UNIT 4 MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNIQUES

Introduction: Introduction To Multiple Access- Frequency Division Multiple Access(FDMA)- Time

Division Multiple Access(TDMA)- Spread Spectrum Multiple Access-Code Division Multiple
Access(CDMA)- Space Division Multiple Access(SDMA)- Capacity Of Cellular Systems: Capacity
Of Cellular CDMA, Capacity Of CDMA With Multiple Cells.
PART – A
Univ QP (Month/
S.No. Question and Answer CO
Year)
1. State the principles of CDMA. CO4
Principles of CDMA: i. Many users share the same frequency. ii. Each user is assigned
a different spreading code.
2. How the capacity can be increased in CDMA? CO4
Capacity in CDMA can be increased by i. Quiet periods during speech transmission is shared by
many users. ii. Flexible data rate. iii. Soft capacity. iv. Error Correction coding used.
3. Write the goals of GSM standard CO4
Better and more efficient technical solution for wireless communication. Single standard was
to be realized all over Europe enabling roaming across borders.
4. What is W-CDMA? CO4
It is a 3G wireless standard for cellular telephony. It provides better efficiency, higher peak rates
upto 2 Mbps. Bandwidth of 5 MHz. Supports multimedia applications.
5. What are the effects of multi path propagation on CDMA? CO4 (May 2015,2016)
Reflection - occurs when signal encounters a surface that is large relative to the wavelength of
the signal.
Diffraction - occurs at the edge of an impenetrable body that is large compared to wavelength of
radio wave.
6. State advantages of CDMA over FDMA? CO4 (Dec 2014)
This is the best & required wireless access method. Many wireless users are employed in the
CDMA along with Various bandwidth needs, Switching methods, Technical characteristics.
Mention a few techniques used to expand the capacity of a
7. CO4 (May 2015)
cellular system.
Increasing the amount of spectrum used, more efficient modulation format and coding,
discontinuous transmission, multi user detection, reduction of cell radius, use of sector cells and
multiple antennas.
8. Define frequency reuse distance. CO4 (Dec 2012)
It is defined as the distance between two cells that can use the same frequencychannels.
(June 2013)
9. What is meant by frequency reuse or frequency planning?
CO4 (May /June 2016)
By limiting the coverage area to within the boundaries of a cell, the same group of channels may
be used to cover different cells that are separated from one another by distances large enough to
keep interference levels within tolerable limits. This design process of selecting and allocating
channel groups for all of the cellular base stations within a system is called frequency reuse.
What are the different methods available to increase the
10. CO4 (May 2012)
capacity of the system?
Increasing the amount of spectrum used, more efficient modulation format and coding,
discontinuous transmission, multi user detection, reduction of cell radius, use of sector cells and
multiple antennas.
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11. What is handoff? CO4 (Dec 13)

When the person is Moving from one BS to other without interrupting connection
12. What is Signal-to-Noise Ratio? CO4
Wireless systems are required to provide a certain minimum transmission quality This
transmission quality in turn requires a minimum Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) at the receiver
(RX).
13. Define signal to self-interference ratio. CO4
The signal-to-interference ratio (S / I or SIR), also known as the carrier-to- interference ratio
(CII, CIR), is the quotient between the average received modulated - carrier power S or C and
the average received co-channel interference power.
14. What is channel assignment. CO4
It is responsible for channel assignment, maintenance of link quality and handover,
power control, coding, and encryption
15. Define co-channel reuse ratio CO4 (Dec 2015)
co-channel reuse ratio(Q) is a function of the radius of the cell(R)and distance
between the centres of the nearest co-channel cells(D)
Q=D/R co-channel reuse ratio(Q)
By increasing the ratio (Q),the spatial separation between co-channel cells relativeto
the coverage distance of a cell is increased.

