Low Speed Aerodynamics

Lecture 3
Birame Aldiouma SY
Aerospace Engineering
École Polytechnique de Thiès
 Chapter 3
Thin Airfoil Theory

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 Road map

1 Introduction

2 Fundamental Equation of Thin Airfoil Theory

3 Resolution for symmetrical and cambered airfoils

4 Limitations and Applications

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 Introduction: The Quest for Lift

Thin Airfoil Theory:

• A foundational concept in aerodynamics.
• Provides critical insights into how airfoils generate lift.

Historical milestones:
• (1900s) Ludwing Prandlt, mathematical basis for boundary layer, thin-airfoil and
lifting-line theories.
• (1922) Max Munk’s dissertation on thin airfoil theory.
• (1926) Hernann Glauert solved the arbitrary thin airfoil problem with Fourier series.

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 Hypothesis of Thin Airfoil Theory
• Potential flows (inviscid, incompressible, irrotational)
• On airfoils with small thickness, camber and angle of attack.
• Airfoil reduced to its mean camber line.

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 Road map

1 Introduction

2 Fundamental Equation of Thin Airfoil Theory

3 Resolution for symmetrical and cambered airfoils

4 Limitations and Applications

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 Core Idea: The Vortex Sheet

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 Core Idea: The Vortex Sheet

• Replace the solid airfoil with a vortex sheet.

• Located along the mean camber line.

• Represents the localised vorticity responsible for lift.

Our Goal
Determine γ(s) to ensure flow is tangential to the camber line.

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 Velocity Induced by a Vortex Element
Consider a small element of the vortex sheet:
• Length dξ, strength dΓ = γ(ξ)dξ.
• Velocity dv induced at point P(x, y ).
• Given by the Biot-Savart law (2D):

dΓ γ(ξ)dξ
dv = − eθ = − eθ
2πr 2πr

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 Total Velocity Induced by the Vortex Sheet
• The total induced vertical velocity
• The airfoil is thin:
=⇒ w ′ (s) on the camber line ≈ w ′ (x) on the x axis with:
Z c
γ(ξ)
w ′ (x) = − dξ
0 2π(x − ξ)

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 Far field normal component
Far field normal (to the camber line)component of velocity:
    
dy dy
V∞,n = V∞ sin α + tan−1 − ≈ V∞ α −
dx dx

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 Fundamental Equation of Thin Airfoil Theory
Fundamental boundary condition:
• The normal component of the total velocity must be zero.

V∞,n + w ′ = 0
  Z c
dy γ(ξ)dξ
V∞ α − − =0
dx 0 2π(x − ξ)

Fundamental equation of Thin Airfoil Theory

Z c  
1 γ(ξ)dξ dy
= V∞ α −
2π 0 x −ξ dx

Kutta condition
γ = 0 at trailing edge to ensure that the flow leaves the trailing edge smoothly.
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 Fundamental Equation of Thin Airfoil Theory

Fundamental equation of Thin Airfoil Theory

Z c  
1 γ(ξ)dξ dy
= V∞ α −
2π 0 x −ξ dx

Our Goal
To solve this integral equation for γ(x), subject to γ(c) = 0.

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 Road map

1 Introduction

2 Fundamental Equation of Thin Airfoil Theory

3 Resolution for symmetrical and cambered airfoils

4 Limitations and Applications

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 Symmetrical airfoil: solution
Let’s begin by solving this equation for a symmetrical airfoil: dy /dx = 0
Z c
1 γ(ξ)dξ
= V∞ α
2π 0 x − ξ

To solve the integral equation, we use a convenient transformation:

c c
ξ= (1 − cos θ), x= (1 − cos θ0 )
2 2
c
dξ = sin θdθ
2
Where the angles range from 0 to π.
• x = 0 =⇒ θ = 0 (Leading Edge)
• x = c =⇒ θ = π (Trailing Edge)

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 Symmetrical airfoil: solution

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 Symmetrical airfoil

The equation Z c
1 γ(ξ)dξ
= V∞ α
2π 0 x −ξ
becomes Z π
1 γ(θ) sin θdθ
= V∞ α
2π 0 cos θ − cos θ0

A solution of this equation is given by:

(1 + cos θ)
γ(θ) = 2αV∞
sin θ

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 Symmetrical airfoil: verification
• We can verify this solution by plugging it into the equation:
Z π
V∞ α π (1 + cos θ)dθ
Z
1 γ(θ) sin θdθ
=
2π 0 cos θ − cos θ0 π 0 cos θ − cos θ0
Z π
cos nθdθ π sin nθ0
Then with In (θ0 ) = =
0 cos θ − cos θ0 sin θ0

