Chapter1p1-Propositional Logic
Chapter1p1-Propositional Logic
Proposi1onal
Logic
Summary
The
Language
of
Propositions
Connectives
Truth
Values
Truth
Tables
Applications
Translating
English
Sentences
System
Specifications
Boolean
Searches
Logic
Puzzles
Logical
Equivalences
Important
Equivalences
Showing
Equivalence
Section
1.1
Sec1on
Summary
Propositions
Connectives
Negation
Conjunction
Disjunction
Implication;
contrapositive,
inverse,
converse
Biconditional
Truth
Tables
Proposi1ons
A
proposition
is
a
declarative
sentence
that
is
either
true
or
false.
Examples
of
propositions:
a) The
Moon
is
made
of
green
cheese.
b) Toronto
is
the
capital
of
Canada.
c) Ouagadougou
is
the
capital
of
Burkina
Faso.
d) 1
+
0
=
1
e) 0
+
0
=
2
Examples
of
sentences
that
are
not
propositions.
a) Sit
down!
b) What
time
is
it?
c) x
+
1
=
2
d) x
+
y
=
z
Proposi1onal
Logic
Constructing
Propositions
Propositional
Variables:
p,
q,
r,
s,
…
The
proposition
that
is
always
true
is
denoted
by
T
and
the
proposition
that
is
always
false
is
denoted
by
F.
Compound
Propositions;
constructed
from
logical
connectives
and
other
propositions
Negation
¬
Conjunction
∧
Disjunction
∨
Implication
→
Biconditional
↔
Compound
Proposi1ons:
Nega1on
The
negation
of
a
proposition
p
is
denoted
by
¬p
and
has
this
truth
table:
p ¬p
T
F
F
T
p
q
p ∨q
T
T
T
T
F
T
F
T
T
F
F
F
p
q
p ⊕q
T
T
F
T
F
T
F
T
T
F
F
F
Implica1on
If
p
and
q
are
propositions,
then
p →q
is
a
conditional
statement
or
implication
which
is
read
as
“if
p,
then
q
”
and
has
this
truth
table:
p
q
p →q
T
T
T
T
F
F
F
T
T
F
F
T
Example:
If
p
denotes
“I
am
at
home.”
and
q
denotes
“It
is
raining.”
then
p →q
denotes
“If
I
am
at
home
then
it
is
raining.”
In
p →q
,
p
is
the
hypothesis
(antecedent
or
premise)
and
q
is
the
conclusion
(or
consequence).
Understanding
Implica1on
In
p →q there
does
not
need
to
be
any
connection
between
the
antecedent
or
the
consequent. The
“meaning” of p →q depends
only
on
the
truth
values
of
p
and
q.
These
implications
are
perfectly
fine,
but
would
not
be
used
in
ordinary
English.
“If
the
moon
is
made
of
green
cheese,
then
I
have
more
money
than
Bill
Gates.
”
“If
the
moon
is
made
of
green
cheese
then
I’m
on
welfare.”
“If
1
+
1
=
3,
then
your
grandma
wears
combat
boots.”
Understanding
Implica1on
(cont)
One
way
to
view
the
logical
conditional
is
to
think
of
an
obligation
or
contract.
“If
I
am
elected,
then
I
will
lower
taxes.”
“If
you
get
100%
on
the
final,
then
you
will
get
an
A.”
If
the
politician
is
elected
and
does
not
lower
taxes,
then
the
voters
can
say
that
he
or
she
has
broken
the
campaign
pledge.
Something
similar
holds
for
the
professor.
This
corresponds
to
the
case
where
p
is
true
and
q
is
false.
Different
Ways
of
Expressing
p →q
if
p,
then
q
p
implies
q
if
p,
q
p
only
if
q
q
unless
¬p
q
when
p
q
if
p q
when
p
q
whenever
p
p
is
sufficient
for
q
q
follows
from
p
q
is
necessary
for
p
a
necessary
condition
for
p
is
q
a
sufficient
condition
for
q
is
p
Converse,
Contraposi1ve,
and
Inverse
From
p →q
we
can
form
new
conditional
statements
.
q →p
is
the
converse
of
p →q
¬q → ¬ p
is
the
contrapositive
of
p →q
¬ p → ¬ q
is
the
inverse
of
p →q
Example:
Find
the
converse,
inverse,
and
contrapositive
of
“It
raining
is
a
sufficient
condition
for
my
not
going
to
town.”
