WEATHER AND CLIMATE

Air Masses

 Air Mass is an extremely large body of air whose properties of temperature moisture content
(humidity) and lapse rate at any given altitude, are fairly similar in any horizontal direction.
 The regions where air masses form are referred to as air mass source regions.
 Air masses do not remain stationary in their source regions.
 As an air mass travels, it modifies the characteristics of the region it crosses and its characteristics are also
modified.

Examples of modifications

 A Polar air mass moving towards the Equator cools the regions it crosses and it also gets warmer

 A continental air mass moving across an ocean picks up moisture and becomes humid

 A maritime air mass moving across dry land loses its moisture and becomes drier whilst the land mass
becomes humid

 A tropical air mass moving polewards becomes cooler but raises temperatures of the land it crosses

Characteristics of an air mass depend on

 where it originates/form - the source region,
 time of the year (summer, winter or autumn),
 the underlying surface (land, water or desert) and
 the length of time the air mass remains in the source region

Classification of Air masses

 Four general air mass classifications categorized according to the source region.
 Polar latitudes P - located poleward of 60 degrees north and south
 Tropical latitudes T - located within about 25 degrees of the equator
 Continental c - located over large land masses--dry
 Marine m - located over the oceans- - -moist

The letters can then be combined to describe various types of air masses.
 Pc polar continental =cold, dry, stable
 Tc tropical continental = hot, dry, stable air aloft
 Pm polar maritime =cool, moist, and unstable
 Tm tropical maritime = warm, moist, usually unstable

In order to distinguish among different air masses, the meteorologist uses a simple classification system
shown in this table.

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 Name of air mass designation Source region characteristics Weather conditions produced

Polar Continental Pc Forms over dry cold land eg Dry and cold Cold winter, cool summer, low humidity all
Central Canada, Russia, year round, clear skies for greater part of the
Alaska year

Tropical Continental Tc Forms over dry hot land eg Dry and warm Warm and dry conditions
Mexico, North Africa and Wide temperature ranges between night and
the Sahara desert day
Cloudless clear skies

Polar Maritime Pm Forms over oceans in the Cold and Cool weather in summer
poles eg North Atlantic humid
ocean and Pacific Ocean, Low humidity throughout the year
cold oceans near Siberia &
Canada
Tropical Maritime Tm Forms over warm seas eg Wet and warm warm summer, mild in winter, with high
Indian ocean relative humidity throughout the year.

Heavy rainfall

Source Regions

Are simply geographic areas where an air mass originates. Should be:

 uniform surface composition - flat light surface winds .

 The longer the air mass stays over its source region, the more likely it will acquire the properties of
the surface below.

 Air masses can control the weather for a relatively long time period: from a period of days, to
months.

 Most weather changes occurs along the edges of these air masses at boundaries called fronts.

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 PRESSURE SYSTEMS AND FRONTS

Pressure Systems in the World

1. Cyclone

-It’s a low pressure system with circular/oval shaped isobars characterized by low pressure at the centre and increases
outwards. Winds blow towards the centre. It is a convergent wind system.
- The movement of wind is antcloccwise in the N. hemisphere and cloccwise in the S. hemisphere.
-Starts in areas where air ascends from the ground to the atmosphere and descends at high alttude.
-It’s of two types. Tropical cyclones e.g. hurricanes, typhoons and willy willies and depressions which are characteristc
of temperate lattudes.
-Move in a generally eastern directon
-Cover areas between 320cm and 800 cm
-Low pressure systems are associated with unstable air, high temperatures, strong winds, violent
storms/thunderstorms, heavy rainfall, cumulonimbus clouds, thunder and lightning, hail, overcast scies, high
relatve humidity, contnuous rain, low pressure.

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 2. Anticyclone

-It’s a high pressure system with circular/oval shaped isobars characterised by high pressure at the centre and
decreases outwards.
-Winds blow from the centre outwards. It is a divergent wind system and subsiding air.
-The movement of wind is cloccwise in the N. hemisphere and antcloccwise in the S. hemisphere.

-Winds blow antcloccwise around the high pressure centre in the Southern Hemisphere and cloccwise
in the Northem Hemisphere
It starts in areas where air is descending from the atmosphere onto the ground and then blows outwards on the
ground.
-High pressure areas are associated with calm conditons, stable air, low temperatures, fog and mist, low
humidity, stratus clouds, drizzle, fair weather, high pressure, dew and sunny, clear scies.
-Often remain statonary for long periods but sometmes move very slowly.
-In West Africa its associated with the Harmatan Winds.
-Antcyclones cause droughts in many parts of Africa.
-They cover a wide area.

Weather Fronts

When two air masses converge, they remain separate, with a sloping boundary between them (a front).
Fronts are zones of transiton between two diferent air masses. The zone may be20 miles across or it may be100 miles
across, but from one side of a front to the other, one clearly would sense that the propertes of an air mass had
changed significantly (e.g., contrasts in temperature and dew point, wind directon, cloud cover, and on-going
weather).The frontal zone represents the leading edge of a wedge of cold/cool air. If the wedge is moving into an area
of warmer air, the front is called a cold front. If the wedge is retreatng and warmer air is moving into an area
previously occupied by cool air, the front is termed a warm front.
Figure1-TypesofFronts

Definition
Fronts are boundaries between air masses of diferent temperatures.
-Fronts are actually zones of transiton, but sometmes the transiton zone, called a frontal zone, can be quite sharp.
-The type of front depends on both the directon in which the air mass is moving and the
characteristcs of the air mass.
-There are four types of fronts that will be described below: cold front, warm front, statonary front, and occluded
front.