16. Define Grade of service(GOS). CO4 (Dec 2015)

It is a measure of the ability of a user to access a trunked system during thebusiest hour.
17. What are the features of TDMA? CO4
Features of TDMA are: i. TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users, where each
user makes use of non overlapping time slots. ii. Data transmission occurs in bursts. iii. Handoff
process is much simpler iv. Duplexers are not required, since transmission and reception occurs at
different time slots.
18. What are the features of FDMA? CO4
Features of FDMA are: i. FDMA channel carries only one phone circuit at a time ii. The bandwidth
of FDMA channels is relatively narrow as each channel supports only one circuit per carrier.
(Dec 2013) (May
19. What are the different types of multiple access schemes? CO4
2016)
FDMA-Frequency division multiple access-different frequencies are assigned to different users
TDMA-Time division multiple access-different time slots are assigned to different users.
CDMACode division multiple access-each user is assigned a different code.
20. What are the disadvantages of FDMA? CO4
1. Sensitivity to fading 2. Sensitivity to random frequency modulation 3. Inter
modulation
21. What are the advantages of FDMA? CO4
The transmitter and receiver require much less digital signal processing, Synchronization is simple.
22. Define SAMA CO4
Spread Aloha Multiple Access is a combination of CDMA and TDMA. The CDMA better suits for
connection oriented services only and not for connection less burst data traffic because it requires to
program both sender and receiver to access different users with different codes.
23. Define CDMA CO4 (April/May 2018)

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Code Division Multiple Access systems use codes with certain characteristics to separate different
users. To enable access to the shared medium without interference. The users use the same
frequency and time to transmit data. The main problem is to find good codes and to separate this
signal from noise. The good code can be found the following 2 characteristics 1.Orthogonal. 2.
Autocorrelation.
24. State advantages of CDMA over FDMA? CO4 (Nov/Dec2016)
CDMA technology has bandwidth thirteen times efficient than FDMA and forty times efficient than
analog systems. CDMA also have better security and higher data and voice transmission quality
because of the spread spectrum technology it uses, which has increased resistance to multipath
distortion. CDMA has greater coverage area when compared to FDMA. The main advantage of the
CDMA is that, in the single detection method it is more flexible than FDMA or joint detection.
CDMA is said to have higher capacity than FDMA.
25. Define Holding-time. CO4
Average duration of a typical call. Denoted by „H‟ (in seconds).
26. What is SDMA? CO4
Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA) is used for allocating separated spaces to users in
wireless networks. The basis for the SDMA algorithm is formed by cells and sectorized antennas
which constitute the infrastructure implementing space division multiplexing (SDM).
27. What is FDD? CO4
In FDMA, the base station and the mobile station establish a duplex channel. The two directions,
mobile station to base station and vice versa are separated using different frequencies. This
Scheme is called Frequency Division Duplex (FDD)
What limits the number of user in TDM and FDM compared
28. CO4
to CDM?
The code space is huge compared to the frequency space and time space. Because of the limited
time space and frequency space, the number of user in TDM and FDM are limited.
How does near and far effect influence CDMA? What are
29. CO4
counter measurements?
The near and far effect is a server problem of wireless networks using CDM. All signals should
arrive at the receiver with more or less the same strength. Precise power control is needed to receive
all senders with the same strength at a receiver.
30. Define Set-up time. CO4
The time required to allocate a trunked radio channel to a requesting user.
PART – B
Univ QP (Month/
S.No. Question and Answer CO
Year)
1. Explain the various methods that increase the system capacity. CO4 (May 13)
System capacity is the most important measure for a cellular network. Methods for increasing
capacity are thus an essential area of research:
1. Increasing the amount of spectrum used: this is the “brute force” method. It turns out to be
very expensive, as spectrum is a scarce resource, and usually auctionedoff by governments at very high
prices. Furthermore, the total amount of spectrum assigned to wireless systems can change only very
slowly; changes in spectrum assignments have to be approved by worldwide regulatory conferences,
which often takes ten years or more.
2. More efficient modulation formats and coding: using modulation formats that require less
bandwidth (higher order modulation) and/or are more resistant to interference. The former allows an
increase in data rate for each user (or an increase in the number of users in a cell while keeping the data
rate per user constant). However, the possible benefits of higher order modulation are limited: they are
more sensitive to noise and interference, so that the reuse distance might have to be increased. The use

