Chaudhary Mahadeo Prasad College

(A CONSTITUENT PG COLLEGE OF UNIVERSITY OF ALLAHABAD)

E-Learning Module

Subject: Botany
(Study material for Post Graduate Students)

M.Sc. IISem
COURSE CODE: BOT 516
Taxonomy of Angiosperms and Economic Botany

Unit: V
Topic: ORIGIN OF AGRICULTURE AND WORLD CENTERS OF PRIMARY
DIVERSITY OF DOMESTIC PLANTS

Developed by
Name: Dr. Alok Kumar Singh
Designation: Asssistant Prof.
DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
ORIGIN OF AGRICULTURE AND WORLD CENTERS OF PRIMARY DIVERSITY OF
DOMESTIC PLANTS

Structure of the Unit:

11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Origin of Agriculture
11.3 World Centers of Primary Diversity of Domestic Plants
11.3.1Concept of Candolle
11.3.2 Valvilov center

11.3.3 World Centers of Origin of Cultivated Plants

11.4 The Indo-Burmese Centre
11.5 Plant Introduction and Secondary Centers
11.6 Summary
11.7 Glossary
11.8 Self-Learning Excercise
11.9 References

11.0 Objectives
After studying these units you will be understand the origin and introduction of cultivated plants in
terms of-

• Origin of Agriculture
• Center of origin
• Plant introduction

11.1 Introduction
The cultivation of crop isone of the oldest occupations of men andbegan with the discovery of certain seeds
spilled on disturbed ground, grew in some mysterious way into new plants. Men collected the seeds and
spread it into different regions. This is how origin and introduction of crop plants started.
The term origin of crop plants mainly refers to the means by which the crop plants came into existence. The
origin of a particular crop is directly related to the place or the site or the country where it was born and
domesticated for the first time. The first attempt to develop the subject of origin of domesticated plant
was done by Alphonse de Candolle (1883) in his book ‘Origine des Plantes Cultivee’. Nikolai Vavilov
suggested the idea that many cultivated plants originated in the different regions of the world where these
plants were domesticated and then dispersed and spread to other areas of the world. These centers are
characterized by the presence of dominant genes. Often centers of diversity do not always occupy a limited
area and there might be secondary centers of diversity due to long history of continuous cultivation and
interaction with wild relatives or between different races of a crop.

11.2 Origin of Agriculture

Agriculture can be defined as the cultivation of plants, fungi and other life forms for food, fiber, biofuel,
medicines and other products used to sustain and enhance human life. For most of the times in human
history Men lived as hunters and gatherers. These people do not form permanent establishments and
change their places according to availability of resources and changes in the climate. The cultivation
of plants is one of the oldest occupations of Men. It began with the selection of plants for use. By the
end of 18th century people started questioning about the origin of cultivated plants. The origin and
evolution of agriculture represents a major shift in the adaptation of human populations. It had its impact
on the evolution of culture too. However, sometimes agriculture is claimed as a mal-adaptation in human
history (Manning, 2004).
Around 10,000 years ago in many areas of the world, there was a shift in human endeavour from foraging
to farming. Most authorities agree that agriculture arose independently in different areas over several
thousand years. Why this shift occurred can only be theorized, but the development of agriculture
formed the basis of advanced civilization in both the Old and the New Worlds. Over the centuries,
agricultural societies spread into those environments that could be easily adapted to agriculture, and foragers
gradually became restricted to marginal areas. By the late twentieth century, foraging societies had
largely disappeared,

