UNIT-II
POWER QUALITY PHENOMENA
2.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter discusses the issues of power quality, its effect on the system and
remedial measures cum solutions of power quality problems. Power quality refers to ‘any
power problem that is manifested in voltage, current or frequency deviation that result in
failure or misoperation of customer equipment’ [22]. Voltage and current signals in the
power system are to be maintained at constant amplitude, nearly sinusoidal shape and a
constant fundamental frequency at all times. If this rule is not satisfied, there must be
certain power quality problems.
The most frequent power quality problems include temporary and sustained
voltage sags, interruptions, and harmonics. The less frequent ones include high
impedance faults, low and high frequency oscillatory transients, voltage swells, switching
transients, lightning induced over voltages, motor starting voltage sags, and incipient
faults [61]. Table 1.1 lists various power quality problems, their characterization methods
and possible causes.
Understanding the power quality issue leads to a systems approach to the
acquisition of new process equipment as regards its tolerance to power quality
aberrations. To prepare these specifications correctly, a power quality study is needed to
determine what can be expected from both electric utility power quality and internal
facility power quality [49].
2.2 TRANSIENTS
They are commonly known as switching surges or voltage spikes. A transient is
a part of change in system variable that disappears during transition from one steady state
opening condition to another. Impulse transient is a sudden, non-power frequency change
in the steady state condition of voltage, current or both that is unidirectional in polarity
(primarily either positive or negative). Impulse transients have a very fast rise time and
decaying time. Oscillatory transient is a sudden, non power frequency change in the
steady state condition of voltage, current or both, that includes both positive and negative
polarity values. It consists of a voltage or current whose instantaneous value changes
polarity rapidly. Oscillatory transients are classified in accordance with their frequency.
A high frequency oscillatory transient will have primary frequency greater than 500 kHz.
A transient within the frequency range of 5 kHz to 500 kHz is considered a medium
frequency transient and anything below 5 kHz is termed as a low frequency transient.
Figure 2.1 Capacitor switching transient [45]
2.2.1 Causes
Main causes are lightning, switching of lines or power factor correction
capacitors, disconnection of heavy loads. Impulse transients are caused by lightning.
High frequency oscillatory transients are induced by switching events, impulse transient
commutation and RLC snubber circuits. The medium frequency oscillatory transients are
due to back to back capacitor energization. Low frequency oscillatory transients are also
caused by capacitor bank energization. Ferro resonance transformer energization causes
very low frequency oscillatory transients.
Figure 2.2 Oscillatory transient caused by back to back capacitor energization [45]
2.2.2 Effects
Damages to power line insulators, destruction of electronic and of insulation
materials, data processing errors or data losses, and electromagnetic interference [22].
Figure 2.3 Low frequency oscillatory transient caused by capacitor bank energization
[45]
Figure 2.4 Low frequency oscillatory transient caused by Ferroresonance of an
unloaded transformer [45]
2.2.3 Solutions
Impulse transients are usually suppressed by surge arrestors, lightning arrestors,
static switches, controlled switching and energy storage systems [49].
2.3 SHORT DURATION VOLTAGE VARIATIONS
This category encompasses voltage dips, swell and short interruptions. Any
variation in supply voltage for period of duration not exceeding one minute are termed in
this category. Each type of variation can be designated as instantaneous, momentary or
temporary depending on its duration as defined in Table 2.1. Voltage sag (Dips) is a
decrease of the normal voltage level between 10 % and 90% of the nominal RMS voltage
at the power frequency, for durations of 0.5 cycles to 1 minute. Voltage swell is a
momentary increase of voltage at the power frequency outside the normal tolerances with
duration of more than one cycle and typically less than a few seconds. Interruptions
occurs when the supply voltage (or load current) decreases to less than 0.1 per unit for a
period of time not exceeding 1 minute.
Figure 2.5 Instantaneous voltage sag caused by SLG fault[45]
An illustration of single line to ground fault is created at 0.04seconds in feeder
1 while one phase experiences voltage sag and other two phases in voltage swell.
Figure 2.6 Illustration of single line to ground fault [4]
Figure 2.7 Bus voltages for single line to ground faults [4]
2.3.1 Causes
Voltage sags are caused by power system faults (e.g., single line to ground
fault), ‘switching on’ of heavy duty loads, utility disturbances, and load interaction with
wiring (during equipment startup), load interaction with voltage source impedance, loose
wiring, and uninterrupted power supply (UPS) or motor generator (MG) instability. A
swell can result from a single line-to-ground fault that raises the voltage on the other two
phases. It can also result from dropping a large load or energizing a capacitor bank.