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of interference-resistant modulation allows a reduction in reuse distance. The introduction of near-

capacity-achieving codes – turbo codes and low-density parity check codes – is another way of
achieving better immunity to interference, and thus increases system capacity.
3. Better source coding: depending on required speech quality, current speech coders need data
rates between 32 kbit/s and 4 kbit/s. Better models for the properties of speech allow the data rate to be
decreased without decreasing quality. Compression of data files and music/video compression also
allows more users to be served.
4. Discontinuous Voice Transmission DTX: exploits the fact that during a phone conversation
each participant talks only 50% of the time. A TDMA system can thus set up more calls than there are
available timeslots. During the call, the users that are actively talking at the moment are multiplexed
onto the available timeslots, while quiet users do not get assigned any radio resources.
5. Multiuser detection: this greatly reduces the effect of interference, and thus allows more
users per cell for CDMA systems or smaller reuse distances for FDMA
Systems.
1. Adaptive modulation and coding: employs the knowledge at the TX of the transmission channel, and
chooses the modulation format and coding rate that are “just right” for the current link situation. This
approach makes better use of available power, and, among other effects, reduces interference.
2. Reduction of cell radius: this is an effective, but very expensive, way of increasing capacity, as a new
BS has to be built for each additional cell. For FDMA systems, it also means that the frequency planning
for a large area has to be redone.Furthermore, smaller cells also require more handovers for moving
users, which is complicated, and reduces spectral efficiency due to the large amount of signaling
information that has to be sent during a handover.
3. Use of sector cells: a hexagonal (or similarly shaped) cell can be divided into several (typically three)
sectors. Each sector is served by one sector antenna. Thus, thenumber of cells has tripled, as has the
number of BS antennas. However, the number ofBS locations has remained the same, because the three
antennas are at the same location.
4. Use of an overlay structure: an overlay structure combines cells with different size and different traffic
density. Therefore, some locations may be served by several BSs simultaneously. An umbrella cell
provides basic coverage for a large area. Within that coverage area, multiple microcells are placed in
areas of high traffic density. Within the coverage area of the microcells, most users are served by the
microcell BS, but fast-moving users are assigned to the umbrella cell, in order to reduce the number of
handovers between cells.
2. Explain FDMA in detail. CO4
FDMA is a type of channelization protocol. This bandwidth is divided into various frequency bands.
Each station is allocated a band to send data and that band is reserved for the particular station for all
the time which is as follows:

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Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) consists of two main techniques.

1. Multi-channel-per-carrier (MCPC) transmission
2. Single-channel per carrier (SCPC) transmission
Multi-Channel-Per-Carrier Transmission
• Analog multiplexing is used at earth station in the early stages of communication, this helps
in combining large numbers of telephone channels into a single baseband signal and thus
modulating into a single RF carrier.
• Using frequency division multiplexing (FDM) telephone signals can be combined in a
group of channels, this is done by shifting the baseband frequency to a higher frequency.
• Upto 1800 telephone channels in a satellite are multiplexed using the FDM, thus making
wide baseband that occupies bandwidth of 8 MHz.
• The wide baseband signals are then modulated onto the RF carrier using FM i.e., Frequency
Modulation.
• Different RF carrier for each and every earth station is used for frequency modulations.
• A common transponder for transmission is been shared from various earth stations for the
FDM-FM-RF. This technique is called as FDM-FM-FDMA.
• So has various different telephone channels are been multiplexed for transmission over a
single RF carrier, it is known as multi-channel-per carrier (MCPC) transmission.
• The below attached images show fixed assigned FDM-FM-FDMA scheme for the two C-
band transponders.