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To locate a front on a surface map, looc for the following:
-Sharp temperature changes over relatvely short distances, changes in the moisture content of the air (dewpoint),
shifts in wind directon, low pressure troughs and pressure changes, and clouds and precipitaton paterns.

Cold Fronts
Side View of a Typical Cold Front

Cold front:-a front in which cold air is replacing warm air at the surface.
It is symbolized on a map as a line with triangles, often coloured blue.
Some of the characteristcs of cold fronts include the following:
-The slope of a typical cold front is1:100 (vertcal to horizontal).
-Cold fronts tend to move faster than all other types of fronts.

-Cold fronts tend to be associated with the most violent weather among all types of fronts.
-Cold fronts tend to move the farthest while maintaining the intensity.
-Cold fronts tend to be associated with cirrus well ahead of the front, strong thunderstorms
along and ahead of the front, and a broad area of clouds immediately behind the front
(although fast moving fronts maybe mostly clear behind the front).
-Cold fronts can be associated with squall lines(a line of strong thunderstorms parallel to and ahead of the front).
-Cold fronts almost always are easier to locate on a weather map than are warm fronts, primarily because of the
strength of the high pressure system to the north and west of the cold front compared to that north of a warm front.
-Cold fronts usually bring cooler weather, clearing scies, and a sharp change in wind directon.

Warm Fronts
Side View of a Typical Warm Front

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Warm front:-a front in which warm air replaces cooler air at the surface.
It is symbolized on a map as a line with semi-circles, often coloured red.

Some of the characteristcs of warm fronts include the following:

-The slope of a typical warm front is1:200 (more gentle than cold fronts).
-Warm fronts tend to move slowly.
-Warm fronts are typically less violent than cold fronts. Although they can trigger thunderstorms, warm fronts are more
licely to be associated with large regions of gentle ascent (stratform clouds and light to moderate contnuous rain).
-Warm fronts are usually preceded by cirrus first(1000cm ahead),then altostratus or altocumulus (500cm ahead), then
stratus and possibly fog. Behind the warm front, scies are relatvely clear (but change gradually).

Stationary Fronts
Statonary front:-a front that does not move or barely moves.
Statonary fronts behave lice warm fronts, but are more quiescent.
Many tmes the winds on both sides of a statonary front are parallel to the front.

Typically statonary fronts form when polar air masses are modified significantly so as to lose their character (e.g., cold
fronts which stall).

Occluded Fronts
Because cold fronts move faster than warm fronts, they can catch up to and overtace their related warm front. When
they do, an occluded front is formed.
-It is symbolized on a map as a line with both triangles and semi-circles, often coloured purple..
-Occluded fronts are indicatve of mature storm systems (i.e., those about to dissipate).
The most common type of occlusion is called a cold-front occlusion and it occurs when the cold front forces itself under
the warm front. The weather ahead of the cold occlusion is similar to that of a warm front while that along and behind
the cold occlusion is similar to that of a cold front.

A cold occlusion

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A Warm occlusion

AIR PRESSURE AND WINDS

Air has weight and therefore it exerts pressure. Pressure difers from tme to tme.
-Pressure is afected by alttude, temperature and rotaton.

Influence of altitude
Pressure decreases with alttude. Descending air decreases in volume but molecules remain the same, therefore
pressure rises. Ascending air expands and hence pressure is spread over a larger area and therefore pressure decreases

Influence of temeerature
Pressure varies with lattude because of temperature variatons around the world.
-Pressure of air falls when its temperature rises. The air expands
-Pressure of air rises when its temperature falls. The air contracts.

In high temperature areas, air expands and rises, creatng a low pressure area. Some air replaces the rising air, eg at
the Equator. Winds therefore converge. In low temperature areas air sincs, creatng a high pressure area. The air
moves outwards from the high pressure area. Winds therefore diverge. Low temperatures at the poles give rise to high
pressure.

Influence of rotation
Air blowing from the Poles spreads out , occupying more space and therefore pressure decreases along 60 ‫ ﹾ‬N and
South (the Temperate low pressure belts)
-Air rises at the Equator and moves polewards, occupying less space and therefore its pressure rises ( along 30 ‫ﹾ‬N and
S, the Horse Lattudes. Some air here moves polewards and some Equatorwards.
-Because of rotaton, winds are deflected to their right in the Northern hemisphere and to their left in the Southern
hemisphere due to coriolis force.

PLANETARY WINDS

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There are 3 main wind systems.
1) Polar North Easterlies ( Polar South – Easterlies in the Southern hemisphere)
-Blow from the polar regions and are extremely cold and dry.

2) South – westerly winds (North – westerlies in the Southern hemisphere)

- Blow from the Horse lattudes to meet Polar winds at 60 ‫ ﹾ‬North and South. These are warm and moist. Convergence
creates depressions which bring stormy weather.
- Usually bring heavy rainfall where they are on-shore.