Start/stop of heavy loads, unregulated transformers. Ninety percent of faults on overhead
lines are of a temporary nature. Typically, these faults result from lightning, tree limbs, or
animal causing grounds or shorts. Reclosers interrupt faults, and then automatically
restore the circuit, or reclose, and if the fault has cleared, the recloser stays closed [4].
Figure 2.8 Temporary voltage sag caused by motor starting [45]
2.3.2 Effects
Voltage sags (dips) can affect loss of production in automated processes since
voltage sag can trip a motor or cause its controller to malfunction. A semiconductor
manufacturing industries such a loss can be substantial. Voltage sag can also force a
computer system or data processing system to crash. Malfunction of information
technology equipment, namely microprocessor based control systems (PCs, PLCs, ASDs,
etc.,) that may lead to a process stoppage. Contactors and electromechanical relays may
trip. Electrical rotating machines may get disconnected of supply and efficiency loss. The
protective circuit of an adjustable speed drive can trip the system during a voltage swell.
Also voltage swells can put stress on computers and home appliances, thereby shortening
their lives. Data losses, damage to sensitive equipment and also flickering of lighting and
screens. A temporary interruption lasting a few seconds can cause a loss of production,
erasing of computer data etc. The cost of such an interruption during peak hours can be
hundreds of thousands of rupees [22].
Figure 2.9 Momentary interruption due to a fault and subsequent recloser operation
[45]
2.3.3 Solutions
To prevent such a break down due to voltage sags and alleviating momentary
interruptions, an uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is often used, which in turn, may
generate harmonics. Mitigation equipments are energy storage systems, static switches,
automatic tap-changing transformers, dynamic voltage regulators and static VAR
compensators [49].
2.4 LONG DURATION VOLTAGE VARIATIONS
These are the RMS variations in the supply voltage at fundamental frequency
for periods exceeding 1 minute. These variations are classified into overvoltages,
undervoltages and sustained interruptions. Overvoltage is an increase in the RMS ac
voltage greater than 110 percent at the power frequency for duration longer than 1 min.
Undervoltage is a decrease in the RMS ac voltage to less than 90 percent at the power
frequency for duration longer than 1 min. When the supply voltage is zero for a period of
time in excess of 1 min are called sustained interruptions [22].
2.4.1 Causes
Switching-off of loads, variations in reactive compensation on the system (e.g.,
switching on a capacitor bank) and improperly adjusted internal voltage regulators. Low
voltage can result during peak load periods, improperly set transformer taps, or
misadjusted automatic voltage regulators. Load activation, utility brownouts,
unintentional line overloading on the same transmission line. Short term outages can be
caused by utility breaker tripping to clear a fault and then reclosing automatically. Long
term outages typically result from accidents involving power lines, utility transformers,
utility power and alternative power source failures. A sustained interruption is usually
caused by power system faults [4].
2.4.2 Effects
A sustained overvoltage lasting for few hours can cause damage to household
appliances without their owner knowing it. The undervoltage has the same effect as that
of voltage sag. In the case of sag, the termination of process is sudden. But normal
operation can be resumed after the normal voltage is restored. However in the case of a
sustained undervoltage, the process cannot be started or resumed [22].
2.4.3 Solutions
Automatic tap-changing transformers, dynamic voltage regulators and static
VAR compensators and proper tuning of Peterson coil. Since the loss to consumers due
to any sustained interruption can be in the order of millions of rupees. It is necessary for
the utility to have a good preventive maintenance schedule and to have agreements or
regulations to encourage high supply reliability. Mitigating equipments are static
switches, automatic tap-changing transformers, dynamic voltage regulators and static
VAR compensators[49].
2.5 WAVEFORM DISTORTIONS
It is defined as a steady state deviation from an ideal sine wave of power
frequency characterized by the spectral content of the deviation. There are five primary
types of waveform distortion. Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or currents having
frequency that are integer multiples of the frequency at which the supply system is
designed to operate (fundamental frequency). These waveforms correspond to the sum of
different sine-waves with different magnitude and phase, having frequencies that are
multiples of power-system frequency. Harmonics can be integer multiples of the
fundamental frequency, fractions of the fundamental frequency (subharmonics) and at
frequencies that are not integer multiples of fundamental frequency (interharmonics).
Notching is a periodic voltage disturbance caused by the normal operation of power
electronic devices when current is commutated from one phase to another. Noise is
defined as unwanted electrical signals with broadband spectral content lower than 200
kHz superimposed upon the power system voltage or current and also superimposing of
high frequency signals on the waveform of the power-system frequency. DC offset is the
presence of dc voltage or current in an ac power system [22].