Transponder 1

Transponder 2

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Single-Channel-Per Carrier Transmission

• When a single signal on a carrier is been send via the earth station, this FDMA access
technique is called as “Single-channel-per carrier (SCPC) transmission”.
• Hence if a system in which large number of small earth station are used, for example mobile
telephones, which access via a single transponder using FDMA is called a Single-channel-
per carrier Frequency division multiple access scheme (SCPC-FDMA).
• The SCPC systems can be reconfigurable, this depends on the traffic condition which is
been accumulated to that particular system, thus making it compatible with the demand
assignment systems.
• So when the link is been activated then only the carrier for SCPS channel is transmitted.
• This helps in reducing the transponder power consumption.
3. Explain TDMA in detail. CO4 (May 2017)
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a digital cellular telephone communication technology. It
facilitates many users to share the same frequency without interference. Its technology divides a signal
into different timeslots, and increases the data carrying capacity.

TDMA Overview

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a complex technology, because it requires an accurate
synchronization between the transmitter and the receiver. TDMA is used in digital mobile radio systems.
The individual mobile stations cyclically assign a frequency for the exclusive use of a time interval.

In most of the cases, the entire system bandwidth for an interval of time is not assigned to a station.
However, the frequency of the system is divided into sub-bands, and TDMA is used for the multiple access
in each sub-band. Sub-bands are known as carrier frequencies. The mobile system that uses this
technique is referred as the multi-carrier systems.

In the following example, the frequency band has been shared by three users. Each user is assigned
definite timeslots to send and receive data. In this example, user ‘B’ sends after user ‘A,’ and
user ‘C’ sends thereafter. In this way, the peak power becomes a problem and larger by the burst
communication.

FDMA and TDMA

This is a multi-carrier TDMA system. A 25 MHz frequency range holds 124 single chains (carrier
frequencies 200) bandwidth of each kHz; each of these frequency channels contains 8 TDMA conversation

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channels. Thus, the sequence of timeslots and frequencies assigned to a mobile station is the physical
channels of a TDMA system. In each timeslot, the mobile station transmits a data packet.

The period of time assigned to a timeslot for a mobile station also determines the number of TDMA
channels on a carrier frequency. The period of timeslots are combined in a so-called TDMA frame. TDMA
signal transmitted on a carrier frequency usually requires more bandwidth than FDMA signal. Due to the
use of multiple times, the gross data rate should be even higher.

Advantages of TDMA

Here is a list of few notable advantages of TDMA −

• Permits flexible rates (i.e. several slots can be assigned to a user, for example, each time interval
translates 32Kbps, a user is assigned two 64 Kbps slots per frame).
• Can withstand gusty or variable bit rate traffic. Number of slots allocated to a user can be changed
frame by frame (for example, two slots in the frame 1, three slots in the frame 2, one slot in the
frame 3, frame 0 of the notches 4, etc.).
• No guard band required for the wideband system.
• No narrowband filter required for the wideband system.
Disadvantages of TDMA

The disadvantages of TDMA are as follow −

• High data rates of broadband systems require complex equalization.

• Due to the burst mode, a large number of additional bits are required for synchronization and
supervision.
• Call time is needed in each slot to accommodate time to inaccuracies (due to clock instability).
• Electronics operating at high bit rates increase energy consumption.
• Complex signal processing is required to synchronize within short slots.