3) North – East Trade Wnds (South-East Trade Winds in the Southern Hemisphere)
- These are regular winds blowing from the Horse lattudes towards the Equator.
- These converge along the ITCZ, a zone of low pressure. Frontal and convectonal rainfall are common along this zone.
The zone follows the overhead sun and the trade winds change their directon as they cross the Equator.
- On-shore trade winds are moist and of-shore winds are dry. North-East Trade winds are dry since they originate over
contnents and the S.E. Trade winds are moist as they originate over the South Atlantc and Indian Oceans

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Air masses affecting Zimbabwe  Are the re-curved SE trade winds which
approach Angola into Zimbabwe via DRC by
the intense low pressure of the ITCZ.
South East Trade Winds  They bring a lot of rainfall to Zimbabwe and
 Are cool moist prevailing winds which blow
throughout the year.

 Associated with light showers and drizzle and often Central Africa because they collect moisture
give rise to guti after the rain season. form the Atlantic Ocean and Congo rainforest.
 In summer they blow strongly giving clear
weather and cloudy weather in winter.
North East Monsoons
 Only blow in summer and cause rainfall in the
Northern parts of Zimbabwe in December to
Zaire Air North West Monsoons
 They only blow in summer. January.

 They are not as moist as the North West

Monsoons.

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 Air Masses Afectini Africa

 In moving away from their source regions, air masses modify the weather and are also modified by
the surfaces over which they pass through
 Africa is affected by tropical and equatorial air masses with tropical continental (cT) air masses
dominant in the northern third of the continent, tropical maritime (mT) and equatorial air masses
affecting coastal and equatorial Africa.



Troeical continental

 Originate over north Africa and the Sahara desert

 Is very hot and very dry
 Very unstable yet clear conditions predominate due to lack of water vapor

Troeical maritime

 Form over low latitude oceans hence are very warm, humid and unstable

Polar maritime

 These are SE trade winds which originate from the southern hemisphere that comes from the Antarctic
Inter – Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

 This is broad low pressure zone where air masses with different characteristics meet and mix
without any boundaries resulting in rainfall. It forms along the thermal equator within the
tropics of cancer and Capricorn.

 It migrates within the tropics following the apparent movement of the overhead sun (thermal
equator).
 The sun is overhead the equator on 21 March, Tropic of Cancer 21 June, equator again on
21 September and Tropic of Capricorn on 21 December.

 The rainfall formed as a result of this meeting is called convergence rainfall.

 Convergence rainfall is seasonal. It follows the low pressure belt along the thermal equator.

 These seasonal changes are vividly evident over land but remain subtle over oceans. This is
because the land quickly responds to high insolation levels by producing high temperatures,
ideal conditions for ITCZ locations.

 The seas, on the other hand, respond slowly to high insolation levels. This is why
temperatures remain subdued over oceans, creating high pressure (anticyclones) cells that
block the movement of the ITCZ and prevent it following the apparent position of the
sun.
The ITCZ in winter (July)
 In the northern hemisphere, the ITCZ is experienced between July and September.
 In winter the sun is overhead the Tropic of Cancer. That creates a belt of low pressure along this
area.

 Strong insolation from the sun heats both the land and the oceans (Indian/Atlantic). The land is a
good heat conductor/absorber and so heats up faster than oceans.
 A low pressure cell develops over the continental interior. Moderate pressure cells develop over
oceans. The southern Africa will be having high pressure due to low temperatures.
 Winds are then forced to blow from HP cells to LP cells. These winds are the N.E trade winds
from the Indian Ocean, and NW (recurved N.E) from the Atlantic and the dry and dust Harmattan
winds from the Sahara desert.
 These winds converge with the SE, SW trades (Zaire winds) from south bringing convergence
rainfall along the ITCZ low pressure zone over central Northern Africa.

The ITCZ in Summer (January)

 In the southern hemisphere, the ITCZ occurs between October and March.
 Because of different thermal capacities, low pressure develops over continents leaving oceans in
high pressure cells.

North easterlies and the prevailing ‘traditional’ south easterlies converge over the ITCZ over Central Africa.
 Recurved NW monsoons (Congo/Zaire air) and SW trade winds bring rain on the western
half.
 Usually the influence of the ITCZ is felt on the Northern part of Zimbabwe excluding
Matabeleland region.

Weather conditions associated with the ITCZ

 The direct sun causes very high temperatures.

 Excessive heating by the sun causes an intense low-pressure belt.

 North westerlies, north east and south-east trade winds converge to replace air that has
been heated and forced to rise over the ‘thermal Equator’ by the great heat from the sun.
These are very moist air masses, and therefore the relative humidity values are very high.
(This normally happens over central Southern Africa).

 Heating and convergence force the moist air masses to rise, expand, cool and condense
creating towering cumulonimbus clouds.
 Torrential Rainfall accompanied by thunder and lightning results.

 Floods and high speed winds usually occur especially in Muzarabani and Tokwe Mukosi.

 Diurnal temperature ranges are low due to the greenhouse effect of the clouds. (This is
because of warm nights and subdued daytime temperatures).
Climate Types On A Global Scale

 Climate classification assumes, on one hand, the identification of areas with distinctive
climatic patterns. On the other hand, it provides the possibility of finding climatic
similarities in different parts of the world.

