mating gear.
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  D
Circular pitch  pc  
Diametral pitch T
T 
Diametral pitch  p d   
Circular pitch D pc
Teeth
Pitch diameter 
Diametral pitch
Teeth X Circular pitch


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  Teeth on pinion 
  Circular pitch
Center dis tan ce    
 Teeth on Gear  2
 


Teeth on pinion  Teeth on Gear 
2  Diametral pitch
Base Circle Diameter  Pitch Diameter  Cos 

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Addendum = 1 ÷ Diametral Pitch
= 0.3183 × Circular Pitch

Dedendum = 1.157 ÷ Diametral Pitch

= 0.3683 × Circular Pitch

Working Depth = 2 ÷ Diametral Pitch

= 0.6366 × Circular Pitch

Whole Depth = 2.157 ÷ Diametral Pitch

= 0.6866 × Circular Pitch
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Clearance = 0.157 ÷ Diametral Pitch
= 0.05 × Circular Pitch

Outside Diameter = (Teeth + 2) ÷ Diametral pitch

= (Teeth + 2) × Circular Pitch ÷ π

Diametral Pitch = (Teeth + 2) ÷ Outside Diameter

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Tooth profile 1 drives tooth
profile 2 by acting at the
instantaneous contact point
K.

N1 N2 is the common
normal of the two profiles. 

N1 is the foot of the

perpendicular from O1 to
N 1N 2

N2 is the foot of the

perpendicular from O2 to
N1N2.
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Although the two profiles
have different velocities V1
and V2 at point K, their
velocities along N1N2 are
equal in both magnitude and
direction.

Otherwise the two tooth
profiles would separate from
each other.

Therefore, we have

O1 N1 1 O2 N 2 2 4.1
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1 O2 N 2
 4.2
2 O1 N1

We notice that the

intersection of the tangency
N1N2 and the line of center 

O1O2 is point P, and from the

similar triangles

O1 N1 P  O2 N 2 P 4.3

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Therefore, velocity ratio

1 O2 P
 4.4
2 O1 P 

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From the equations 4.2 and
4.4, we can write,

1 O2 P
 
O2 N 2
4.5
2 O1 P O1 N1


- ratio of the radii of the

two base circles and also
given by;

O1 N1 O1 P cos  and

O2 N 2  O2 P cos  4.6
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- Centre distance between the
base circles

O1O2  O1 P  O2 P
O1 N1 O2 N 2
 
cos  cos  
O1 N1  O2 N 2
 4.7 
cos 

 = pressure angle or the angle

of obliquity. It is angle
between the common normal
to the base circles and the
common tangent to the pitch
circles
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A common normal (the line of
action) to the tooth profiles at
their point of contact must, in
all positions of the contacting
teeth, pass through a fixed
point on the line-of-centers
called the pitch point 

Any two curves or profiles

engaging each other and
satisfying the law of gearing
are conjugate curves, and the
relative rotation speed of the
gears will be constant
(constant velocity ratio).
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To obtain the expected
velocity ratio of two tooth
profiles, the normal line of
their profiles must pass

through the corresponding
pitch point, which is decided
by the velocity ratio. The two
profiles which satisfy this
requirement are called
conjugate profiles.

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It is essential for
correctly meshing gears
that the size of the
teeth (the module) must
be the same for both
the gears.
Another requirement -
the shape of teeth
necessary for the speed
ratio to remain constant
during an increment of
rotation; this behaviour
of the contacting
surfaces (ie, the teeth
flanks) is known as
conjugate action. Mech Engg Design - Gears
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Gear Design - Kinematics

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 Same for Pinion and Gear

• pd (pc), , F
• Power
gear
• W, Wt, Wr
pinion • Vt
• Nc

Different for Pinion and Gear

• d, N
• T,  ,
• Nb
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Given or Set Properties of Gears Required
Gear ratio dp, dg, Np, Ng
Power, , T pd, F -OR- Safety Factors
(the others are given)

Wt

Bending & Surface Stresses

Safety Factors or pd and F

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Transmitted load, lb. Power, hp
t The equation in SI units
Wt = F32 rpm
in-lb
Applied Torque, in-lb.
hp = T n / 63000
T = 2d Wt
Pitch line velocity, ft/min. Wt = 33000 hp / V
V =  d n / 12
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φn = normal pressure angle
φt = tangential pressure angle
ψ = helix angle
tan φn = tan φt cos ψ
Wr = W sin φn
Wt = W cos φn cos ψ
Wa = W cos φn sin ψ
Where W = total force
Wr = radial component
Wt = tangential component (transmitted load)
Wa = axial component (thrust load)