4. Explain CDMA in detail. CO4 (May 2018)

CDMA is a short form used for Code Division Multiple Access. CDMA is a technique that allows
multiple users to simultaneously transmit data signals over a common channel by assigning unique
spreading code to each individual user. This leads to the increasing of bandwidth used by transmitting
stations from a few Hz to a few MHz.
CDMA uses the principle of spread spectrum. Due to this, the various signals are modulated after which
a single signal is transmitted and is correlated at the receiving end using the spreading function to get the
actual data.
CDMA actually came into existence in the 1940s. But after technological advancements, it has been used
for military purposes. As transmitted signal appears as noise to unauthorized user thus decoding is quite
difficult without the knowledge of the right spreading code.
Spread spectrum is a method that offers a way to transmit a signal over a communication channel with a
bandwidth that is comparatively wider than the bandwidth which is actually needed to transmit the signal.
More simply, in this technique, the bandwidth of the signal is increased intentionally in the frequency
domain during transmission.This raises the robustness of the transmitted signal. The reason for this is that
by increasing the bandwidth component, interference level can be reduced because for wider bandwidth
interference is comparatively lower than for smaller bandwidth. So, spread spectrum allows conversion of
baseband signal into a modulated signal of wider bandwidth.

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CDMA is sometimes referred to as spread spectrum multiple access (SSMA) because the insertion of
spreading code increases the transmission bandwidth.

Introduction to Code Division Multiple Access

The code division multiple access is a type of multiple access technique that offers resource sharing. Before
elaborating on CDMA, it is important to know –
What is Multiple Access?
Whenever we talk about any satellite-based system, then it is obvious that multiple users form connections
with a single satellite transponder for the purpose of communication on a daily basis. Hence, this requires
that the available resources must be shared by each of them without hampering each other’s data. So, to
achieve this multiple access technique is used.
Multiple access is a way of transmitting the data from multiple transmitters over a common communication
channel. There are majorly three ways in which multiple access can be done, these are as follows:
• Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA): The multiple users that are willing to
transmit are provided different frequency bands to achieve simultaneous transmission.
• Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA): Here the multiple users are assigned different
time slots to access the overall channel bandwidth.
• Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA): In this technique, multiple users are provided
separate unique codes. By this, encoding of data is done and various users are able to transmit
simultaneously by utilizing the complete channel bandwidth.
This content is all about code division multiple access, in which, unlike TDMA and FDMA, neither time
nor frequency slots, respectively are required to be divided amongst the various users. As by assigning
separate unique codes to each user, the data is combinedly transmitted over the channel, and at the other
end, the receiving stations use the respective codes that were used by the transmitting stations to retrieve
the actual message signal of each station.

Hence, in CDMA, with the help of unique spreading codes, multiple users simultaneously access the RF
bandwidth for signal transmission.

It is to be noted here that, in this approach, the codes to be used are selected in a way that there must be
the least possible correlation between them.

There are two ways in which CDMA is implemented, namely,

• Direct Sequence/ Sequencing
• Frequency Hopping

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These two are different in a way that direct sequence spread spectrum makes use of high-speed spreading
code to have wider bandwidth while in frequency hopping technique carrier frequency is shifted to obtain
the same.
Direct Sequencing CDMA
The principle of operation of DS-CDMA is such that two or even more signals of the same bandwidth,
get individually spread by a user-specific orthogonal code. Over the communication channel, the signals
are mixed and sent combinedly. Here the energy for transmission will remain the same however,
bandwidth requirement will be more. At the receiving end, de-spreading of signals is done using the replica
of the orthogonal code.
The figure below shows the block diagram representation of DS-CDMA for transmission and reception of
the signal:

Initially, for transmission, the pseudorandom code generator generates a unique spreading code. This
random code sequence is multiplied by the input data stream that the user actually wants to transmit. For
each individual user, willing to transmit over that channel, a specific PN code will be generated for
spreading the bit sequence.

Further, the modulator (PSK type) performs the modulation of obtained bit sequence with a carrier signal
thereby providing a BPSK modulated signal as output. This signal is then broadcasted using an antenna.

The waveform representation is shown below clearly represents the generation of BPSK modulated signal:

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Here, the product will be 1 only when both data and code bit will be the same i.e., either 0 or 1 otherwise
product will be 0.

At the time of signal reception, first, the obtained signal is amplified to raise its level. Then demodulation
of the signal is performed using radio-frequency carrier. Here the obtained sequence appears nothing more
than noise. However, the replica of code produced by the pseudo code generator is multiplied with the data
stream obtained after demodulation.