Global Climate Classification

1. The Hot, Wet Equatorial Climate
2. The Tropical Monsoon and Tropical Marine Climates
3. The Savanna or Tropical Continental or Sudan Climate
 4. The Hot Desert and Mid-latitude Desert Climates:
5. The Warm Temperate Western Margin (Mediterranean) Climate
6. The Temperate Continental (Steppe) Climate
7. The Warm Temperate Eastern Margin (China Type) Climate
8. The Arctic or Polar Climate ( Tundra)

The Hot, Wet Equatorial Climate

 The equatorial, hot, wet climate is found between 5 and 10 degrees north and south of the
equator.
 Its greatest extent is found in the lowlands of the Amazon, the Congo, Malaysia and the
East Indies. Further away from the equator, the influence of the on-shore Trade Winds, gives rise
to a modified type of equatorial climate with monsoonal influences.

Climatic Conditions

 The most outstanding feature of the equatorial climate is its great uniformity of
temperature throughout the year.
 The mean monthly temperatures are always around 27°C with very little variation. There
is no winter.
 Cloudiness and heavy precipitation moderates the daily temperature, so that even at the
equator itself, the climate is not unbearable.

 The diurnal range of temperature is small, and so is the annual range.

 High humidity about 90 %.

 Precipitation is heavy, around 2000 mm and well distributed throughout the year. There is
no month without rain and a distinct dry season like those of the Savannah or the Tropical
Monsoon Climates, is absent.
 Some areas receive double maxima of rainfall and temperature.
 Due to the great heat in the equatorial belt, mornings are bright, and sunny. There is much
evaporation and convectional air currents are set up, followed by heavy downpours.
The Tropical Monsoon and Tropical Marine Climates

 It is found in the zones between 10° and 25° latitudes on either side of the equator.
 These areas are the tropical monsoon lands with on-shore wet monsoons in the summer
and off-shore dry monsoons in the winter. They are best developed in the Indian sub-
continent, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, parts of Vietnam and south China and
northern Australia.
 Outside this zone, the climate is modified by the influence of the on-shore Trade Winds
all the year round, and has a more evenly distributed rainfall. Such a climate, better
termed the
 Tropical Marine Climate, is experienced in Central America. West Indies, north-eastern
Australia, the Philippines, parts of East Africa, Madagascar, the Guinea Coast and eastern
Brazil.

Climatic Conditions

 The basic cause of monsoon climates is the difference in the rate of heating and cooling
of land and sea.
 Average temperature of warm dry summer months ranges between 27°C and 32°C.

 In the summer, when the sun is overhead at the Tropic of Cancer, the great land masses of
the northern hemisphere are heated.
 The seas, which warm up much slower, remain comparatively cool. At the same time, the
southern hemisphere experiences winter, and a region of high pressure is set up in the
continental interior of Australia.
 Winds blow outwards as the South- East Monsoon, to Java, and after crossing the equator
are drawn towards the continental low pressure area reaching the Indian sub-continent as
the South-West Monsoon. In the winter, conditions are reversed. The sun is overhead at
the Tropic of Capricorn, central Asia is extremely cold, resulting in rapid cooling of the
land. A region of high pressure is created with out-blowing winds-the North-East
Monsoon.
 The Seasons of Tropical Monsoon Climate: In regions like the Indian sub-continent which
have a true Tropical Monsoon Climate, three distinct seasons are distinguishable - The
cool, dry season (October to February), the hot dry season (March to mid-June) and the
rainy season (mid-June to September).
 The Tropical Marine Climate: This type of climate is experienced along the eastern
 coasts of tropical lands, receiving steady rainfall from the Trade Winds all the time. The
rainfall is both orographic, where the moist trades meet upland masses as in eastern
Brazil, and convectional due to intense heating during the day and in summer. Its
tendency is towards a summer maximum as in monsoon lands, but without any distinct
dry period.

The Savanna or Tropical Continental

 The Savanna or Sudan Climate is a transitional type of climate found between

the equatorial forest and the trade wind hot deserts.
 It is confined within the tropics and is best developed in the Sudan where the dry and wet
seasons are most distinct, hence its name the Sudan Climate.
 The belt includes West African Sudan, and then curves southwards into East Africa and
southern Africa north of the Tropic of Capricorn (Zimbabwe and Zambia).
 In South America, there are two distinct regions of savanna north and south of the
equator, namely the llanos of the Orinoco basin and the Campos of the Brazilian
Highlands.

Climatic Conditions:
 The Savanna climate is characterised by distinct wet and dry seasons. Mean high
temperature throughout the year is between 24°C and 27° C.
 The annual range of temperature is between 3°C and 8°C, but the range increases as one
move further away from the equator.
 The extreme diurnal range of temperature is a characteristic of Sudan type of climate. The
average annual rainfall ranges between 594 mm and 750 mm.
 The prevailing winds of the region are the Trade Winds which bring rain to the coastal
districts.
The Hot Desert and Mid-latitude Desert Climates:

 Deserts are regions of scanty rainfall which may be hot like the hot deserts of the Saharan
type or temperate as are the mid- latitude deserts like the Gobi.
 The major hot deserts of the world are located on the western coasts of continents
between latitudes 15º and 30ºN and S. They include the Sahara Desert, the largest single
stretch of desert, which is 3,200 miles from east to west and at least 1,000 miles wide
(Convert to km).
 The next biggest desert is the Great Australian Desert which covers almost half of the
continent.
 The other hot deserts are the Arabian Desert, Iranian Desert, Thar Desert, Kalahari and
Namib Deserts.
 In North America, the desert extends from Mexico to USA and is called by different
names at different places, e.g. the Mohave, Sonoran, Californian and Mexican Deserts.