Wr = Wt tan φt t = pressure angle (20o or 25o)

Wa = Wt tan ψ  = helix angle (10, 20, 30, or 40o)

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= Pressure angle (20o)
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Three orthogonal
components of W without
considering friction

Considering friction

Relations between forces

acting on the worm and
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Two useful relations, friction force and transmitted loads

Efficiency of worm gear sets

 (pressure angle) = 20o, 25o, 30o  (max. pressure angle) = 25o, 35o, 45o
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 Bending Strength
Lewis’ equation (1892 Wilfred Lewis, Philadelphia Engineers Club)
Using similar triangles,
Wt
Bending stress is maximum at the root of the tooth,
F

Substituting for x and introducing p (circular

pitch),

The form factor y is called Lewis form factor.

Substituting P =  / p and Y =  y

Lewis’ equation, where

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Assumptions made in deriving Lewis’ equation
1. The load is applied to the tip of a single tooth.

2. The radial component of the load, Wr , is negligible.

3. The load is distributed uniformly across the full face width.

4. Stress concentration in the tooth fillet is

negligible.

Lewis’ equation, where

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Modifications according to AGMA standards (American Gear
Manufacturers Association)

Wt tangential transmitted load Lewis’ equation

Ka application factor
KV dynamic factor
KS size factor
KI Idler factor (use 1.42 if designing an idler gear)
Pd transverse diameteral pitch
F face width of the narrower member
Km load-distribution factor
KB rim-thickness factor
J geometry factor for bending strength
which includes root fillet stress concentration factor Kf
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 Geometry factor J

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Dynamic factor Kv

Application factor, Ka

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 Size factor Ks
AGMA has not established standards for size factor and recommends
that Ks be set to 1 Load Distribution factor Km

Rim thickness factor KB

Km = 1.6 may be used as a conservative

Backup value for face width less than 2 in.
ratio

KB = -2mB + 3.4 0.5  mB  1.2

KB = 1.0 mB  1.2
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Allowable Stress
Sfb’ is the allowable fatigue bending stress, psi
KL is life factor
KT is the temperature factor
KR is the reliability factor
Reliability factor KR

Temperature factor KT
AGMA recommends using temperature
factor of 1 for operating temperatures up
to 250 oF. Consult the standards for higher
temperature
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Stress cycle factor KL

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The basic surface deterioration
Scoring
If the surface asperity welding and tearing cause a
transfer of metal from one surface to the other, the
resulting surface damage is called scoring. If the local
welding of asperities becomes so extensive that the
surfaces no longer slide on each other, the resulting
failure is called seizure.
Initial scoring
on 4340 steel
helical gear

Moderate
scoring on a
3310 steel spur
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Abrasive wear
Abrasive wear is a surface damage caused by the presence
of abrasive particles in the lubricant. Large particles tend to
scratch and gouge the surface, where small (dust like)
particles polish the tooth surface to a mirror finish.
Corrosion wear
A type of surface deterioration that is caused by
chemical reaction of lubricant, or of contaminants such
as water or acids, with gear tooth surface.
Scoring, abrasive wear
and corrosion wear are
due to the failure of
lubrication system.
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Surface Fatigue Failure, due to
repeated contact load
Proper lubricating system can
minimize the surface damage due to
wear and corrosion. But, surface
fatigue can occur even with proper
lubrication and it’s the most
common mode of gear failure and is
characterized by pitting and spalling
of the tooth surface. The damage is
caused by repeated contact
stresses.

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 Cp elastic coefficient, (lb/in2)0.5
Wt transmitted tangential load
Ca overload factor (same as Ka)
Cv dynamic factor (same as Kv)
Cs size factor (same as Ks)
Cm load-distribution factor (same as Km)
Cf surface condition factor
d pitch diameter of the pinion
F face width of the narrowest member
I geometry factor
Geometry factor
cost sint mG
external gears mN = 1 for spur gears
2mN mG + 1
I = mG = speed ratio = NG /
cost sint mG internal gears NP
2mN mG -Engg
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AGMA Elastic coefficient CP

Surface finish factor Cf

AGMA recommends using surface finish factor of
1 for gears made of conventional methods.
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 Sfc’ is the allowable contact stress, psi
CL is the surface-life factor
CT is the temperature factor (same as KT)
CR is the reliability factor (same as KR)
CH is the hardness ratio factor
Hardness ratio factor, CH
CH should only be used for the gear design, for pinion design set CH equal to 1.0.