constituting only a tiny percentage of the human population and limited to a few tropical rain forests,
deserts, savannas, tundras and boreal forests. A number of theories have been given for the origin of
Agriculture. Any of the following or all causes can be assigned for the origin of Agriculture in different
regions of the world (Aery, 2010). These are:
A decrease in the number of wild species available due to overhunting resulting in the selection of
certain animals for domestication.
An increase in the cultivable wild plant species at the end of last glacial age.
Advancement in the collection, processing and storage procedures of wild plant species.
An increase in the population which forced to improve the production of more food.
Theories related to Origin of Agriculture
1. Oasis Theory: The Oasis hypothesis was proposed by Raphael Pumpelly (1908) and supported
by Vere Gordon Childe who summarized the hypothesis in his book Man Makes Himself. According
to this hypothesis as the climate got drier, communities contracted to oasis where they were forced
into close association with animals which were then domesticated together with planting of seeds. The
hypothesis has little contemporary support, as the climate data for the time does not support the
hypothesis.
2. The Feasting Model: The Feasting model by Brian Hayden suggests that
agriculture was driven by ostentatious displays of power such as throwing feasts to exert
dominance. This required assembling large quantities of food which drove agricultural
technology.
3. TheHilly Flanks Hypothesis: This hypothesis was proposed by Braidwood
(1948). He suggesed that agriculture began in the hilly flanks of theTaurusand Zagros Mountains and
 that it developed from intensive focused grain gathering in the region.
4. The Demographic Theory: The Demographic theory was proposed by Carl
Sauer. They describe an increasingly sedentary population, expanding up to the carrying capacity of the
local environment, and requiring more food than can be gathered. Various social and economic factors
help drive the need for food.

5. The Evolutionary/Intentionality Theory: The evolutionary/intentionality hypothesis, advanced by

scholars such as Rindos, is the idea that agriculture is a co-evolutionary adaptation of plants and
humans. Starting with domestication by protection of wild plants, followed specialization of
location and then domestication.
6. The Innovation and Specialisation Model: This model was given by
Gerritsen, in Australia and the Origins of Agriculture (2008). This model considers the question in
terms of economic development and treats agriculture as a form of specialisation arising from two
factors, higher population densities and innovation in areas of higher net natural productivity and
long-term advantageous information acquisition at nodal points in communication in long range scale-
free networks.
7. The Levantine Primacy Model: This model was developed in the 1980s
By Ofer Bar-Yosefand colleagues. This model provides a cultural ecology explanation, based
on the idea that some areas were better favoured with domesticable plants and animals than
others.
8. The domestication hypothesis: This model put forth by Daniel Quinn and
others states that first humans stayed in particular areas, giving up their nomadic ways, then
developed agriculture and animal domestication.
Another hypothesis is that humans were prevented from staying in one place for much of their history,
due to the risk of attacks from other tribes.

11.3 World Centers of Primary Diversity of DomesticPlants

Acenter of diversity is an area that has a high degree of genetic variation for a particular plant taxon
(e.g. genus, species or family) that can also be the center of origin for that group. The center of origin is a
geographical area where a group of organisms, either domesticated or wild, first developed its distinctive
properties. Centers of origin are also considered centers of diversity. The center of origin allows one
to locate wild relatives, related species and new genes (especially dominantgenes, which may provide
resistance to diseases). Knowledge of the origins of crop plants is important in order to avoid genetic
erosion, the loss of germplasm due to the loss of ecotypes and landraces, loss of habitat and increased
urbanization.

11.3.1 Concept of Candolle

Alphonse de Candolle (1863) a Swiss botanist first attempted to solve the mystery about evolution of crop
plants. In his‘Origine des Plantes Cultivee’he studied 247 plant species of cultivated plants.
Candolle classified the plants into six classes :
1. Plants cultivated 4000 years ago
2. Plants cultivated 2000 years ago
3. Plants cultivated less than 4000 years
4. Plants cultivated 2000 to 4000 years
5. Plants cultivated after the time of Columbus
6. Plants cultivated after the time of Columbus

11.3.2 Vavilov centers

Fig. 11.1 : Vavilov’s Center of Origin

Vavilov’s Eight Center of Origin: (1) Southe Mexican and Central America, (2) South American, (2A)
Chile Center, (2B) Southern Brazil, (3) Mediterranean, (4) Middle East, (5) Ethiopia, (6) Central Asia, (7)
Indo-Burma, (7A) Siam-Malaya- Java, (8) Chinese
Vavilov Centers of origin are the regions of the world that are an original center for the domestication of
plants. These are first described by Dr. Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov in 1926. He proposed the concept
based on his studies of a vast collection of plant at Institute of Plant Industry, Leningrad. Vavilov
developed a theory on