 In South America, the Atacama or Peruvian Desert is the driest of all deserts with less than 250
mm of rainfall annually.
 The Patagonian Desert is more due to its rain- shadow position on the leeward side of the
lofty Andes than to continentality.

Climatic Conditions:

 The aridity of deserts is the most outstanding feature of the desert climate.
 Few deserts whether hot or mid-latitude have an annual precipitation of more than 250
mm while in others less than 250 mm.
 The hot deserts lie astride the Horse Latitudes or the Sub- Tropical High Pressure Belts
where the air is descending, a condition least favourable for precipitation of any kind to
take place.
 The rain bearing trade winds blow off shore and the Westerlies, that are on-shore, blow
 outside the desert limits. Whatever winds reaches the deserts blow from the cooIer to the
warmer regions, and their relative humidity is lowered, making condensation almost
impossible.
 The deserts are some of the hottest spots on earth and have high temperatures throughout
the year.
 There is no cold season in the hot deserts and the average summer temperature is around
30°C.
 The highest shade temperature recorded is 58°C at Al Azizia, some killometres south of
Tripoli, Libya, in the Sahara.
 The diurnal range of temperature in the deserts is very great.

The Warm Temperate Western Margin (Mediterranean) Climate

 The Warm Temperate Western Margin Climate is found in relatively, few areas in the
world.
 They are entirely confined to the western portion of continental masses, between 30° and
45° north and south of the equator.
 The basic cause of this type of climate is the shifting of the wind belts. Though the area
around the Mediterranean Sea has the greatest extent of this type of 'winter rain climate',
and gives rise to the more popular name Mediterranean Climate.
 Other Mediterranean regions include California (around San Francisco), the south-
western tip of Africa (around Cape Town), southern Australia (in southern Victoria and
around Adelaide, bordering the St. Vincent and Spencer Gulfs), and south-west Australia
(Swanland).

Climatic Conditions

 The Mediterranean type of climate is characterised by very distinctive climatic features -

a warm summer with off-shore trades, a concentration of rainfall in winter with onshore
westerlies, bright, sunny weather with hot dry summers and wet, mild winters and the
prominence of local winds around the Mediterranean Sea (Sirocco, Mistral).
 Since all regions with a Mediterranean climate are near large bodies of water,
temperatures are generally moderate with a comparatively small range of temperature res
between the winter low and summer high.
 Areas with this climate receive almost all of their yearly rainfall during the winter season,
and may go the summer without having any significant precipitation.
The Warm Temperate Eastern Margin (China Type) Climate
 This type of climate is found on the eastern margins of continents in warm temperate
latitudes, just outside the tropics. Lattitude 20 ° �� 35° � ��� � �� ��ℎ�
ℎ�𝑞𝑢���𝑟.
 It has comparatively more rainfall than the Mediterranean climate in the same latitudes,
coming mainly in the summer. It is, in fact, the climate of most parts of China –a
modified form of monsoonal climate. It is thus also called the Temperate Monsoon or
China Type of climate.
 In south-eastern U.S.A., bordering the Gulf of Mexico, continental heating in summer
induces an inflow of air from the cooler Atlantic Ocean.

 It is sometimes referred to as the Gulf type of climate.

 In the southern hemisphere, this kind of climate is experienced along the warm temperate
eastern coastlands of all the three continents: in New South Wales with its eucalyptus
forests; in Natal where cane sugar thrives; and in the maize belt of the Parana-Paraguay-
Uruguay basin.

Climatic Condition:

 The Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate is typified by a warm moist summer and
a cool, dry winter.
 The mean monthly temperature varies between 5°C and 25°C and is strongly modified by
maritime influence.

 The relative humidity is a little high in mid-summer.

 Rainfall is more than moderate, anything from 1000 mm. Another important feature is the
fairly uniform distribution of rainfall throughout the year. There is rain every month,
except in the interior of central China, where there is a distinct dry season. Rain comes
either from convectional sources or as orographic rain in summer, or from depressions in
prolonged showers in winter.
 Local storms, e.g. typhoons, and hurricanes, also occur.
 It can be sub-divided into three main types – a) The China type: central and north China
(including southern Japan (temperate monsoonal). b) The Gulf type: south-eastern United
States, (slight-monsoonal). c) The Natal type: the entire warm temperate eastern margin
 (nonmonsoonal areas) of the southern hemisphere including Natal, eastern Australia and
southern Brazil-Paraguay-Uruguay and northern Argentina.

Tundra ( Cold Climates)

 Found along the polar margins

 Areas include parts of Finland, Sweeden, Russia and Iceland.

Climatic Conditions
 Have long winters and lack warm seasons.

 Temperature ranges between 29℃ and 40℃ in winter.

 The sun does not rise over the horizon for weeks.

 Summers are short and cold.

 Rainfall is low and mostly occur in summer.

Mountain or Montane Climate

 Areas include mountains such as Mt Kilimanjaro, Andes of South Africa and Rockies of
North America.

Climatic conditions

 Temperatures are low.

 Cool conditions and daily temperature range is small.

 Rain increases and then decreases with altitude due to the effect of leeward and rain shadow.
Temperate Continental
 Also known as the warm continental climates.

 Found 30° to 50° North and South of the equator.

 Areas include the high veld of South Africa and the Prairies of Canada.

Climatic conditions
 There are seasons.