Figure 2.10 Harmonic distorted waveform and its frequency spectrum [4]
2.5.1 Causes
Harmonics, dc offset and notching cause waveform distortions. Classic sources
are electric machines working above the knee of the magnetization curve (magnetic
saturation), arc furnaces, welding machines, rectifiers, and DC brush motors. Modern
sources are all non-linear loads, such as power electronics equipment including ASDs,
switched mode power supplies, data processing equipment and high efficiency lighting
etc., Nonlinear devices and loads on the power system such as computers, variable speed
drives, electronic ballast, UPS and other phone systems. Interharmonics can result from
ASDs with insufficient dc-link filtering in inverter harmonics. This phenomenon can
occur with cycloconverter-type ASDs that have no dc link and with arc furnaces that
develop an infinite spectrum of parasitic frequencies. Sources of interharmonics are static
frequency converters, cycloconverters, induction motors and arcing devices. Notching is
due to normal operation of power electronic devices at the instants of current
commutation from one phase to another. Fast switching and high impedance give
insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) inverters the potential to produce stray currents
resulting in electromagnetic interference (EMI). Electromagnetic interference waves such
as microwaves, television diffusion, and radiation due to welding machines, arc furnaces,
and electronic equipment. Improper grounding may also be a cause. DC offset causes
geomagnetic disturbances, switching on or off of a synchronous machine and presence of
switch mode power supplies (SMPS).
Figure 2.11 Voltage notching caused by converter operation [45]
2.5.2 Effects
Unwanted harmonic currents flowing through the distribution network can
causes needless losses. Harmonics can cause malfunction of ripple control or traffic
control systems, losses and heating in transformers, electromagnetic interference and
interference with the communication systems. Increased probability in occurrence of
resonance, neutral overload in 3 phase systems, overheating of all cables and equipment,
loss of efficiency in electric machines, electromagnetic interference with communication
systems, errors in measures when using average reading meters and nuisance tripping of
thermal protections. Interharmonic voltages can upset the operation of fluorescent lamps
and television receivers. They can also produce acoustic noise in power equipment.
Notching is not normally a problem since it is controlled by circuit elements associated
with the switching devices. It can be a significant problem on weak electric systems,
where it can produce noise currents causing control system misoperation. Notching and
ringing can cause extra zero crossings, resulting in equipment malfunction. A notch is
simply a periodic transient that rides on the supply voltage. It can damage capacitive
components connected in shunt due to high rate of voltages rise at the notches. Stray
currents can disrupt communications equipment, ASD control, programmable controllers,
sensors, barcode scanners, and position sensing equipment. These common mode noise
currents are mainly conducted currents. They are superimposed on and can overwhelm
low voltage control signals with these adverse effects. The magnitude of the stray
currents is determined by the amount of phase-to-ground stray capacitance coupling
available during approximate 0.05-0.1µs time period when the inverter voltage is
transitioning to and from the dc-link voltage level. DC offsets can cause saturation in the
power transformer magnetic circuits [22].
2.5.3 Solutions
Corrective measures and mitigating equipments are use of transformer
connections, passive filters, dynamic filters, static VAR compensators, custom power
devices, optimum spacing of conductors, shielding and grounding schemes [49].
2.6 VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY VARIATIONS
Voltage fluctuations are systematic variations of the voltage envelope or a
series of random voltage changes, the magnitude of which does not normally exceed the
voltage ranges of 0.9 to 1.1 p.u. Voltage Imbalance is a voltage variation in a three-phase
system in which the three voltage magnitudes or the phase angle differences between
them are not equal. Power frequency variations are defined as the deviation of the power
system fundamental frequency from its nominal value (e.g., 50 or 60 Hz). The maximum
tolerable variation in the supply frequency is limited within + 0.5 Hz [22].
Figure 2.12 Voltage fluctuations caused by arc furnace operation [45]
2.6.1 Causes
Voltage flickers are caused by the arc discharge lamps, arc furnaces, starting of
large motors and arc welding machines etc., Load that has significant current variations
in the reactive component, such as arc furnaces can cause voltage fluctuations, frequent
start/stop of electric motors such as elevators, oscillating loads. Large single-phase loads
(induction furnaces, traction loads), incorrect distribution of all single phase loads by the
three phases of the system or due to a fault. Single phasing conditions (that is, loads using
three phase power sources are subject to loss of one of the phases from the power
distribution system), load imbalance or excessive losses in the feeder circuit conductors.