The centers of origin of cultivated plants. According to Vavilov plants were not domesticated
somewhere in the world at random but there are regions where the domestication started. The center of
origin is also considered the center of diversity. Until today Vavilov centers are regions where a high
diversity of crop wild relatives can be found, representing the natural relatives of domesticated crop plants.
The concept is that crop plants evolved from wild species in the area showing great diversity and that
place is termed as primary center of origin. Later on from the primary center the crops moved to other
places due to the activities of man. There are certain areas where some crops exhibit maximum
diversity of forms but this may not be the center of origin for that particular crop. Such centers are known
as Secondary centers of origin.
11.3.3 World Centers of Origin of Cultivated Plants
1) South Mexican and Central American Center
Distribution: Includes southern sections of Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras and Costa Rica.
Plants: Grains and Legumes: Maize, common bean, lima bean, tepary bean, jack bean.
Melon Plants: Malabar gourd, winter pumpkin, chayote.

Fiber Plants: Upland cotton, bourbon cotton, henequen (sisal).

2) South American Center
Distribution: This center includes the high mountainous regions of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia,
parts of Chile and Brazil and whole of Paraguay.
Plants: Total 62 plants listed; three subcenters
i) Peruvian, Ecuadorean, Bolivian Center:
Root Tubers: Andean potato, other endemic cultivated potato species. Fourteen or more species with
chromosome numbers varying from 24 to 60, Edible nasturtium. Grains and Legumes: Starchy maize, lima
bean, common bean.
Root Tubers: Edible canna, potato.

Vegetable Crops: Pepino, tomato, ground cherry, pumpkin, pepper.

Fiber Plants: Egyptian cotton.

Fruit and Miscellaneous: Cocoa, passion flower, guava, heilborn, quinine tree, tobacco, cherimoya.

ii) Chile Center

Plants: Common potato, Chilean strawberry 2B)
Southern Brazil Center
Plants: Manioc, peanut, rubber tree, pineapple, Brazil nut, cashew, Erva-mate,
purple granadilla.
iii) Mediterranean Center
Distribution Includes the borders of the Mediterranean Sea. 84 listed plants Plants
Cereals and Legumes: Durum wheat, emmer, Polish wheat, spelt, Mediterranean

oats, sand oats, canary grass, grass pea, pea, lupine

Forage Plants: Egyptian clover, white clover, crimson clover, serradella

Oil and Fiber Plants: Flax, rape, black mustard, olive

Vegetables: Garden beet, cabbage, turnip, lettuce, asparagus, celery, chicory, parsnip, rhubarb
EtherealOilandSpicePlants:Caraway,anise,thyme, peppermint, sage, hop

4) Middle East
Distribution: This is also known as the Near East or the Persian Centre of Origin. It includes the interior
of Asia Minor, the whole of Transcaucasia, Iran and Highlands of Turkmenistan.
Plants Includes interior of Asia Minor, all of Transcaucasia, Iran and the highlands of Turkmenistan. Total
83 plant species are originated from this center.
Grains and Legumes: Einkorn wheat, durum wheat, popular wheat, common wheat, oriental wheat,
Persian wheat, two-row barley, rye, Mediterranean oats, common oats, lentil, lupine
Forage Plants: Alfalfa, Persian clover, fenugreek, vetch, hairy vetch Fruits: Fig,
pomegranate, apple, pear, quince, cherry, hawthorn.
5) Ethiopia
Distribution This center includes Abyssinia, hill country of Eritrea and part of Somaliland.
Plants
Total 38 Species are originated from this center. This area is rich in wheat and barley.
Grains and Legumes:Abyssinian hard wheat, poulard wheat,emmer, Polish wheat,barley, grain
sorghum,pearl millet,African millet, cowpea,flax, teff Miscellaneous: Sesame,castor bean,garden
cress, coffee, okra, myrrh, indigo.
6) Central Asiatic Center
Distribution: It includes North West India, Afghanistan, Soviet Republics of Tajikistan and Tian
Shan. It is also known as the Afghanistan center of origin.
Plants: Total 43 species are originated from this center.
Grains and Legumes: Common wheat, club wheat, shot wheat, peas, lentil, horse bean, chickpea,
mung bean, mustard, flax, sesame
Fiber Plants: Hemp, cotton

