UNIT 2

PUNCTUATION

Punctuation plays a vital role in effectively conveying the message of any

written communication. Without correct or appropriate punctuation, the
message can be distorted and can consequently fail to serve its intended
purpose. It can even have disastrous consequences when the message is
seriously distorted. Look at the statement below:

‘Let’s eat granny.’

The statement above implies that one of granny’s grandchildren is suggesting

that they should eat their elderly grandmother. Maybe they are starving and
she is the only ‘meal’ available. In other words, the poor, old thing is on the
menu, i.e., she is going to be chopped up, cooked and served for lunch. The
reality, however, is that the young man has no intention whatsoever to
practice cannibalism. He is only kindly inviting his beloved granny to join
them at the table. In that case, the statement should read:
‘Let’s eat, granny.’

So, inserting the comma before ‘granny’ effectively conveys the intended
message, i.e., it saves the poor old woman from being eaten by her ‘cruel’
grandchildren.

As the above example illustrates, punctuation is very important for several

reasons. Using correct and appropriate punctuation all the time will make it
easier for your reader to understand exactly what you want to communicate.
In other words, breaking the rules or using inappropriate punctuation affects
your texts in much the same way as bad spelling or the use of inappropriate
vocabulary (e.g., slang words in academic writing) would, i.e., your reader
will get a bad impression of your text, and will not give it the attention it may
deserve.

With examples, this unit is going to highlight the different punctuation marks
and their uses. By the time you complete it, you will have learnt how to
appropriately and correctly punctuate your texts so that you can effectively
convey your message.
1. The full stop (BrE) or period (AmE) .

Its uses:
1 It’s the punctuation mark that marks the end of any sentence that is not a
question or an exclamation.
Examples:
a) Africa is a rich continent.
b) No one is above the law.
2 It’s always used in abbreviations like co., Dec., a.m., p.m., etc., e.g., i.e.

3 Called the dot, it’s also used in internet and email addresses, e.g.,
www.co.uk, www.org.com
4 The full stop is used to separate the whole number from the decimal and
it’s called ‘point’, e.g. 15.16 (fifteen point one six).

Note: The full stop is also used at the end of a one-word sentence, e.g.,
‘Goodbye.’

2. The comma ,

Its uses:
1 It’s used to separate words or items in a list.
Examples:
a) I bought a shirt, a jacket, a trouser and a pair of shoes.
b) You can order a glass of wine, a cup of coffee, a bottle of beer or a
glass of whisky.

Note: The comma is always omitted (not used) before and, or. See the two
examples above.
2 It’s used to separate phrases or clauses
Examples:
a) We got up early, washed ourselves, had a quick breakfast and then
set off for the journey.
b) Smiling lightly, she started addressing the gathering.
c) Quite worried about my baby’s condition, I urgently called the doctor.
3 It separates main clauses, especially those that are long and are joined by a
conjunction like and, but, nevertheless, etc.
Example:
She waited so long for Mr. Right, but unfortunately her husband turned out
to be Mr. Wrong.
4 It’s used to separate an introductory word or phrase from the rest of the
sentence.
Examples:
a) ‘Well, I’m not quite sure!’
 b) Ah, possibly yes.
c) By the way, who’s her new husband?
5 The comma is used to separate question tags from the rest of the sentence.
Examples:
a) You’re very tired, aren’t you?
b) It’s very interesting, isn’t it?
c) You stay here, right?
6 It’s used before or after what has been said in direct speech.
Examples:
a) ‘We’ll meet later,’ he said.
b) The champion confidently remarked, ‘I’ll knock him out in the first
round.’
7 It’s used before a short quotation, e.g., Nelson Mandela said, ‘S. Africa is
for all races.’
8 The comma is used to separate a series of verbs, e.g., Peter ran towards
me, fell, yelled and passed out.
9 It’s used to enclose non-defining relative clauses and other non-essential
details and comments. In this case it’s placed on either side of the insertion.
Examples:
a) China, one of the most powerful nations on Earth, has a huge
population.
b) His son, who got married in 2016, has two children.
c) Cats, unlike dogs, don’t respect their masters.
d) My sister, Jane, enjoys listening to choral music
10 The comma is used to separate a list of adjectives, e.g. She was young,
beautiful, kind and intelligent.