V∞ α π (1 + cos θ)dθ
Z  Z π Z π 
V∞ α dθ cos θdθ
= +
π 0 cos θ − cos θ0 π 0 cos θ − cos θ0 0 cos θ − cos θ0
V∞ α
= (0 + π) = V∞ α OK !
π
• The Kutta condition is verified by:
1 + cos θ sin θ (1 + cos θ) sin θ sin θ
γ(θ) = 2αV∞ = 2αV∞ = 2αV∞ =⇒ γ(π) = 0
sin θ sin θ 1 − cos2 θ 1 − cos θ
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 Symmetrical airfoil: Lift
The total circulation around the airfoil is
Z c
Γ= γ(ξ)dξ
0

c π
Z Z π
Γ= γ(θ) sin θdθ = αcV∞ (1 + cos θ)dθ
2 0 0
Γ = παcV∞

Application of the Kutta-Joukowski theorem:

L′ = ρ∞ V∞ Γ = παcρ∞ V∞
2

L′ dcl
cl = = 2πα =⇒ = 2π (Lift slope)
1 dα
ρ∞ V∞ c(1)
2
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 Symmetrical airfoil: Pitching Moment
The elementary pitching moment at leading edge is:

dM = −ξdL = −ξρ∞ V∞ dΓ = −ξρ∞ V∞ γdξ

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 Symmetrical airfoil: Pitching Moment

The total pitching moment is:

Z c Z c
′
MLE =− ξdL = −ρ∞ V∞ ξγ(ξ)dξ
0 0
′ πα
MLE = −q∞ c 2
2
The moment coefficient is
′
MLE πα
cm,le = =−
q∞ c 2 2

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 Symmetrical airfoil: Center of Pressure
πα
cm,le = − and cl = 2πα
2
we deduce
cl
cm,le = −
4
With
′ c cl
Mc/4 = Mle′ + L′ ⇐⇒ cm,c/4 = cm,le +
4 4
we have
cm,c/4 = 0 which is independent of α

For a thin symmetric airfoil

cm,c/4 = 0 c/4 is the center of pressure
dcm,c/4 /dα = 0 c/4 is the aerodynamic center
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 Cambered airfoil: solution

The fundamental equation is

Z c Z π  
1 γ(ξ)dξ 1 γ(θ) sin θdθ dy
= = V∞ α −
2π 0 x − ξ 2π 0 cos θ − cos θ0 dx

A solution of this equation is given by

∞
!
1 + cos θ X
γ(θ) = 2V∞ A0 + An sin(nθ)
sin θ
n=1

Well, but we don’t have any indication on A0 , . . . , An !

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 Cambered airfoil: solution
To find these coefficients let’s plug the solution γ(θ) in the fundamental equation:
Z π ∞ Z π
A0 (1 + cos θ)dθ 1X sin nθ sin θdθ dy
+ An =α−
π 0 cos θ − cos θ0 π 0 cos θ − cos θ0 dx
n=1
Z π Z π
(1 + cos θ)dθ sin nθ sin θdθ
= 0 + π, = −π cos nθ0
0 cos θ − cos θ0 0 cos θ − cos θ0
∞
X dy
A0 − An cos nθ0 = α −
dx
n=1

∞
dy X
= (α − A0 ) + An cos nθ0
dx
n=1

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 Cambered airfoil: solution

We recognize dy /dx as a Fourier cosine series expansion over 0 ≤ θ ≤ π thus:

1 π dy
Z
A0 = α − dθ
π dx
Z π 0
2 dy
An = cos(nθ)dθ, n ≥ 1
π 0 dx

These coefficients relate the vortex strength and aerodynamic properties to the airfoil
shape and angle of attack.