Converse,
Contraposi1ve,
and
Inverse
From
p →q
we
can
form
new
conditional
statements
.
q →p
is
the
converse
of
p →q
¬q → ¬ p
is
the
contrapositive
of
p →q
¬ p → ¬ q
is
the
inverse
of
p →q
Example:
Find
the
converse,
inverse,
and
contrapositive
of
“It
raining
is
a
sufficient
condition
for
my
not
going
to
town.”
Solution:
converse:
If
I
do
not
go
to
town,
then
it
is
raining.
inverse:
If
it
is
not
raining,
then
I
will
go
to
town.
contrapositive:
If
I
go
to
town,
then
it
is
not
raining.
Bicondi1onal
If
p
and
q
are
propositions,
then
we
can
form
the
biconditional
proposition
p ↔q
,
read
as
“p
if
and
only
if
q
.”
The
biconditional
p ↔q
denotes
the
proposition
with
this
truth
table:
p
q
p ↔q
T
T
T
T
F
F
F
T
F
F
F
T
If
p
denotes
“I
am
at
home.”
and
q
denotes
“It
is
raining.”
then
p ↔q
denotes
“I
am
at
home
if
and
only
if
it
is
raining.”
Expressing
the
Bicondi1onal
Some
alternative
ways
“p
if
and
only
if
q”
is
expressed
in
English:
p
is
necessary
and
sufficient
for
q
if
p
then
q
,
and
conversely
p
iff
q
Truth
Tables
For
Compound
Proposi1ons
Construction
of
a
truth
table:
Rows
Need
a
row
for
every
possible
combination
of
values
for
the
atomic
propositions.
Columns
Need
a
column
for
the
compound
proposition
(usually
at
far
right)
Need
a
column
for
the
truth
value
of
each
expression
that
occurs
in
the
compound
proposition
as
it
is
built
up.
This
includes
the
atomic
propositions
Example
Truth
Table
Construct
a
truth
table
for
p
q
r
¬r
p
∨ q
p
∨ q → ¬r
T
T
T
F
T
F
T
T
F
T
T
T
T
F
T
F
T
F
T
F
F
T
T
T
F
T
T
F
T
F
F
T
F
T
T
T
F
F
T
F
F
T
F
F
F
T
F
T
Equivalent
Proposi1ons
Two
propositions
are
equivalent
if
they
always
have
the
same
truth
value.
Example:
Show
using
a
truth
table
that
the
conditional
is
equivalent
to
the
contrapositive.
Equivalent
Proposi1ons
Two
propositions
are
equivalent
if
they
always
have
the
same
truth
value.
Example:
Show
using
a
truth
table
that
the
conditional
is
equivalent
to
the
contrapositive.
Solution:
p
q
¬ p
¬ q
p →q
¬q → ¬ p
T
T
F
F
T
T
T
F
F
T
F
F
F
T
T
F
T
T
F
F
T
T
T
T
Using
a
Truth
Table
to
Show
Non-‐
Equivalence
Example:
Show
using
truth
tables
that
neither
the
converse
nor
inverse
of
an
implication
are
not
equivalent
to
the
implication.
Using
a
Truth
Table
to
Show
Non-‐
Equivalence
Example:
Show
using
truth
tables
that
neither
the
converse
nor
inverse
of
an
implication
are
not
equivalent
to
the
implication.
Solution:
p
q
¬ p
¬ q
p →q
¬ p →¬ q
q → p
T
T
F
F
T
T
T
T
F
F
T
F
T
T
F
T
T
F
T
F
F
F
F
T
T
F
T
T
Problem
How
many
rows
are
there
in
a
truth
table
with
n
propositional
variables?
Problem
How
many
rows
are
there
in
a
truth
table
with
n
propositional
variables?
Solution:
2n We will see how to do this in Chapter 6.
Example
Problem:
Translate
the
following
sentence
into
propositional
logic:
“You
can
access
the
Internet
from
campus
only
if
you
are
a
computer
science
major
or
you
are
not
a
freshman.”
One
Solution:
Let
a,
c,
and
f
represent
respectively
“You
can
access
the
internet
from
campus,”
“You
are
a
computer
science
major,”
and
“You
are
a
freshman.”
a→ (c ∨ ¬ f
)
System
Specifica1ons
System
and
Software
engineers
take
requirements
in
English
and
express
them
in
a
precise
specification
language
based
on
logic.