3. The colon :

Its uses:
1 To give a list of items.
Example: We offer the following services: photocopying, laminating, printing
and binding.

Note: Don’t use the semicolon (;) here, i.e., the semicolon is never used to
give a list of items.
2 It’s used to give more information about the main clause.
Example: It was a big, beautiful mansion: it was the type of residence fit for a
king.
Note: In this case, it’s possible to use a semicolon or a full stop, but not a
comma.
3 In academic or formal writing, it’s used to introduce a quotation, especially
a long one, and it can be indented, i.e., you start farther inside the margin.
Example:
As Dr Green Writes:
HIV has been one of the biggest killers in modern society. Unless there’s a
big shift in behaviour, it will continue to kill thousands and thousands.
Governments too should play an active role in its prevention.
Note: Once the quotation ends, you stop indenting, i.e., you go back to the
beginning of the margin.
4 It’s used to separate the hour from minutes, e.g., 9:20 (nine twenty), 3:55
(three fifty-five).

4. The semicolon ;

This is somewhere between a full stop and a comma. Instead of a comma, it’s
used to separate parts of a sentence or two main clauses, especially if they
are not joined by a conjunction.
Example:
We laboured on and on; giving up wasn’t an option.
Note: Just like the colon, it’s always used to give clarity or supporting
information on what has been said before.
Example:
Victims of rape are getting younger and younger; something must be done to
stop this madness.

5. The question mark ?

It’s used at the end of a direct question.

Examples:
a) Are you tired?
b) Who murdered him?
c) What are you doing?

The question mark is not, however, used in an indirect question (indirect

interrogation)
Examples:
a) Don’t write: I don’t know how are you going to do it?
Write: I don’t know how you are going to do it.
Don’t write: Tell me how much does it cost?
Write: Tell me how much it costs.
b) Don’t write: I would like to know how old is he?
Write: I would like to know how old he is.

6. The exclamation mark (or exclamation point in AmE) !

It’s written at the end to express surprise, joy, anger, frustration,

disappointment, admiration, shock or any other strong emotion.
Examples:
a) It’s incredible!
b) This is heaven on earth!
c) ‘Never, ever again!’ he angrily said.
d) ‘Oh!’ the patient exclaimed in pain.

Note: In informal writing, a question mark and an exclamation mark or more

than one exclamation mark may be used.
Examples:
‘Mugabe’s dead.’
‘He’s dead?!’
‘Come buy now – everything’s so cheap!!!’ the hawker shouted.
‘That’s insane!!!’ she exclaimed.

7. The apostrophe ’

Its uses:
1 To show or express possession.
Examples:
- Our neighbour’s dog
- The director’s car
- James’s house or James’ house
- The girls’ mother
- The men’s jackets
Note:
For plural items, the apostrophe is written after the s, e.g. The boys’ father,
the girls’ mother, the animals’ grass, the students’ classroom; for ordinary (or
common nouns) that end in s, just add the apostrophe, e.g. the boss’ car.
2 It’s used in short forms to indicate omission of letters or figures.
- Don’t (do not), didn’t (did not), I’ve (I have), they’d (they had/they
would), couldn’t (could not), etc.
- At the beginning of ’98 (1998)
3 It’s sometimes used with s to form the plural of a letter, a figure or an
abbreviation, e.g. His V’s look like U’s, In the 1970’s, NGO’s, etc. In this case,
however, you can ignore it, e.g. In the 1970s, NGOs, etc.

8. The hyphen ̵
It’s normally used to separate words, and unlike the dash that usually
separates sentences or phrases, it requires no space on either side.

Its uses:
1 It’s the punctuation mark used to form compound words, i.e., words that
are made up of two or more words.
Examples: hot-tempered, good-natured, sister-in-law, a two-storey building,
etc. Note that in three-word compounds the first word forms the plural, e.g.,
sisters-in-law, brides-to-be, etc.
2 It’s used between a prefix and a proper name or any other word, e.g., pre-
Napoleon history, pro-American culture, pre-Mandela era, pre-tax payment,
pre-teen music, etc.
3 It’s used to write compound numbers between 21 and 99, e.g., twenty-one,
fifty-five, seventy-two, etc.
4 In British English it’s sometimes used to separate a prefix that ends with a
vowel from a word that begins with the same vowel, e.g., coordinate/co-
ordinate, cooperate/co-operate, etc. Note that both forms are correct.
5 It’s used to separate part of a word that hasn’t fitted on one line, e.g.
He drank only on week-
ends or during big functions.