 It is very cold in winter 3℃ and frost may occur.

 In summer the days may be hot (25℃) and short.
 There is low rainfall.

Climatic Types of Africa

Describe and explain the climatic classification shown. (10)

Climate Graehs

Climate graphs show the average temperature and rainfall for a city or region over the year. Temperature is
always shown in the form of a line graph. Some climate graphs have the average maximum temperature
and the average minimum, others just have the overall average temperature. The line graph is normally
coloured in red. Rainfall is always shown in the form of a bar graph and normally coloured in blue.

Climate graphs are very good for showing averages, but they don't show anomalous years, because it is
based on averages and it doesn't show things lice the number of days of rain. A month may have 50mm of
rain, but we don't cnow if that comes in small rain showers or one big thunderstorm.

When reading climate graphs you should looc for trends and anomalies.

Intereretini climate iraehs

In the exam you may be asced to looc at the informaton in a graph and describe the area's climate.

1. Look for patterns in the temperature data

o Is the temperature the same all year round? If it is different, how many seasons does the location
experience?

o Which season is the warmest? Is it warm (10 to 20°C), hot (20 to 30°C) or very hot (above 30°C)?

o Which season is the coolest? Is it mild (0 to 10°C), cold (-10 to 0°C) or very cold (below - 10°C)?

o What is the range of temperature? (Subtract the minimum temperature from the maximum
 temperature).

2. Look for patterns in the rainfall data

o Does the rainfall occur all year round?

o What is the pattern of the rainfall? Check which season(s) is/are drier or wetter than others.
o What is the total annual rainfall? Add each month's total together to get the annual total.

o Then put the rainfall and temperature information together - what does it tell you about this area?

3. Describe the patterns in temperature and rainfall, including how they relate to each other. You now have
a description of the climate.
o Now look again at the climate graph above. What can you deduce about the climate?

Calculate the followini:

Mean daily temperature – sum daily maximum and minimum temperatures divided
by 2.
Diurnal temperature range –maximum temperature minus minimum temperature
Mean monthly temperature – sum of mean daily temperatures in the month divided by number of
days in the month
Mean annual temperature – sum of mean monthly temperatures in the year divided by 12 Annual
temperature range – maximum temperature minus minimum temperature recorded in a year

Daily rainfall - the amount of rain that falls over 24 hours

Monthly rainfall - total amount of rainwater collected throughout the month

Annual rainfall - total amount of rainwater collected throughout the year.

 THE IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND CLIMATE VARIABILITY.

Many farmers in Zimbabwe are negatively affected by climate change and climate variability as they rely on rain fed
agriculture.

The impacts include the following:

 Shortage of surface and underground water.
 Frequent occurrence of forest fires.
 Shortage of grazing lands.
 Drying up of wells.
 Migration of animals.

 Crop failure leading to food shortages.

 Occurrence of diseases such as malaria due to increased temperatures.

 Occurrence of pests and dieses which affects livestock and crops.
 People travelling long distances in search of water and firewood.

 An increase in floods and heavy rainfall has led to damage in roads and bridges, thus making transport and

communication difficult.

Solutions to the effects of climate change and climate variability

 Construction of dams for irrigation purposes and water storage.

 Making use of farming methods such as contour ploughing, zero tillage to improve yields.

 Growing short variety crops which take less time to mature.

 Growing drought tolerant crops.

 Keeping drought tolerant animals.

 Sinking deep wells and drilling boreholes.

 Educating farmers on climate change and climate variability by making use of NGOs.
 Introducing policies that control carbon dioxide emissions.

HUMAN IMPACT ON WEATHER AND CLIMATE

 The earth’s climate and weather conditions have been changing constantly throughout
geological time scale.

 This has then impacted strongly on people’s culture, history, economic and social activities
 For example people who lived during ice age had completely different life style compare to
today’s people.
 Coal developed in Hwange because there once thrived a large forest in the pluvial period.

How people have changed weather

 People have been changing weather deliberately and unintentional since time immemorial
 Deliberate changes can be seen as attempts to aid agriculture through dam construction, cloud
seeding, green house construction etc
 Many of these changes have become detrimental causing greenhouse effect, global warming,
acid rain and urban heat island effect

Intentional changes to weather

1. Greenhouses

 These are used to grow plants that are susceptible to frost conditions

 They create a microclimate within the enclosed area

 Are made up of glass or thin layer of polythene
 They cause a localized greenhouse effect in that they allow short wave radiation from the sun
to enter through but do not allow terrestrial long wave radiation from the earth to pass through
 As a result heat is trapped inside causing them to be warmer than the surrounding areas.

Other methods of protecting crops from frost

 Burning old tyres, manure or modern gas or electrically powered frost prevention heaters
 Covering crops with a thin layer of polythene sheets ie on the sides and top to make tunnels
 Spraying the crops with water which act as an insulator. However this method is not very
effective especially against extreme cold
 Blowing warm air around the field
 Smudge pots

2. Cloud seeding

 Not all clouds will give rain due to lack of condensation nuclei in the atmosphere
 Cloud seeding is a way of making the clouds that will not give rain to do so by spraying the
cloud with silver iodide or dry ice which increase condensation nuclei
 This makes the cloud droplet to grow bigger due to more condensation surfaces so that it
becomes heavy, move downwards and melt to give rain
 However there is no guaranty that the cloud will give rain in the area it is seeded, it may migrate
to neighboring areas

3. Dam construction
 Big dams such as Kariba dam can change weather conditions within their surrounding areas
due to increasing amount of humidity. High evaporation increases rainfall or snowfall
downwind of the lake.