Example:
Express
in
propositional
logic:
“The
automated
reply
cannot
be
sent
when
the
file
system
is
full”
System
Specifica1ons
System
and
Software
engineers
take
requirements
in
English
and
express
them
in
a
precise
specification
language
based
on
logic.
Example:
Express
in
propositional
logic:
“The
automated
reply
cannot
be
sent
when
the
file
system
is
full”
Solution:
One
possible
solution:
Let
p
denote
“The
automated
reply
can
be
sent”
and
q
denote
“The
file
system
is
full.”
q→ ¬ p
Consistent
System
Specifica1ons
Definition:
A
list
of
propositions
is
consistent
if
it
is
possible
to
assign
truth
values
to
the
proposition
variables
so
that
each
proposition
is
true.
Exercise:
Are
these
specifications
consistent?
“The
diagnostic
message
is
stored
in
the
buffer
or
it
is
retransmitted.”
“The
diagnostic
message
is
not
stored
in
the
buffer.”
“If
the
diagnostic
message
is
stored
in
the
buffer,
then
it
is
retransmitted.”
Consistent
System
Specifica1ons
Definition:
A
list
of
propositions
is
consistent
if
it
is
possible
to
assign
truth
values
to
the
proposition
variables
so
that
each
proposition
is
true.
Exercise:
Are
these
specifications
consistent?
“The
diagnostic
message
is
stored
in
the
buffer
or
it
is
retransmitted.”
“The
diagnostic
message
is
not
stored
in
the
buffer.”
“If
the
diagnostic
message
is
stored
in
the
buffer,
then
it
is
retransmitted.”
Solution:
Let
p
denote
“The
diagnostic
message
is
stored
in
the
buffer.”
Let
q
denote
“The
diagnostic
message
is
retransmitted”
The
specification
can
be
written
as: p ∨ q,
p→ q, ¬p.
When
p
is
false
and
q
is
true
all
three
statements
are
true.
So
the
specification
is
consistent.
What
if
“The
diagnostic
message
is
not
retransmitted”
is
added?
Consistent
System
Specifica1ons
Definition:
A
list
of
propositions
is
consistent
if
it
is
possible
to
assign
truth
values
to
the
proposition
variables
so
that
each
proposition
is
true.
Exercise:
Are
these
specifications
consistent?
“The
diagnostic
message
is
stored
in
the
buffer
or
it
is
retransmitted.”
“The
diagnostic
message
is
not
stored
in
the
buffer.”
“If
the
diagnostic
message
is
stored
in
the
buffer,
then
it
is
retransmitted.”
Solution:
Let
p
denote
“The
diagnostic
message
is
not
stored
in
the
buffer.”
Let
q
denote
“The
diagnostic
message
is
retransmitted”
The
specification
can
be
written
as: p ∨ q,
p→ q, ¬p.
When
p
is
false
and
q
is
true
all
three
statements
are
true.
So
the
specification
is
consistent.
What
if
“The
diagnostic
message
is
not
retransmitted”
is
added?
Solution:
Now
we
are
adding
¬q
and
there
is
no
satisfying
assignment.
So
the
specification
is
not
consistent.
Boolean
Searches
Logical
connectives
are
used
extensively
in
searches
of
large
collections
of
information,
such
as
indexes
of
webpages:
Such
searches
are
called
Boolean
Searches
The
connective
AND
is
used
to
match
records
that
contain
both
of
the
two
search
terms
The
connective
OR
is
used
to
match
one
or
both
of
the
search
terms
The
connective
NOT
(sometimes
written
as
AND
NOT)
is
used
to
exclude
a
search
term
Web
Page
Searching
Most
Web
search
engines
support
Boolean
searching
techniques
Using
Boolean
searching
to
find
Web
pages
about
universities
in
British
Columbia
we
can
look
for
pages
matching
British
AND
Columbia
AND
Universities
The
AND
operator:
Note
that
in
Google
the
word
“AND”
is
not
needed,
although
it
is
implicit
Google
also
supports
the
use
of
quotation
marks
to
search
for
specific
phrases:
It
may
be
more
effective
to
search
for
“British
Columbia”
Universities
Web
Page
Searching
The
OR
operator:
In
Google
“The
OR
operator,
for
which
you
may
also
use
|
(vertical
bar),
applies
to
the
search
terms
immediately
adjacent
to
it.”