Vegetables: Onion, garlic, spinach, carrot

Fruits: Pistacio, pear, almond, grape, apple

7) Indian Center
Distribution: This includes Burma, Assam, Malaya, Java Borneo, Sumatra and Philippines, but excludes
North West India, Punjab and North Western parts of India.
This center is further divided in to two subcenters
7A) Indo-Burma:
Distribution: Main Center (India): Includes Assam and Burma, but not Northwest India, Punjab, nor
North West parts of India.
Plants: Total 117 species are originated from this center.
Cereals and Legumes: Rice, chickpea, pigeon pea, urd bean, mung bean, rice bean, cowpea,

Vegetables and Tubers: eggplant, cucumber, radish

Fruits: Mango, orange, tangerine, tamarind

Sugar, Oil, and Fiber Plants: Sugar cane, coconut, sesame, sunflower, tree cotton, oriental cotton, jute,
crotalaria.

Spices, Stimulants and Dyes: Hemp, black pepper, gum arabic, sandalwood, indigo, cinnamon
tree.

7B) Siam-Malaya-Java:
Distribution
Siam-Malaya-Java includes Indo-China and the Malaya Archipelago.
Plants Total 55 species are originated from this center.
Cereals and Legumes: Job’s tears, velvet bean Fruits: Pummelo, banana, breadfruit, mango steen
Oil, Sugar, Spice, and Fiber Plants: Candlenut, coconut palm, sugarcane, clove,nutmeg,black pepper,Manila
hemp.
8) Chinese Center
Distribution: It consists of the mountainous regions of central and western China and the neighbouring
low lands. It is the largest and oldest independent center.
Plants: A total of 136 plants are listed in this center.
Cereals and Legumes: Broomcorn millet, Italian millet, Japanese barnyard millet, Koaliang, buckwheat,
hull-less barley, Soyabean, Adzuki bean, velvet bean
Roots, Tubers and Vegetables: Chinese yam, radish, Chinese cabbage, onion, cucumber

Fruits and Nuts: Pear, Chinese apple, peach, apricot, cherry, walnut, litchi

Sugar, Drug and Fiber Plants: Sugar cane, opium poppy, ginseng camphor, hemp.

11.4 The Indo-Burese Centre

Distribution: The Indo-Burmese center is distributed on the Indo-chinese Peninsula, and comprises
Cambodia, Lao, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Southern China and North Eastern India. The topography
of the center is complex and is characterized by a series of north-south mountain ranges, which descend
from the Himalayan chain and its south eastern extensions.
Plants: An estimate of total plant diversity in the area is about 13,500 vascular plant species, of which
about 7,000 are endemic. Total 117 species are originated from this center. Among these plants some
important crop plants are:
Cereals and Legumes: Rice, chickpea, pigeon pea, urd bean, mung bean, rice bean, cowpea,
Vegetables and Tubers: eggplant, cucumber, radish Fruits:
Mango, orange, tangerine, tamarind
Sugar, Oil, and Fiber Plants: Sugar cane, coconut, sesame, safflower, tree cotton, oriental cotton, jute,
crotalaria
Spices, Stimulants and Dyes: Hemp, black pepper, gum arabic, sandalwood, indigo, cinnamon
tree.