To get the original data stream (i.e., for de-spreading) the PN code generated at the receiver end must be
same as that produced as the transmitting end for each individual user. After multiplication with the de-
spreading code, original data is retrieved by the receiving station.

Suppose a1(t) data is multiplied with c1(t) code to produce b1(t) = a1(t)c1(t) as output. Similarly, a2(t) and
code c2(t) gives b2(t) = a2(t)c2(t) as output. The received signal will be:
R(t) = Σ b1(t) + b2(t)
So, to retrieve actual information, data is to be multiplied with the respective code of each user. In this
way using direct spreading, signals can be transmitted over a channel at the same time.

Frequency Hopping CDMA

The word hopping corresponds to jumping or switching. The frequency hopping type of CDMA technique
is based on accessing different frequency slots of a complete channel bandwidth at different instants of
time by multiple users. It is not FDMA or TDMA because in that case a fixed frequency or time slot
respectively is provided to different users. However, here each specific user can access to same frequency
slot in different time instants.
Consider the graphical representation shown below-representing slotting of available frequency band and
various users are accessing the bands in different time slots:

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Here, in time slot t4, the signal is transmitting in band f5, likewise in t2, band f4 is transmitting, and so on.
Also, in slot t3, band f4 is again transmitting. Thus, the frequency and time slots are showing variable
nature. The time interval between two slots is called chirp duration or hopping interval and is denoted
by Tc.
To understand how this happens, consider the block diagram shown below:

Here frequency synthesizer is used to change the carrier frequency. The message signal is first fed to the
modulator, according to a pre-determined sequence, the carrier frequency is generated that hops in steps.
Basically, the overall satellite bandwidth is divided into series of frequency slots with which the encoded
carrier sequentially hops here. This hopping sequence must not be easily predictable like the PN code of
DS-CDMA. Externally, it appears that a single signal is occupying the complete bandwidth but in actuality,
it is occupying a single slot at a time.

At the receiving end, a similar frequency synthesizer must be present for generating a replica of carrier
frequency, which is mixed with the received signal, and the output is filtered for noise removal. This
provides a fixed intermediate frequency signal which is demodulated to get the actual message signal.

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5. Explain SDMA in detail. CO4

Principle : The narrow beam of radio waves is aimed at particular part of space. The same channel is
reused over the another narrow beam aimed at another part of the space. This division of space in different
directions of base station through highly directional beams is called Space Division Multiple Access
(SDMA).

As shown above the space is divided and three channels are transmitted on same frequency.
Advantages

i. It saves the channel bandwidth.

ii. Improves the utility of bandwidth.
Role of SDMA in wire and Wireless Communications

• SDMA can be used for mobile communication and satelite communication. The satelite dish
antennas transmit signals to various zones on earth’s surface. These antennas are highly
directional. Hence same frequency can be used for multiple surface zones, as shown in Fig.
• As shown in Fig, area A1 and area A3 are physically apart. Hence same channel-1 is used to send
signals to A1 and A3 with the help of highly directional atennas. There will be no signal interface
between the signals of areas A1 and A3.

• Satellite based SDMA required careful selection of zones (area) for each transmitter and precise
antenna alignment to avoid co-channel and Fig. Frequency reuse by SDMA interchannel
interference.
• In cellular (mobile) communiation, the power of the transmitting antennas is to be controlled to
avoid the co-channel and interchannel interference.