 Lake shore breezes occur around the lake to produce more precipitation..

 The breeze cools the vicinity. In winter, shoreline areas with onshore winds are warmer than
average and in summer they are cooler than average

4. Deforestation.
 Is the cutting down of trees without replacing them i.e. without reforesting.

 The high demand for timber, wood and land cultivation has led to the continuous clearance of
forests.
 This reduces the humidity in the atmosphere and subsequently rainfall with long term effects of
climate change and desertification. Deforestation reduces the soil moisture storage capacity,
resulting in reduced evapotraspiration, affecting the water cyle.
 Deforestation also reduces the amount of trees which convert carbon dioxide back into oxygen
resulting in a speeding up of global warming.

Unintentional changes to weather

1. Acid Rain
 The smoke from burning fuels and chemical industries rises into the air and mixes with water
vapour.

 When the rain falls down it becomes acidic.

 The acid rain is a weak acid made up of sulphuric and nitric acids.
 Over, a long time (years for example), the rain eats into limestone installations as well as natural
 landscapes, stone walks, statues and metals.
 It also destroys vegetation as it has done to entire forests in the Eastern countries like the Black
Forest in Germany.

 Has negatively impacted on tree growth in Scandinavian countries.

 Since acids accrue in water they pose a health risk to humans and animals.
 Larger concentrations of condensation nuclei due to particulate output from industries increases
precipitation in cities.

How Acid Rain is formed

2. Global Warming
 Due to an increasingly industrialised world a lot of Carbon Dioxide is being emitted into the
atmosphere from industries, motor vehicles, machinery and other human activities.

 The solar irradiation from the sun comes mainly in the form of short UV radiation (light).

 These are converted into longer infra-red waves (heat) when it reaches the earth’s surface.
 Some of the heat is radiated back into the atmosphere by the earth’s surface.

 Due to increased carbon emissions the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased.
 This layer of Carbon Dioxide has an insular effect; it acts as a blanket preventing the longer
waved infra-red waves from escaping back into space.

 The result is a general increase in the world’s mean temperatures.

 This is known as global warming.

 The effects of global warming include a general increase in mean temperatures in some places, the
melting of Polar ice resulting in sea level changes: this leads to flooding in low lying coastal
areas, destruction of Polar ecosystems, persistent droughts in some areas, flooding and mudslides
due to excessive rain in other areas for example Indonesia, freak weather storms and increasingly
unpredictable weather, droughts and increased aridity in some areas.
 The effects of global warming are being compounded by deforestation.

3. Ozone Layer depletion

 In the upper layers of the earth’s atmosphere (between the stratosphere and the troposphere) there
 is a layer known as the Ozone Layer.

 It is composed of special bonds of Oxygen (O3) and about 30 km from the earth’s surface.

 It acts a shield by blocking out the sun’s dangerous UV radiation from reaching the earth.
 It is being depleted by chemicals from factories and some antiquated forms of aerosol sprays.
 These make emissions containing nitrous oxide compounds, bromine and chlorine compounds.
 These chemicals are often referred to as organohalogen, chloroflurocarbons (CFCs) and
Bromoflurocarbons.
 They are depleting/reducing the Ozone layer by chemically breaking it down.

 This has resulted in Ozone holes in some places.

 This results in higher cases of non-melanoma skin cancer, eye cataracts and blindness and
weakening of human immune systems (immuno-supression) to people living underneath these
Ozone holes.
 Other effects include: reduced plant growth harming agricultural activities as well as natural
vegetation, reduction in plankton populations (these is the major source of food for most fish and
features prominently in marine ecosystems), loss of marine biodiversity, higher incidents of
cancer in domestic animals, adverse effects on flowering and pollination of plants and damage to
important synthetic materials like plastics and rubber.

4. Urban Heat Islands

 Due to a number of reasons the climate and weather of urban areas is different from the adjacent
rural areas.
-Absence of vegetation reduces cooling of lower air layers from transpiration. Presence of roofs
pavements and buildings of concrete hold no moisture and therefore there is no evaporative cooling from
the soil.
-Absorption of solar radiation from concrete surfaces and tarmac causes higher temperatures at night as it
is radiated back into the air at night.
CLIMATE CHANGE

A change in the state of the climate that can be identified (e.g., by using statistical tests) by changes in
the mean and/or the variability of its properties, and that persists for an extended period, typically
decades or longer (IPCC, 2007).

Causes of climate change

Greenhouse effect

The warming of the atmosphere is happening because the atmosphere is continuing to trap the heat
that radiates from the earth and traps it between earth and space. Carbon dioxide, water vapour,
methane and nitrous oxide due to human activities, play a part in the greenhouse effect, and most of
these gases will actually block the heat to force climate change.
Volcanic Eruptions
A volcano releases a large amount of sulfur dioxide (SO2), water vapor, dust, and ash into the
atmosphere when it erupts. These large volumes of gases and ash can trigger climate change by
increasing planetary reflectivity causing atmospheric cooling. Aerosols are tiny particles that are
produced by volcanoes. They remain in the atmosphere for only a few days and reflect solar energy
back into space they have a cooling effect on the world.