11.5 Plant Introduction and Secondary Centers

Plant introduction is thecintroductioncof plant species orvarieties into new places orregions. The term
plant introduction has been used since these con dhal fof the19th century.
The under lying theory, first substan tiated in 1855 by A.de Candolle, wasel aborated by N.I. Vavilov
(1926) on the basis of his theory of centers of origin of cultivated plants. The primary centers contain
them aingene pool of wild related speciesand the mostancient form sofcul tivated plants, which are carriers
of genes valuable for selection and breeding. The carriers of new characteristicst hatar epromising for
breeding purposes (like yield capacity, high-quality production, early ripening) are often concentrated
in these condary geographical centers of many cultivated plants (through hmutation sandhy
bridization). Man’s interventionled to the transferof plants from these centersto new regions and the
concomitant broadening of the range of various species. Thus modern cultivated wheat, barley, rice, oats,
corn, Soyabeans, cotton and sun flower are descendants of wild species that were frequently valuable in them
selves.
The geography of the most important cultivated plants has changed; their ranges have been substantially
broadened and asa result their connection with the primary centers has frequently been lost. For example, the
native home of the coffee bean is Ethiopia, but today its production is concentrated chiefly in Latin
America. The main production of peanuts, which originated in northern Argentina, is now
concentrated in equatorial Africa.
According to Vavilov, there can be two sources for the introduction of plants:
(1) Gene centers, from which the dominant genes that determine resistance to diseases and pests
and high- quality production can be drawn, and
(2) Remote areas of highly developed agriculture, where there isa concentration of the carriers of
recessive genes that determine many valuable characteristics for breeding.
Material for the introduction of plants is primarily provided by the scientific expeditions that are sent
by many countries to the primary and secondary centers of origin of cultivated plants. Botanical gardens
and other botanical and breeding facilities perform the day-by-day work of introducing and
acclimatizing wild species.
The process of importing new plants or cultivars of well-established plants from the area of their
adaptation to another area where their potential is evaluated for suitability for agricultural or
horticultural use is known as Plant Introduction.

Types of Plant Introduction

Plant introduction can be classified into types: primary introduction and secondary introduction. When the
plant introduction is commercially usable as introduced without any modification, is known as Primary
introduction, whereas when it
need selections from the variable populations, or uses the plant introduction as a parent in crosses, is
known as Secondary introduction.

11.6 Summary
The cultivation of crop is the oldest occupations of men. Agriculture isthe cultivation of plants for
different products used to sustain and enhance human life. These plants are originated in different area of
world. A geographical area where a group of plants, either domesticated or wild, first developed its
distinctive properties is known as center of origin. It is also known ascenters of diversity. During the
course of time the plants are spread in different areas. Introduction of plant species or varieties into new
places or regions is known as plant introduction.
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11.7 Glossary

Center of Origin: It is a geographical area where a group of organisms, either domesticated or

wild, first developed its distinctive properties.
Plant Introduction: Plant introduction is the introduction of plants pecies or varieties into new
places or regions.

11.8 Self-Learning Excercise

Section- A : (Very Short Answer Type Questions)

1. Name the Russian botanist who worked a lot on the origin of cultivated plants?
2. What is the origin of center of wheat?
3. Write the name of center of origin of cotton.
4. Write the name of center of origin of rice.

Section- B: (Short Answer Type Questions)

1. Explain domestication.
2. Describe primary center of origin.
3. Explain center of origin.
4. Write about the cultivation of berseem?
5. Describe primary center of origin.

Section- C : (Long Answer Type Questions)

1. Describe the Vavilov’s concept of origin of cultivated plants.

2. Write an essay on origin of agriculture.
3. Describe the plant introduction.
4. Describe the eight centers of origin of cultivated plants recognised by vavilov.
Answer key of Section – A

1. Vavilov
2. South westAsia
3. Central America
4. Indo-Burma
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11.9 References

• Trivedi, P.C. and Sharma, N (2010). Plant Resources Utilization and Conservation.
Pointer Publisher,Jaipur.
• Verma, V. (2003). A Text Book of Economic Botany. Emkay Publications, Delhi.
• Sharma, P.D. (2010). Ecology and Utilisation of Plants. Rastogi
Publication, Meerut.
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