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• In cellular communication Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA), there are multidirectional
horn antennas at the base station (BS). The base station identifies mobile users by means of their
spatial signatures.
• The base station has complete control over the power of all the transmitted signals on the forward
link. The transmitted power from each mobile user is dynamically controlled to avoid inter channel
interference.
• The base station detects the power level from each mobile user and connects it. Adpative antennas
are also used.
6. Discuss about the Capacity Of Cellular CDMA in detail. CO4
The capacity of CDMA systems is interference limited. Any reduction in the interference will cause a
linear increase in the capacity of CDMA.The link performance for each user increases as the number of
users decreases. The directional antennas receive signals from only a fraction of the current users, thus
leading to the reduction of interference.Another way of increasing CDMA capacity is to operate in a
discontinuous transmission mode (DTX), where advantage is taken of the intermittent nature of speech
Evaluation the capacity of CDMA system:
The voice signals have a duty factor of about 3/8 in landline networks [Bra68], and 1/2 for mobile
systems, where background noise and vibration can trigger voice activity detectors.
The average capacity of a CDMA system can be increased by a factor inversely proportional to the
duty factor.CDMA can reuse the entire spectrum for all cells, and this result in an increase of capacity
by a large percentage over the normal frequency reuse factor.
or evaluating the capacity of CDMA system, first consider a single cell system. The cellular network
consists of a large number of mobile users communicating with a base station
For a single cell system under consideration, these weighting factors can be assumed to be equal.For
a single-cell system with power control, all the signals on the reverse channel are received at the same
power level at the base station.
Let the number of users be N.
Then, each demodulator at the cell site receives a composite waveform containing the desired signal
of power S and (N — I) interfering users, each of which has power, S.
Thus, the signal-to-noise ratio

is

(1)
The SNR at the base station receiver can be represented in terms ofEb/N0 given
by

(2)

Where R= Baseband information bit rate, W Bandwidth,

Equation (2) does not take into account the background thermal noise, in the spread bandwidth.
To take this noise into consideration, Eb/N0 can be represented
as

(3)

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The number of users that can access the system is thus given as

(4)

where W/R is called the processing gain.

The background noise determines the cell radius for a given transmitter power. In order to achieve an
increase in capacity, the interference due to other users should be reduced.
This can be done by decreasing the denominator of equations (1) or (2).
The first technique for reducing interference is Antenna sectorization

Discuss about the capacity Of CDMA With Multiple Cells in

7. CO4
detail.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a digital cellular technology that allows multiple users to share
the same frequency band simultaneously. CDMA is known for its capacity to support multiple cells, which
are the basic building blocks of cellular networks. In this response, we will discuss the capacity of CDMA
with multiple cells in detail.
1. Cellular Network Structure:
Cellular networks are divided into smaller geographical areas called cells. Each cell is served by a base
station (also known as a cell site or cell tower).
The cellular network operator divides its service area into cells to provide coverage efficiently and manage
network resources effectively.
2. CDMA Basics:
CDMA is a spread-spectrum technology that assigns a unique code to each user or call in the network.
This unique code is used to differentiate one call from another on the same frequency band.
CDMA spreads the signal across a wider frequency band, which allows multiple users to transmit and
receive simultaneously without causing significant interference.
3. Capacity of CDMA in a Single Cell:
In a single cell, CDMA can support multiple users simultaneously, thanks to its unique coding scheme.
Each user's signal is multiplied by a unique code before transmission.
In the receiver, the received signal is despread using the same code, effectively separating one user's signal
from others.
This process is called "orthogonalization," and it allows multiple users to share the same frequency band
without causing interference.
4. Capacity with Multiple Cells:
When we extend CDMA to multiple cells in a cellular network, the capacity and efficiency of the system
are crucial considerations.
a. Frequency Reuse:
CDMA networks typically employ a frequency reuse pattern. This means that the same frequency bands
are reused in different cells, but cells that are sufficiently far apart use the same frequencies.
In CDMA, the unique codes assigned to each user in one cell are different from those in neighboring cells.
This prevents interference between cells that share the same frequencies.
b. Soft Handoff:
CDMA supports a feature known as "soft handoff." When a mobile device moves from one cell to another,
it can connect to multiple neighboring cells simultaneously.