Voltage imbalance can cause temperature rise in motors and can even cause a large motor
to trip. Power frequency variations are usually caused by rapid changes in the load
connected to the system. These events are caused by faults on the bulk power
transmission system, large amount of loads being disconnected or source of generation
going off-line. Repetitive events caused by phase angle controlled loads (e.g., SCR
connected loads), variable speed drives, large UPS systems, light dimmers and arc
welders [22]
2.6.2 Effects
Voltage flickers are frequent variations in voltage that can affect the light
intensity from incandescent lamps to vary. The variation is perceived as disturbing by
human observers, particularly in range of 3 to 15 times per second. The voltage flicker
can have adverse effects of human health as high frequency flickering of light bulbs,
fluorescent tubes or television screen can cause strain on the eyes resulting in headaches
or migraines. The voltage flicker can also reduce the life span of electronic equipment;
lamps etc., Most of symptoms / consequences are common to undervoltages. The most
perceptible consequence is the flickering of lighting and screens, giving the impression of
unsteadiness of visual perception. Unbalanced systems imply the existence of a negative
sequence that is harmful to three phase loads such as three-phase induction machines
[22].
Figure 2.13 Voltage imbalance trend of a residential feeder
2.6.3 Solutions
It is elaborately discussed in chapter 5 & 6. Mitigating devices are static VAR
compensators, power conditioning and custom power devices [49].
Categories and Characteristics of Power Quality Phenomena [22]
Phenomena Categories Subcategory Typical Typical Typical
Spectral Duration voltage
Content magnitude
Impulse Nanosecond 5 ns rise < 50 ns -
Microsecond 1 us rise 50 ns – 1 ms -
Millisecond 0.1 ms rise > 1 ms -
Oscillatory Low < 5 kHz 0.3 – 50 ms 0-4 p.u
Transient Frequency
Medium 5 – 500 kHz 20 us 0 -8 p.u
Frequency
High 0.5 – 5 kHz 5 us 0-4 p.u
Frequency
Instantaneous Sag - 0.5 – 30 cycles0.1 – 0.9 p.u
Swell - 0.5 – 30 cycles1.1 – 1.8 p.u
Momentary Interruption - 0.5 cycles – 3< 0.1 p.u
s
Short Duration Sag - 30 cycles – 3 s 0.1 – 0.9 p.u
Variations
Swell - 30 cycles – 3 s 1.1 -1.4 p.u
Temporary Interruption - 3s – 1 min <0.1 p.u
Sag - 3s – 1 min 0.1-0.9 p.u
Swell - 3s – 1 min 1.1-1.2 p.u
Long Duration Sustained - - > 1 min 0.0 p.u
Variations Interruption
Under voltages - - > 1 min 0.8-0.9 p.u
Over Voltages - - > 1 min 1.1-1.2 p.u
DC offset - - Steady State -
Harmonics - 0 – 100th H Steady State -
Waveform
Inter harmonics - 0 – 6 kHz Steady State -
Distortion
Notching - Steady State -
Noise - Broadband Steady State -
Voltage - - Steady State 0.5-2 %
Imbalance
Voltage - - <25 Hz Intermittent 0-1 %
Fluctuations
Power - - - <10 s 0.1-7 %
Frequency
Variations
Table 2.2 Summary of Power Quality variation categories [15]
Power Quality Method of Typical Causes Example of Power
Variation Category Characterizing Conditioning Solutions
Impulse Transients Peak magnitude, Lightning, Surge arrestors,
Rise time, Electrostatic discharge, Filters,
Duration. Load switching Isolation transformers
Oscillatory Transients Waveforms, Line/cable switching, Surge arrestors,
Peak magnitude, Capacitor switching, Filters,
Frequency Load switching Isolation transformers
components
Sags/Swells RMS vs. Time, Remote system faults Energy storage systems*,
Magnitude, Ferroresonant
Duration transformers,UPS
Interruptions Duration System protection Energy storage systems,
(Breakers and Fuses), UPS, Backup Generators
Maintenance
Undervoltages/ RMS vs. Time, Motor starting, Voltage regulators,
Overvoltages Statistics Load variations Ferroresonant transformers
Harmonic Distortion Total harmonic Nonlinear loads, Filters (active or passive),
distortion, System resonance Transformers (cancellation
Harmonic or zero sequence
spectrum, components)
Statistics
Voltage Flicker Variation Intermittent loads, Static VAR systems
magnitude, Motor starting,
Frequency of Arc furnaces
occurrence,
Modulation
frequency
* Energy storage systems refer to variety of energy storage technologies that can be used
for standby supply as part of power conditioning.