In
Google,
the
terms
used
for
searching
olympics
locations
for
2014
or
2018
would
be
olympics
2014
OR
2018
olympics
2014
|
2018
interpreted
as
olympics
AND
(2014
OR
2018)
To
find
universities
in
British
Columbia
or
Ontario
we
would
use
“British
Columbia”
OR
Ontario
universities
The
NOT
operator:
To
find
webpages
that
deal
with
universities
in
Columbia
(but
not
in
British
Columbia)
we
search
for
(Columbia
AND
Universities)
NOT
British
In
Google,
the
word
NOT
is
replaced
by
the
symbol
“-‐”
(minus)
Columbia
Universities
-‐British
Logic
Puzzles
Raymond
Smullyan
(Born
1919)
An
island
has
two
kinds
of
inhabitants,
knights,
who
always
tell
the
truth,
and
knaves,
who
always
lie.
You
go
to
the
island
and
meet
A
and
B.
A
says
“B
is
a
knight.”
B
says
“The
two
of
us
are
of
opposite
types.”
Puzzle
:
What
are
the
types
of
A
and
B?
Logic
Puzzles
Raymond
Smullyan
(Born
1919)
An
island
has
two
kinds
of
inhabitants,
knights,
who
always
tell
the
truth,
and
knaves,
who
always
lie.
You
go
to
the
island
and
meet
A
and
B.
A
says
“B
is
a
knight.”
B
says
“The
two
of
us
are
of
opposite
types.”
Puzzle
:
What
are
the
types
of
A
and
B?
Solution:
Let
p
and
q
be
the
statements
that
A
is
a
knight
and
B
is
a
knight,
respectively.
So,
then
¬p
represents
the
proposition
that
A
is
a
knave
and
¬q
that
B
is
a
knave.
If
A
is
a
knight,
then
p
is
true.
Since
knights
tell
the
truth,
q
must
also
be
true.
Then
(p ∧
¬
q)∨ (¬ p ∧
q) would
have
to
be
true,
but
it
is
not.
So,
A
is
not
a
knight
and
therefore
¬p
must
be
true
and
we
explore
that
possibility.
If
A
is
a
knave,
then
B
must
not
be
a
knight
since
knaves
always
lie.
So,
then
both
¬p
and
¬q
hold,
and
thus
both
are
knaves.
Section
1.3
Sec1on
Summary
Tautologies,
Contradictions,
and
Contingencies
Logical
Equivalence
Important
Logical
Equivalences
Showing
Logical
Equivalence
Tautologies,
Contradic1ons,
and
Con1ngencies
A
tautology
is
a
proposition
which
is
always
true.
Example:
p
∨¬p
A
contradiction
is
a
proposition
which
is
always
false.
Example:
p
∧¬p
A
contingency
is
a
proposition
which
is
neither
a
tautology
nor
a
contradiction,
such
as
p
P
¬p
p
∨¬p
p
∧¬p
T
F
T
F
F
T
T
F
Logically
Equivalent
Two
compound
propositions
p
and
q
are
logically
equivalent
if
p↔q
is
a
tautology.
We
write
this
as
p⇔q
or
as
p≡q
where
p
and
q
are
compound
propositions.
Two
compound
propositions
p
and
q
are
equivalent
if
and
only
if
the
columns
in
a
truth
table
giving
their
truth
values
agree.
This
truth
table
show
¬p ∨ q is
equivalent
to
p → q.
p
q
¬p
¬p ∨ q
p→ q
T
T
F
T
T
T
F
F
F
F
F
T
T
T
T
F
F
T
T
T
De
Morgan’s
Laws
Augustus
De
Morgan
1806-‐1871
De
Morgan’s
Laws
Augustus
De
Morgan
1806-‐1871
This truth table shows that De Morgan’s Second Law holds.
Domination Laws: ,
Idempotent
laws:
,
Double
Negation
Law:
Negation
Laws:
,
Key
Logical
Equivalences
(cont)
Commutative
Laws:
,
Associative
Laws:
Distributive
Laws:
Absorption
Laws:
More
Logical
Equivalences
Construc1ng
New
Logical
Equivalences
We
can
show
that
two
expressions
are
logically
equivalent
by
developing
a
series
of
logically
equivalent
statements.
To
prove
that
we
produce
a
series
of
equivalences
beginning
with
A
and
ending
with
B.