LANGUAGE OF
ACADEMIC TEXTS
1. FORMAL
• It is often the case that formal words are longer than
informal ones.
• Formal words are single words (French/Latin) rather
than SWs or PVs (Anglo-Saxon):
X do (SW) - Anglo-S √ perform – Latin
X go up (PV) - Anglo-S √ Increase – French
2. OBJECTIVE
1. Avoid the use of 1st and 2nd person
pronouns.
•You need to conduct the experiment.
•The researchers need to conduct the
experiment.
•An experiment has been conducted.
2. Avoid rhetorical questions.
•Why should we care about climate change?
•Should we care about climate change?
•Climate change has widespread and long-term
impact on the environment, human health, and
global economies.
3. Avoid emotive language and superlatives (showing
values and biases).
• The investigators were very shocked to see the outcome of
the tests.
• The investigators did not expect the result.
• The investigators found the test results unexpected.
4. Avoid evaluative words (showing personal
judgment/non-technical judgements).
• As such, I feel there is a need for a government
intervention.
• These findings suggest the need for government
intervention.
Avoid the following:
• Bias or Prejudice — Showing a clear personal bias
or favoritism without evidence
• Overgeneralization — Making broad statements
that are not supported by facts or data
• Speculation or Assumptions — Presenting opinions
or guesses as if they were facts
• Lack of Evidence — No credible sources or data
Avoid the following:
• Use of Absolutes — “always,” “never,” “everyone,” or
“no one” make a claim less objective if they are not
fully supported
• Loaded Language — Ws or Ps carrying strong
connotations to sway emotion rather than present
facts
• Informal Language or Slang — Reduces the formal
tone needed for academic writing
3. EXPLICIT
•Being clear
•Signposting
•Avoiding vague language
•Using precise vocabulary and clear
sentence structures
A. Being clear
1. Students today have a lot going on.
• Students today face multiple academic and
personal responsibilities that affect their
performance in school.
2. Technology is changing things.
• Technology is transforming education by enabling
remote learning and interactive instruction.
B. Signposting
1. The students studied hard. The test was still hard.
• The students studied hard; however, the test was
still difficult due to its unfamiliar format.
2. The research was interesting. It was about online
learning.
• The research was relevant because it explored
how online learning affects student motivation.
C. Avoiding vague language
1. Some people think education is bad.
• Several education experts argue that excessive
homework can negatively affect students’ mental
health.
2. There are many problems in our system.
• The education system faces problems such as
underfunded schools, outdated curricula, and
teacher shortages.
D. Using precise vocab, structure
1. Kids do not do good in school when they are
tired.
• Students who experience sleep deprivation tend
to perform poorly in academic tasks.
2. The teacher said stuff about rules.
• The teacher explained the classroom rules and
emphasized the importance of academic
integrity.
Transitional Devices (CDs, DMs, SCs)
•Bridges/cues/links bet/among parts of one’s paper that help
the reader navigate/interpret ideas
•Words or phrases that help carry a thought:
•from one idea (W, P, or C) to another
•from one sentence to another
•from one paragraph to another
•Ensures no abrupt jumps or breaks bet/among
ideas/sentences/paragraphs
TO ADD:
• and, again, and then, besides, further, furthermore, too,
moreover, in addition, additionally
TO CONTRAST:
• whereas, but, yet, on the other hand, however,
nevertheless, on the contrary, by comparison,
compared to, up against, vis a vis, but, although,
conversely, meanwhile, after all, in contrast, although
TO GIVE AN EXAMPLE:
• for example, for instance, in this case, in another case,
on this occasion, in this situation, take the case of, to
demonstrate, to illustrate, as an illustration, to illustrate
TO SUMMARIZE OR CONCLUDE:
• in brief, on the whole, summing up, to conclude, in
conclusion, hence, therefore, accordingly, thus, as a
result, consequently
TO COMPARE:
• likewise, both, not only…but also, similarly, in the
same manner, alike, in comparison to, just as,
equally
TO SHOW CAUSE AND EFFECT:
• because, since, for, so, consequently, therefore, thus,
hence, as a result, for this reason, due to
4. CAUTIOUS
Hedging (Cautious language)
•Use of linguistic device to express:
•Politeness
•Indirectness
•Possibility
•Uncertainty
Hedging helps writers to
1. Avoid overgeneralizations
2. Avoid absolute statements
3. Show awareness of limitations
Hedging helps writers to
4. Present arguments more diplomatically
5. Sound objective and balanced
6. Maintain respect for other views/findings
Hedging Expressions
1. Introductory verbs:
• Seem, appear (to), tend to, suggest, indicate
2. Modals:
• Can, may, could, would, might
3. Adverbs of frequency:
• Often, sometimes, rarely, usually
Hedging Expressions
4. Modal adverbs:
• Probably, possibly, perhaps
5. That clause:
• It might be suggested that…, it is likely that…., it
is possible that…
Hedges VS Boosters
•Boosters are words or phrases used to express
certainty, confidence, or emphasis in
academic writing.
•They strengthen the writer's argument or stance
showing that the writer believes strongly in
what is being said.
Aspect Hedges Boosters
Strengthen or
Soften or qualify a
Purpose emphasize a
statement
statement
Tone Cautious, tentative Confident, assertive
Shows uncertainty
Shows certainty or
Use or openness to
strong belief
alternatives
Example It may be true... It clearly shows...