Ocean Currents
Variations in ocean currents can also influence climate change for short periods of time. Ocean
currents move vast amounts of heat across the planet. Movement of cold water deep under the oceans
towards the regions near the equator and movement of warm water near the equator back towards the
pole play an important role in determining the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide.

Solar Radiations
The sun is the ultimate source of supply of energy for the earth’s climate system. A small change in
the output of the sun’s energy can influence climate change. These changes include changes within
the sun and changes in Earth’s orbit. Changes occurring in the sun can cause climate to become
warmer during periods of stronger solar intensity and cool during periods of weaker solar intensity.
For example, the period between approximately 1650 and 1850 is known as “Little Ice Age” which
may have been partially caused by low solar activity.

Earth Orbital Changes

A slight change in the tilt of the earth can lead to climatic changes. While less tilt means cooler
summers and milder winters; more tilt means warmer summers and colder winters. These small and
slow changes can lead to important changes in the strength of the seasons over tens of thousands of
years.

The evidence of climate change extends well beyond increases in global surface temperatures:
 Changing precipitation patterns.

 Melting ice in the Arctic.

 Melting glaciers around the world.
 Increasing ocean temperatures.
 Rising sea level around the world.

 Acidification of the oceans due to elevated carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

 Responses by plants and animals, such as shifting ranges.
 Effects of climate change

According to an analysis of several studies on the impacts of climate change, it is likely that by 2050 and until the
end of the century there will be:
 Rising sea levels as sea water in warmed oceans expands and ice at the poles melts.

 Melting of glaciers which then retreat and no longer feed the rivers on which people rely.
 A modest decrease in total amount of rainfall.
 Changes to the onset and end of the season.
 More frequent and longer mid-season dry periods.

 Reduced ground water recharge.

 Erratic rainfall distribution across the country.
 Drying up of some rivers, lakes and wetlands.
 Habitat change for endangered species including lions, tigers and penguins.

 More droughts and floods that may recur in successive years.

 Reduced water supply for domestic and agriculture use from both surface and groundwater sources.
 The expansion of Natural Region V and the shrinking of Natural Region I and shifts in the areas covered
by natural regions III and IV .
 Degradation of natural resources, especially soil, water, natural vegetation, crop, livestock and wildlife
species.
 Reduced food security because of the impacts on agriculture possibly leading to increased undernutrition,
particularly in children.
 Increases in the incidence of diseases such as diarrhoea, malaria and cholera due to reduced water quality,
temperatures and flooding and cholera due to increased flooding.

Adaptation to climate change

 Using alternative energy sources.

 Designing and building energy-efficient buildings and motor vehicles.

 Moving people from areas that might be threatened by, for example, rising sea levels.

Mitigation against climate change

 Laws and international agreements regarding carbon dioxide emissions.

 Setting standards for vehicle exhaust emissions.

 Carbon trading.
 Designing more efficient aircraft and jet engines.

 Mixed farming and intercropping.

 Introducing GM maize seeds with a shorter growing season.

 Education and training of farmers to enable them adapt to climate change, eg pfumvudza.
 Irrigation.
 Introducing cattle like bovine which can adapt to drier conditions.

 using indigenous farming knowledge like growing drought resistant crops.

THE CLIMATE OF ZIMBABWE

 Zimbabwe is located within the Tropics, between 16 0S and 220S of the Equator and its
climate is characterized by hot wet summers and cool dry winters.
 The climate is termed tropical continental or the Savanna climate
 Although the seasonally humid conditions are more or less uniform in the country, the
temperature and rainfall amounts differ from one area to another.

Rainfall distribution in Zimbabwe

 Generally the country receives highest rainfall in the Eastern highlands due to the
orographic effect of the Inyanga Mountains which cause the rise of the South East trade
winds.
 There is therefore a general decrease of rainfall as one moves to the Western parts of the
country,
 The air streams from the Indian Ocean get progressively drier as they move across the
landmasses and mountains of the country.
 There is also a general decrease of rainfall from the North towards the southern parts of
the country.
 The decrease is a result of the reduced influence of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ).

A map showing the rainfall distribution in Zimbabwe

  The highest rainfall occurs in the area around the Eastern highlands whereby the zone
receives around 1200 mm per annum.
 The areas on the leeward side of the mountains e.g. the Save Valley receives low annual
rainfall of about 400 mm due to the rain shadow effect.
 Places in the northern parts of the country, such as Karoi and Harare receive moderate to
high rainfall of about 800 mm-1200 mm per year.
 Places in the southern parts of the country, e.g. Masvingo receives lower rainfall of about
400 mm to 600 mm as a result of reduced influence of latitude, the ITCZ and the Congo
air.
Temperature distribution in Zimbabwe

 The temperatures are influenced by altitude as well as latitude.

 Generally the temperatures decreases from the east to the West due to the influence of
altitude.

A map showing distribution of temperature in Zimbabwe

 The highest temperatures occur along the Zambezi Valley which stretches downstream of the
Kariba Dam, through Chirundu, Dande -Mbire and the Muzarabani areas.
 The warm to hot temperatures of about 200C -22,50C are found next to the lowveld zones.

 Warm temperatures of 17 0C -200C are experienced in the central parts of the country from
the south west towards north east. (It is the Highveld area).
 There is a cool region of 17℃ or lower in some portions of the Eastern highlands and parts
of the Highveld in Marondera and Macheke.