His funer-
al was attended by just a handful of people.
Note: In modern typing this can be avoided by justifying the entire text.

9. The dash –

Uses:
1 Instead of a colon or a semicolon, it’s used in informal writing to express a
summary or conclusion of what has been said before.
Examples:
a) The situation was so bad that nobody could afford even a single meal a day
– hopelessness was the order of the day.
b) This fellow was an angel by day and a devil by night – an extra-evil one.
Note: In academic writing, use the colon, semicolon or brackets.
2 It can also be used informally (sometimes as a pair) to separate a comment
or an afterthought from the rest of the sentence.
Examples:
a) There was crime everywhere – no one was safe!
b) But contrary to his wish, no woman – not even a tiny or ugly one –
ever came along.

10. The dots or ellipsis ...

These basically have one use: to show omission of words, e.g. They were
armed with bush-knives, sickles, sticks, stones...

Note: The dots are always three; you can also use them in academic writing if
you want to leave out some words or even sentences in a long quotation.

11. The slash or oblique /

Uses:
1 It’s used to separate alternatives, e.g., Catholic/Anglican/Adventist/Muslim
2 Called the forward slash, it’s used in internet and email addresses to
separate the different elements, e.g., http//www.com/elt/ (when used as a
pair they are called double slash).

12. The quotation marks ‘ ’ or “ ”

Uses:
1 They are used to enclose words and punctuation marks in direct speech,
e.g. ‘Who the hell are you?’ he angrily asked.
2 They are used to draw focus on a word, e.g., a slang expression or an
unusual use like irony.
Examples:
a) He was a full-blown alcoholic; he swallowed glass after glass of ‘juice’
every day.
b) Dancing was in every single drop of his blood; he even had a ‘dancing’
walk.
3 They are used around titles of articles, books, plays, poems, songs,
newspapers, etc.
Examples:
a) ‘The Lion and the Jewel’ is a great play.
b) ‘I’ve been busy reading Chinua Achebe’s ‘Things Fall Apart’.
4 They are used around short quotations or sayings.
Example:
The saying ‘Small barkers can be big biters’ means that things are not what
they seem to be.

Note: American English uses double quotation marks, e.g. “Don’t leave me!”
she begged.

13. The brackets ( )

Uses:
1 They are used to separate additional information, a remark or comment
from the rest of the sentence.
Examples:
a) Kigali (the capital of Rwanda) is a very clean city.
b) Coca Cola (one of the biggest soft drink companies in the world) is
found in almost every country.
2 They are used in academic writing to enclose cross references, e.g.
Nelson Mandela seriously denounces racism in his book ‘Long Walk to
Freedom’ (See chapter 2).
3 They are used around numbers in a text, e.g.
The aims of the war were to (1) bring about change, (2) stop corruption and
(3) boost development.

14. The italics

These are letters or figures that lean to the right.

Uses:
1 To express or show emphasis, e.g.
Under no circumstances should a motorist overtake on the wrong side.
2 They are used in titles of books, plays, poems, songs, newspapers, etc.
Examples:
a) The story appeared in the Daily Monitor.
b) Kwasa is a beautiful song.
3 They are used to write foreign words or phrases.
Examples:
a) Kayihura was declared persona non grata (unwanted person) in the
US.
b) The murderer always used the same modus operandi (method).
Note on quoting dialogue or conversation:
1 Use a new line or paragraph for each speaker, i.e., don’t use the same line
or paragraph for different speakers.
2 The words spoken are always inside the quotation marks, e.g.
‘You’re coming with me now?’
‘No, not now. Still busy.’
3 Direct speech is always indicated by verbs like he said, remarked,
commented, complained, argued, etc. Unless a question mark or exclamation
mark is used, these words are always separated by commas from the words
spoken.
Example:
‘I hate you,’ he angrily screamed.
‘I hate you too,’ she yelled.
‘So, why not pack and disappear?’
‘Never! You pack and disappear yourself!’

REFERENCES:

1. Brau Sheridan et al., The Writer’s Craft

2. Kinneavy James L. and Warriner John E., Elements of Writing
3. Level Green, Building English Skills
4. Strong William and Lester Mark, Writer’s Choice