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 Cambered airfoil: Lift
c
c π
Z Z
Γ= γ(ξ)dξ = γ(θ) sin θdθ
0 2 0
∞
" Z #
π X Z π
Γ = cV∞ A0 (1 + cos θ)dθ + An sin(nθ) sin θdθ
0 n=1 0

(
Z π Z π
π/2 for n = 1
(1 + cos θ)dθ = π and sin(nθ) sin θdθ =
0 0 0 ̸ 1
for n =

 π 
Γ = cV∞ πA0 + A1
2
 π 
L′ = ρ∞ V∞ Γ = ρ∞ V∞
2
c πA0 + A1
2
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 Cambered airfoil: Lift coefficient

L′
 
A1
cl = = 2π A0 +
1 2 c(1) 2
ρ∞ V∞
2

1 π dy
 Z 
dcl
cl = 2π α + (cos θ − 1) dθ , = 2π
π 0 dx dα

We can also express it as cl = 2π (α − αL=0 ) to make appear the zero lift incidence

Zero lift incidence

Z π
1 dy
αL=0 =− (cos θ − 1) dθ
π 0 dx

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 Cambered airfoil: Moment coefficient

 
π A2
cm,le =− A0 + A1 −
2 2

hc π i
l
cm,le = − + (A1 − A2 )
4 4

π
cm,c/4 = (A2 − A1 )
4

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 Cambered airfoil: center of pressure and aerodynamic center

π
cm,c/4 = (A2 − A1 )
4
independent of α but different from zero

For a non-symmetrical thin cambered airfoil

c/4 is the aerodynamic center
c/4 is NOT the center of pressure

Where is the center of pressure?

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 Cambered airfoil: center of pressure

′
MLE cm,le c
xcp = − ′
=−
L cl

 
c π
xcp = 1 + (A1 − A2 )
4 cl

xcp depends on cl which depends on α.

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 Additional considerations on γ

Let’s compute the circulation around the dashed rectangular.

Γ = γds = − (v2 dn − u1 ds − v1 dn + u2 ds)

γds = (u1 − u2 ) ds + (v1 − v2 ) dn

For a vortex sheet

dn −→ 0 ⇒ γds = (u1 − u2 )ds

γ = (u1 − u2 )ds

Interpretation
The jump in tangential velocity across the vortex sheet is equal to the sheet strength.

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 Kutta Condition
At the trailing edge, velocity and pressure are unique, hence:
γ(TE ) = uup (TE ) − ulow (TE ) = 0 Kutta condition

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 Figure: Time-history of flow developments around an impulsively started airfoil. (From Prandtl and Tijens.)

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 Fourier Loading Modes
1 + cos θ
The primary loading term of γ(θ) is A0 and impacts both cl and cm
sin θ

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 A1 sin θ impacts cl and cm

A2 sin 2θ impacts cm only

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 A3 sin 3θ no impact on cl , cm

A4 sin 4θ no impact on cl , cm

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 Ideal or Adaptation Incidence
∞
!
1 + cos θ X
γ(θ) = 2V∞ A0 + An sin(nθ)
sin θ
n=1

At leading edge θ = 0, γ diverges excepted for

1 π dy
Z
A0 = 0 = α − dθ, hence
π 0 dx

Z π
1 dy
αideal = dθ Ideal incidence
π 0 dx

cl,design = cl (αideal ) Design lift coefficient

The adaptation or ideal incidence is obtained when leading edge is a stagnation point.
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 Pressure Coefficient: Understanding Surface Forces

The pressure coefficient cp is a dimensionless measure of the local pressure relative to the
freestream pressure:
p − p∞
cp =
1 2
ρ∞ V∞
2
From linearized potential flow theory, the pressure difference between the lower and upper
surfaces of the thin airfoil is related to the vortex strength:

∆p(x) = plower (x) − pupper (x) = ρ∞ V∞ γ(x)

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 Pressure Coefficient Difference ∆cp

The difference in pressure coefficient between the lower and upper surfaces is:
∆p
∆cp = cp,lower − cp,upper =
1 2
ρ∞ V∞
2
Substituting the relation with vortex strength:

2ρ∞ V∞ γ(x) 2γ(x)

∆cp (x) = 2
=
ρ∞ V∞ V∞

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 Road map

1 Introduction

2 Fundamental Equation of Thin Airfoil Theory

3 Resolution for symmetrical and cambered airfoils

4 Limitations and Applications

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 Limitations of Thin Airfoil Theory

It’s important to remember the limitations:

• Assumes small thickness-to-chord ratios.

• Most accurate for small angles of attack.

• Less accurate for airfoils with significant thickness or at high angles of attack.

• Does not accurately predict flow near a blunt leading edge.

• Neglects viscous effects and boundary layer development.

• Cannot predict stall, which is a viscous phenomenon.

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 Practical Application in Airfoil Design

Despite its limitations, thin airfoil theory is valuable for:

• Providing initial insights into the effects of camber and angle of attack on
aerodynamic characteristics.
• Guiding the preliminary design of airfoil shapes to achieve desired lift and moment
properties.
• Serving as a foundation for understanding more advanced theories and numerical
methods.

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