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Pitting resistance stress cycle factor ZN

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AGMA allowable surface fatigue strength

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Surface strength design equation, Stress = strength

Design steps
• Calculate the transmitted load
• Select material, start with grade 1 with low hardness.
• Select standard full depth gears with pressure angle of 20o or 25o.
• Choose a face width, ½ dP ≤ F ≤ dP
• Decide on: load type (uniform, non-uniform),
mounting accuracy, # of cycles to failure,
gear quality and reliability. Outcome is
• Solve the design equation for the diameter. Diameter and material
• Or, select diameter and solve for material.

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Bending strength design equation

Design steps
• Assume a value for J (geometry factor), .35 to .45
• Solve the design equation to obtain the diametral pitch, Pd
• Calculate the number of teeth for pinion and gear, determine the actual
J and check against the assumed one, iterate if needed.
• The number of teeth on the pinion should be over 18 to avoid interference.
• For power transmission, 2 < Pd (diametral pitch) < 16
• Iterate until optimum design is achieved.
Outcome is
Diametral pitch, P
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Design a pair of spur gears to transfer power from a 25 hp motor to a fan.
The motor turns at 1000 rpm and the desired fan speed is 500 rpm. Specify
the material, diameter, and number of teeth for both gears.
Selections and assumptions

1. Standard full depth gears with pressure angle, φ = 20o, will be used.
2. Assume good quality gear with, Qv= 10, will be used.
3. Select face width F = dP (pinion diameter) , dP/2 ≤ F ≤ dP
4. Assume uniform load Ka= 1
Select 99% reliability KR = CR= 1
Design for
107 life cycle
KL = CL = 1

5. Assume operating temp. less than 250o (KT=CT = 1), new gear (Cf = 1),
and a small size gear (Ks=Cs = 1).
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Surface failure

From assumptions and selections list;

Ca= 1 , CR = 1 , CL = 1 , Cs = 1 , Cf = 1 , CH = 1 (pinion) ,
Select material: use A-3 steel (hardness HB = 300), surface strength range
from 120,000 to 135,000 psi. Use Sc = 125,000 psi in calculation.

Look up CP (elastic coefficient) = 2300

cost sint mG
I = = 0.107
2mN mG + 1
mN = 1 for spur gears , φt = 20o
mG = speed ratio = ωP / ωG = 1000/500 = 2
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Transmitted load
hp = Wt V / 33000 Wt = (1.26 x 105) hp / dP ωP
Pitch line velocity, ft/min.
Wt = (1.26 x 105) 25 / dP 1000
V = π d ω / 12
Wt = 3150 / dP

Assume dynamic factor C v = .9 and load distribution factor Cm = 1.6

Both assumptions have to be checked later.

2300[(3150/dP)(1/.9)(1.6)(1/.107)(1/dp)2]1/2 = 125,000

dP = 2.6 inch
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 Check assumptions for Cv and Cm
F = dP = 2.6 Cm = 1.61
(1.6 was assumed)
V = (π dP ωP)/12 = π x 2.6 x 1000/12
V = 680 ft/min
Cv = .9 (.9 was assumed)
Qv = 10

With these corrections, dP = 2.6

Select dP = 2.75 and A-3

steel as the material

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Bending failure Wt = (33000) hp / V
Wt = (33000) 25 / 680
Wt = 1213 lb
For A-3 material, St = 36,000 – 47,000 psi
Use 36,000 psi in calculation

Assume J = .4, check later

1213(1/.9)(P /2.75)(1.6)(1/.4) = 36,000 P = 18.3

For power transmission, 2 ≤ P ≤ 16, so select P = 16

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 Check assumption for J

NP = P dP = 16 x 2.75 = 44
NG = P dG = 16 x (2.75x2) = 88

J = .43 P = 19.7

So P = 16 is valid

Spur gears specifications

Material: A-3 steel
Diametral pitch: P = 16
Diameter: 2.75 (pinion), 5.5 inch (gear)
Number of teeth: 44 (pinion), 88 (gear)
Face width: F = 2.75 inch
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