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Soft handoff improves call quality and system capacity because the network can seamlessly switch the
user's connection to the strongest signal.
c. Load Balancing:
Cellular operators can adjust the power levels of base stations to balance the load across cells dynamically.
This ensures that cells with high user density get more resources while cells with lower usage can allocate
resources elsewhere, maximizing overall network capacity.
d. Interference Management:
CDMA systems employ sophisticated interference management techniques to minimize interference and
improve capacity.
Power control algorithms adjust the transmission power of mobile devices to limit interference and
improve overall system performance.
5. Advantages of CDMA in Multi-Cell Environments:
CDMA is known for its robustness in multi-cell environments.
It provides good capacity and coverage, especially in areas with high user density.
Soft handoff and interference management techniques enhance the user experience and system efficiency.
In summary, CDMA is a versatile technology that excels in multi-cell environments due to its unique
coding scheme, frequency reuse, soft handoff, and interference management techniques. These features
allow CDMA to support a high capacity of users across multiple cells in a cellular network while
maintaining good call quality and system performance.

8. Difference between TDMA, FDMA, CDMA. CO5

Parameters FDMA TDMA CDMA

Full Form The term FDMA is an The term TDMA is an The term CDMA is an
acronym for Frequency acronym for Time acronym for Code
Division Multiple Division Multiple Division Multiple Access.
Access. Access.

Mode of FDMA shares one single TDMA only shares the The CDMA shares both-
Operation bandwidth among time of transmission via time and bandwidth
various stations by the satellite and not the among various stations by
splitting it into sub- channel. assigning a different code
channels. for every slot.

Idea of It segments a single band It segments the sending It spreads one spectrum
Transmission of frequency into various time of data into into multiple slots by
disjoint sub-bands. disjoint time slots- in a making use of orthogonal
fixed or demand-driven codes.
pattern.

Codeword The FDMA doesn’t need The TDMA also needs The codeword is a
a codeword. no codeword. prerequisite in the case of
the CDMA.

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Synchronizati FDMA does not require TDMA requires CDMA also requires no
on any synchronization. synchronization. synchronization.

Data Transmission occurs via Transmission occurs Transmission occurs via

Transmission a continuous signal in via signals in bursts. digital signals.
Mode FDMA.

Rate of Data FDMA supports a low TDMA supports a CDMA supports a high
rate of data. medium rate of data. rate of data.

Flexibility FDMA is a little flexible. Flexibility is moderate CDMA is highly flexible

in TDMA. in nature.

Terminals Every terminal possesses Every terminal on the Every terminal can stay
its own uninterrupted same frequency stays active during the same
frequency. active for a very short moment and the same
time. place without any
interruption.

Separation of It occurs by the process It occurs by It occurs via codes along

Signals of filtration in the synchronizing the time with some special
frequency domain. domain. receivers.

Scheme of It is continuous for It is discontinuous for It is continuous for

Transmission FDMA. TDMA. CDMA.

Capacity of FDMA has a very limited TDMA also has a very CDMA does not possess
Cells cell capacity. limited cell capacity. any limit on a channel’s
capacity- but this system is
interference-limited.

Advantages FDMA is robust, TDMA is very flexible, CDMA is flexible,

established, and very fully digital, and requires lesser frequency
simple. established. planning, and has a softer
handover of signals.

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Disadvantages FDMA is not very TDMA needs guard CDMA deals with very
flexible, and the space (for multipath complex receivers. The
frequencies it possesses propagation). senders/ transmitters
are a scarce resource. require a more
complicated form of
power control.

Comment FDMA typically TDMA holds the CDMA still faces some
combines with SDMA standards in a fixed major issues. It is highly
(Space Division Multiple network. Many mobile complex and has lower
Access) and TDMA. networks combine it by expectations. It will
using it together with probably integrate with
SDMA or FDMA. FDMA and TDMA.

R2021 / ECE / EC3501 – WIRELESS COMMUNICATION/ III YEAR / V SEM/QB